6/4/2022

Introductory Multiphase Heat

Transfer & Fluid Flow / Process
Heat Transfer
(Basics)
1. Nuclear Heat Transport by El-Wakil
(Main)
1. Nuclear Systems 1 & 2 by Kazimi
2. Convective Boiling & Condensation by Collier & Thom
3. 2-Phase Flow, Boiling & Condensation in Conventional & Miniature
Systems by Ghiaasiaan
(Reference)
1. Introduction to Nuclear Power by Hewitt and Collier

Course Outlines to be covered

1. TWO PHASE FLOW DYNAMICS
1. Introduction to multiphase flow dynamics and its implications on
nuclear reactors
2. Flow regimes & their identification in vertical and horizontal flow
3. Transition from one regime to another.
4. Two phase flow models
3. Concept of static and flow quality, void fraction and slip ratio
4. Boiling & non boiling heights for P prediction in 2 phase flow
5. Empirical & theoretical models available for 2 phase p
6. Critical flow and its importance in nuclear reactor safety
7. Thermal and Flow instabilities in Nuclear reactors

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Course Outlines to be covered (Contd.)

2. BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
1. Introduction to boiling heat transfer and its importance in Nuclear
Reactors
2. Static and flow boiling curve, its implications on nuclear reactors
3. Heat transfer regions and development of void fraction/quality
4. Boiling Heat transfer coefficients correlation
5. Critical conditions or Boiling Crisis
6. Critical Heat Flow (CHF) & its importance in Nuclear reactor safety
7. Difference between DNB and Dryout
8. Heat transfer correlations for pool boiling heat transfer
9. Heat transfer correlations for flow boiling heat transfer
10.Design Considerations due to critical conditions

Course Outlines to be covered (Contd.)

3. SINGLE HEATED CHANNEL: STEADY-STATE ANALYSIS
1. Steady-State Single-Phase Flow in a Heated Channel
1. Solution of the Energy Equation for a Single-Phase Coolant
and Fuel Rod (PWR Case)
1. Coolant Temperature, Cladding Temperature
2. Fuel Centerline Temperature
2. Solution of the Momentum Equation to Obtain Single-Phase
Pressure Drop
3. Steady-State Two-Phase Flow in a Heated Channel Under
Fully Equilibrium (Thermal and Mechanical Conditions
4. Solution of the Energy Equation for Two-Phase Flow (BWR
Case with Single-Phase Entry Region)
5. Solution of the Momentum Equation for Fully Equilibrium
Two- Phase Flow Conditions to Obtain Channel Pressure Drop
(BWR Case with Single-Phase Entry Region)
Δ p , Δ p , Δ p , and Δp
acc grav fric form

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READING ASSIGNMENT

Chapter No 4 of Nuclear Systems (vol 1)

by
Kazimi and Todreas
contains overview of transport equations for single phase
flows. Please go through them as your reading
assignment.

BASIC CONCEPTS & TERMINOLOGIES -1

Why heat transfer with phase change is important in nuclear reactors ?
Liquids are subjected to high heat fluxes. Resulting in
1. Liquids attaining as high heat transfer rates a benefit
2. Void formed, not good in nuclear reactors, affects moderation / pumping
3. Heat fluxes, limited due to burnout (leading to structural instability)
4. Saturation or superheated temperatures
5. Causing liquids to boil due to phase change
6. Causing dissolved gases to come out of the liquid forming bubbles
7. Causing other phenomena which generate bubbles
8. Bubble formation cause agitation and turbulence,
Hence, an in-depth knowledge of phase-change behavior of working
fluid can result in better performance of nuclear reactors
1. Two-phase coolant thermal conditions in accidental loss of coolant
2. Provision of sufficient safety margin between anticipated transient heat
fluxes and critical boiling heat fluxes

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BASIC CONCEPTS & TERMINOLOGIES -2

TERMS USED TO DESCRIBE PHASE CHANGE PROCESSES
VAPORIZATION
Conversion of liquid into vapors

EVAPORATION
Conversion of liquid into vapors below boiling point
BOILING

Formation of vapors within a liquid phase at and above boiling point

TWO-PHASE FLOW

Where two or more phases move simultaneously in a channel

CONDENSATION
Reverse of evaporation

BASIC CONCEPTS & TERMINOLOGIES -3

CLASSIFICATION OF BOILING

BASED ON THE LOCATION OF BOILING PHENOMENON

BASED ON THE MECHANISM OF BOILING

BASED ON THE TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS OF FLUID

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BASIC CONCEPTS & TERMINOLOGIES -4

BASED ON THE LOCATION OF BOILING PHENOMENON

VOLUME OR BULK BOILING

POOL BOILING
CAN BE NON-FLOW
NON-FLOW
OR FLOW BOILING

Boiling due to heat added to the Boiling due to heat generation

liquid by a surface in contact with within the liquid by chemical /
or submerged within the liquid nuclear reaction or
electrical/mechanical energy
dissipation

BASIC CONCEPTS & TERMINOLOGIES -5

BASED ON THE MECHANISM OF BOILING

NUCLEATE BOILING FILM BOILING

There is a formation of a
Bubbles are formed around a continuous film of vapor that
small nucleus of vapors or gas blankets the heating surface

Pool nucleate boiling or There is only pool film boiling rather

volume nucleate boiling than volume film boiling

Under certain conditions nucleate and film boiling coexist

Partial film boiling, Partial nucleate boiling, Transition film boiling,

Unstable nucleate film boiling etc.

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BASIC CONCEPTS & TERMINOLOGIES -6

BASED ON THE TEMPERATURE OF LIQUID

SATURATED BOILING SUBCOOLED BOILING

bulk of the liquid is at bulk of the liquid is subcooled

saturation temperature

In saturated boiling, the In sub-cooled boiling, the bubbles

bubbles rise to the liquid begin to rise but may collapse before
surface where they are they reach the liquid surface
. detached

to generate bubbles the heating surface must be at

An important temperature > saturation, consequently some of the liquid
point immediately adjacent to that surface, is superheated

BASIC CONCEPTS & TERMINOLOGIES -7

HENCE
BOTH SATURATED AND SUBCOOLED BOILING CAN BE
NUCLEATE OR FILM BOILING
WHEREAS VOLUME OR BULK BOILING CAN ONLY BE
SATURATED BOILING

TWO-PHASE FLOW CLASSIFICATION

BASED ON HEAT TRANSFER

DIABATIC ADIABATIC
WITH BOILING WITHOUT BOILING

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BASIC CONCEPTS & TERMINOLOGIES -8

BASED ON COMPONENTS

Single component flow Two component flow

Water and steam Water and air

IN BOTH THESE TYPES OF TWO-PHASE FLOW

1. Vapor and liquid flow at different velocities
2. Vapors normally flow faster than liquid
3. The ratio of their velocities is called slip ratio

GAS LIQUID GENERAL FLOW REGIMES

DISPERSED
FLOW

STRATIFIED
FLOW

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2 PHASE FLOW PATTERNS EXPERIMENTAL SETUPS

Adiabatic Vertical 2 Phase Flow Patterns

Flow is
• co-current and
steady-state in
• a long tube with
low or moderate
but constant liquid
volumetric flow
rate QL
• The gas volumetric
flow rate QG is
started from a very
low value and is
gradually increased
ADIABATIC FLOW

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Adiabatic Horizontal 2 Phase Flow Patterns

Adiabatic Vertical 2 Phase Flow Patterns. -1

Bubbly flow pattern characteristics

Liquid

• Distorted-spherical and discrete bubbles

• Move in a continuous liquid phase
• Bubbles have little interaction at very low QL
• Increase in number density as QG is increased
• At higher QG rates, bubbles interact, leading Gas
to their coalescence and breakup

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Adiabatic Vertical 2 Phase Flow Patterns. - 2

Dispersed Bubbly flow pattern characteristics

Flow regimes associated with very high QLiquid

• Due to very large liquid and mixture velocities the slip
velocity between the two phases is often small in comparison
with the average velocity of either phase
• The effect of gravity is relatively small as long as the void
fraction is small enough to allow the existence of a
continuous liquid phase
• Highly turbulent liquid flow does not allow existence of large
gas chunks & shatters gas into small bubbles
• The bubbles are quite small and nearly spherical

Dispersed
Bubbly Flow

Adiabatic Vertical 2 Phase Flow Patterns. – 3

Slug / Plug flow pattern characteristics

• Large QG discrete bubbles coalesce to form very large

bubbles Liquid
• The slug / plug flow regime then develops; dominated
by bullet-shaped bubbles (Taylor bubbles)
• Approximately hemispherical caps and are separated
from one another by liquid slugs.
• The liquid slug often contains small bubbles
• A Taylor bubble approximately occupies the entire cross Gas
section and is separated from the wall by a thin liquid
film
• Taylor bubbles coalesce and grow in length until a
relative equilibrium liquid slug length (Ls/D ∼ 16) in
common vertical channels is reached

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Adiabatic Vertical 2 Phase Flow Patterns. - 4

Churn flow pattern characteristics
• At further higher QG large Taylor bubbles are disrupted
to form churn (froth) flow
• A chaotic motion of the irregular-shaped gas pockets
takes place, where the interface shape cannot be defined
• Both phases may appear to be contiguous
• Have incessant churning and oscillatory backflow
• Liquid near the tube wall continually pulses up and down
• Churn flow also occurs at the entrance of a vertical
channel, before slug flow develops.

Adiabatic Vertical 2 Phase Flow Patterns. - 5

Annular flow pattern characteristics
• Annular-dispersed (annular-mist) flow replaces churn
flow at even higher QG
• A thin liquid film, often wavy, sticks to the wall while
gas occupies the core often with entrained droplets
• In common pipe scales, the droplets are typically 10–
100 μm in diameter
• The annular-dispersed flow regime is usually
characterized by continuous impingement of droplets
onto the liquid film and simultaneously an incessant
process of entrainment of liquid droplets from the liquid
film surface

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HORIZANTLE TWO PHASE FLOW PATTERNS. - 1

Bubbly Flow Plug Flow Stratified Flow

Increasing Gas flow Rate

Wavy Flow Slug Flow Annular Flow

HORIZONTAL 2-PHASE FLOW PATTERNS. - 1

1. Bubbly flow, in which the gas bubbles tend to flow along the top of
the tube
2. Plug flow, in which the individual small gas bubbles have
coalesced to produce long plugs
3. Stratified flow, in which the liquid—gas interface is smooth. Note
that this flow pattern does not usually occur, the interface is almost
always wavy as in wavy flow
4. Wavy flow, in which the wave amplitude increases as the gas
velocity increases
5. Slug flow, in which the wave amplitude is so large that the wave
touches the top of the tube
6. Annular flow, which is similar to vertical annular flow except that
the liquid film is much thicker at the bottom of the tube than at the
top

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FLOW REGIME MAPS. -1

• The flow regimes considered are the major and easily
distinguishable flow patterns.
• Transition from one major flow regime to another is never sudden
• Each pair of major flow regimes are separated from one another by
a relatively wide transition zone
• Flow pattern/regimes maps are an attempt, on a 2-D graph, to
separate the space into areas corresponding to the various flow
patterns
• Simple flow pattern maps use the same axes for all flow patterns
and transitions
• Complex maps use different axes for different transitions
• There are flow maps for vertical as well as for horizontal flow
• Several maps are available in the literature
• There are quite a few limitations in the use of these maps

VERTICAL FLOW REGIME MAPS. -2

The Hewitt and Roberts (1969) map for vertical up flow in a tube

 Gx 
2

 j 2
 ,
G G
G
G 1  x 
2

 j 2
L L
L
where
j  superficial velocity
volumetric flow rate

tube cross-sectional area

G   Gx  G(1  x )
2 2 2
Q QG QL
j  jG   jL  
 A G A L A

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FLOW REGIME MAPS. -3 (vertical flow)

Gover and Aziz 1972,

vertical two phase flow map,
2.6 cm ID

FLOW REGIME MAPS. -4

1
  l  2
  g 
  air  water 

 water     
2 3

   l  water  
   water   l  

Baker’s map for horizontal 2 phase flow in a tube

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FLOW REGIME MAPS. -5

The flow regime map of Mandhane et al. (1974) for co-

current flow in horizontal pipes.

FLOW REGIME MAPS. -6 (horizontal flow)

Govier and Aziz 1972 Horizontal two phase flow map, 2.6 cm ID

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FLOW REGIME TRANSITION

FLOW REGIME IDENTIFICATION SUMMARY

1. Void distribution depends on the pressure, channel geometry and its
orientation, gas and liquid flow rates.
2. Flow regimes in vertical flows are bubbly, slug, churn & annular
3. Bubbly regime have the presence of dispersed vapor bubbles in a
continuous liquid phase
4. Slug flow is distinguished by the presence of gas plugs separated by
liquid slugs.
5. Churn flow is more chaotic but of same basic character as the slug flow
6. Annular flow is distinguished by the presence of a continuous core of gas
surrounded by an annulus of the liquid phase
7. If the gas flow in the core is sufficiently high, it may carry liquid droplets
referred as an annular-dispersed flow
8. Hewitt and Roberts [19] also suggested that the droplets can gather in
clouds forming an annular-wispy regime
9. The liquid droplets are torn from the wavy liquid film, get entrained in
the gas core, and can be de-entrained to join the film downstream of the
point of their origin.

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ASSIGNMENT -1

TITLE
A COMPREHNSIVE STUDY OF THE FLOW REGIMES
IDENTIFICATION AND TRANSITION CRITERIA

SUBMISSION DEADLINE
MAY-12, 2022

FLOW REGIME TRANSITION – DIABATIC FLOW

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TRANSPORT EQUATIONS FOR TWO-PHASE FLOWS

1. Macroscopic Versus Microscopic Information
2. Multicomponent Versus Multiphase Systems
3. Mixture Versus Multifluid Models
i. The homogeneous equilibrium model (HEM) is the simplest of the
mixture models. It assumes that there is no relative velocity between
the two phases (i .e. homogeneous flow) and that the vapor and
liquid are in thermodynamic equilibrium. In this case the mass,
momentum, and energy balance equations of the mixture are
sufficient to describe the flow.
ii. Mixture models other than HEM add some complexity to the two-
phase flow description. By allowing the vapor and liquid phases to
have different velocities but constraining them to thermal
equilibrium, these methods allow for more accurate velocity
predictions. Alternatively, by allowing one phase to depart from
thermal equilibrium, enthalpy prediction can be improved. In this
case four or even five transport equations may be needed as well as
a number of externally supplied relations to specify the interaction
between the two phases.

TRANSPORT EQUATIONS FOR TWO-PHASE FLOWS

(Contd.)
In the two-fluid model, three conservation equations are written for both
the vapor and the liquid phases. Hence the model is often called the six-
equation model . This model allows a more general description of the
two-phase flow. However, it also requires a larger number of constitutive
equations. The most important relations are those that represent the
transfer of mass (Γ), transfer of energy (Qs) and transfer of momentum
(Fs) across liquid-vapor interfaces. The advantage of using this model is
that the two phases are not restricted to prescribed temperature or
velocity conditions. Extensions of the two-fluid model to multifluid
models- in which vapor bubbles, a continuous liquid, a continuous vapor,
and liquid droplets are described by separate sets of conservation
equations-are also possible but have not been as widely applied as the
simpler two-fluid model .

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TRANSPORT EQUATIONS FOR TWO-PHASE FLOWS

(Contd.)

QUALITY & VOID FRACTION

For A Stationary Homogeneous Two-Phase Mixture

Mass of vapors in mixture mv v V

Mass static quality  x  xst  
Total mass of mixture mv  ml   v  l  V

<xst > is a volume-average property by definition; therefore <xst>  xst.

Volume fraction of the gaseous phase is normally called the void fraction
Volume of vapors in mixture Vv
Void Fraction      v 
Total volume of mixture Vv  Vl
Relationship between ‘x’ and ‘’ can be established by assuming a unit
mass. From thermodynamics the volume of this unit mass is
xvg 1 1
volume   
 v f  xv fg v  xv fg  1 x v f  1 x g 
1   1  
f
mass
 x v   x  
 g   f 
For x = 2% steam water system  = 97.1% at 1 atmosphere
(prove it!)

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QUALITY & VOID FRACTION

1

0.9

0.8

0.7
Void fraction

0.6

0.5 (air-water system)

0.4 (water-steam system, 100C, 1 bar)

0.3 (water-steam system, 300C, 86 bar )

0.2
(water-steam system, 350C, 165 bar)
0.1
water-steam system, 374.15C, 221.2 bar)
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Quality

Fundamental Void Fraction-Quality-Slip Relation-1

For A Homogeneous Flowing Mixture at Thermodynamic Equilibrium

Mass flow rate of vapors in mixture

Quality  x 
Total mass flow rate of mixture
In flowing systems, the vapor phase tends to move faster especially in
vertical systems. The ratio of velocities of the two phases is Slip Ratio
xm t  mass flow rate of vapor  m g
1  x m t  mass flow rate of liquid  m f
Using eq. of continuity one can find the velocities of vapor or liquid
AgVg v g xm t
xm t  m g   Vg  Similarly
vg Ag

Af V f v f (1  x) mt
(1  x)mt  m f   Vf 
vf Af

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Fundamental Void Fraction-Quality-Slip Relation-2

Vg x A f vg
Hence SLIP RATIO is; S 
Vf 1  x Ag v f
Ag Af 1
  
A f  Ag Ag 

SLIP RATIO, QUALITY & VOID FRACTION can be related as;

Vg x 1   vg
S  (1)
Vf 1 x  vf

1 1
  (2)
 1 x   v f   1 x 
1   S 
1   If S = 1, there can be two cases
 x   vg   x 
1. A non flow system
 1   1 2. A homogeneously flowing
x  1 1   (3)
   system

QUALITY, VOID FRACTION & SLIP RATIO

Variation of the void fraction with

the quality for steam–water flow:
(a) for pressure of 6.9 MPa
(b) for slip ratio of unity.

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QUALITY & VOID FRACTION

Important Inferences:
1. For constant x,  decreases with pressure. x =  at critical pressure
2. For a constant pressure d/dx decreases with quality
3. For low ‘x’ as in BWRs, d/dx increases with decreasing pressure,
becomes exceptionally large affecting reactor stability

Fundamental Void Fraction-Quality-Slip Relation

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Fundamental Void Fraction-Quality-Slip Relation

SUMMARY
1  x v 1    1  xst 1  x
S 1  S 2
x l  xst x

=jv/j

1− 𝛼 1− 𝛽 1    1  x v 1    1  xst v
= 𝑆 3  4  5
𝛼 𝛽   x l   xst l

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SLIP RATIO. - 3
Effect of other operating parameters on S, experimental facts only

• S decreases with increasing system pressure and volumetric flow rate

• S increases with quality

SLIP RATIO, - 4
Important Inferences from the developed equations:
1. For constant pressure and quality, Eq(1), S  (1-)/
2. Hence for constant pressure and quality  decreases with S
3. with slip < without slip for a flowing system
4. A high S system  less voids  better heat transfer and better
moderation in nuclear reactors

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PREAMBLE 2 PHASE MODELS

FOR A HOMOGENOUS FLOWING TWO PHASE MIXTURE
Vapor mass flow fraction of total flow is called flow quality (x) m v
xz 
Flow quality in a one-dimensional flow is defined as m v  m l

• Concept of flow quality is used in the analysis of predominantly 1-D 2-

phase flow
• Many correlations that are extensively used in two-phase flow and heat
transfer are given in terms of the flow quality
• Flow quality becomes particularly useful when thermodynamic
equilibrium between the two phases is assumed
• In that case flow quality can be obtained from energy balances of the flow.
However, additional info/correlations are needed to calculate α
• With 2-D flow the quality at a given plane has two components and is not
readily defined by a simple energy balance
• For 2 or 3-D flow, the flow quality becomes less useful.
• Little literature exists, on the effect of the vectorial nature of quality on
flow conditions

BASIC TWO-PHASE PROPERTIES

For A Homogeneous Flowing Mixture at Thermodynamic Equilibrium
Flow (mixing-cup) enthalpy hm  xhv  1  x  hl
Saturation
Flow thermodynamic (or equilibrium) conditions replace
quality is given by relating the flow hm  h f local for liquid
xe 
enthalpy to the saturation liquid and hg  h f and vapor phase
vapor enthalpies
xhg  1  x  hl  h f
Flow quality can be used to xe 
hg  h f
define the equilibrium quality
Mixture Density
The two-phase mixture mg  m f
  𝜌 = 𝜌 𝛼 + 𝜌 1−𝛼
density in a volume is: V
𝜌 𝛼
𝑥 =
𝜌 𝛼 + 𝜌 1−𝛼
Similarly, the average phasic v 
xst 
, l 
1  xst  
density becomes  1

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Two Phase Flow Modelling

• Rigorous modelling of gas–liquid 2P flow based on the solution of local and
instantaneous conservation principles is generally very complicated
• Simplified models  idealization, time & volume averaging are usually used
• Simplified multiphase flow conservation eqs can be obtained in many ways
a. Each point in mixture is simultaneously occupied by both phases
b. Developing control-volume-based balance equations
c. Performing some form of averaging (time, volume, flow area OR composite)
on local & instantaneous conservation equations
d. Postulating a set of conservation equations based on physical insight.
• 2 degrees of freedom can be either allowed or disallowed by various models
a. Thermal non-equilibrium, which allows one or both phases to have T  Tsat
b. Unequal velocities, where the two phases can have different velocities S >1

Most widely used is the averaging method. Lead to flow parameters that are
1. Measurable with available instrumentation
2. Continuous
3. In case of double averaging have continuous first derivatives

Transport Equations for Two Phase Flows

Homogeneous Equilibrium Model

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Transport Equations for Two Phase Flows

Mixture Equations for 1D Flows

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Mixture Equations for 1D Flows

Mixture Equations for 1D Flows

What would be the final form of these equations if

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Two Fluid Type Transport Equations

Two Fluid Type Transport Equations

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Two Fluid Type Transport Equations

Two Fluid Type Transport Equations

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Two Fluid Type Transport Equations

Two Fluid Type Transport Equations

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Two Fluid Type Transport Equations

Energy Equation

1D Space Averaged Transport Equations

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1D Space Averaged Transport Equations

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Two Phase Flow Models -1

Various two–phase flow models
1. Homogeneous mixture model:
1. The simplest two-phase flow model, and it essentially treats the two-phase
mixture as a single hypothetical fluid
2. The two phases are assumed to be well mixed and have the same velocity
at any location, S = 1
3. Thus, only one momentum equation is needed
4. If in a single-component flow, thermodynamic equilibrium is also assumed
between the two phases everywhere, the homogeneous–equilibrium
mixture model results.
5. 2 phases may not be at thermodynamic equilibrium, e,g. flashing liquids &
condensation of vapour bubbles surrounded by sub-cooled liquid
6. Solution of conservation equations is more complicated than single-phase
flow
7. Fluid mixture is compressible; thermo-physical properties can vary with
time & position
8. Particularly useful for high pressure and high flow rate conditions

Two Phase Flow Models -1

Homogenous Equilibrium Model

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Drift Flux Model

1. A thermal equilibrium mixture model with an algebraic relation between
the velocities (or a slip ratio) of the two phases
2. Drift flux model (DFM, Zuber–Findlay model) is one of the most widely
used diffusion model & more often used for void fraction calculations
3. In these models the liquid and gas phases constitute the two domains
4. This model is different from HEM model only in allowing the two phases
to have different velocities that are related via a predetermined relation
5. Hence, only a single momentum equation is required
6. This is made possible by obtaining the relative (slip) velocity between the
two phases, or the relative velocity of one phase with respect to the
mixture, from a model or correlation
7. Slip-velocity relation is usually algebraic (rather than by a differential
eq.).
8. This model is useful for low pressure and/or low flow rate flows under
steady state or near- steady-state conditions

Drift Flux Model

Considers the average velocity of the vapor in the channel.
To define the drift flux, first the two-phase volumetric velocity (j) and
the local drift velocity of the vapor (υ ) is defined.
vj

Local vapour velocity υ𝐯 = 𝒋 + υ𝐯𝒋

= volumetric flow rate of vapor/ flow cross sectional area of
vapor

Where; 𝒋𝐯 = 𝜶υ𝐯 = 𝜶𝒋 + 𝜶 υ𝐯 − 𝒋 , averaging over area

Superficial velocity. 𝒋𝐯 = 𝜶𝒋 + 𝜶 υ𝐯 − 𝒋 >0, the drift flux

Velocities each fluid
phase would have if all
the cross-sectional area Physically represents the rate at which
of the pipe were vapor passes through a unit area (normal to
available for the fluid the channel axis) that is already traveling
to flow alone with the flow at a velocity j

35
 6/4/2022

Two Phase Flow Models -3

Superficial velocity, {jv}, also expressed as 𝒋𝐯 = 𝑪𝒐 𝜶 𝒋 + 𝜶 𝑽𝑽𝒋
𝜶𝒋
Co = conc parameter = , VVj (effective drift velocity) = 𝜶 υ𝐯 − 𝒋 ⁄ 𝜶
𝜶 𝒋
𝒋𝑽
Hence void fraction for DFM 𝛂 =𝑪 𝒋 𝑽𝑽𝒋
or explicitly as
𝒐

xm  v A 1
   
 x 1  x  m  1  x  v  Vvj  v
Co   V Co  1  
 v  l  A vj  x  l  xG

Similarly, ratio of void fraction (α) to volumetric flow ratio (β)

𝛂 𝟏
=
𝜷 𝑪𝒐 + 𝑽𝑽𝒋 ⁄ 𝒋
Co shows global effect of planar non-uniform void & velocity profiles
VVj/{j} term represents the local relative velocity effect
For uniform velocity or void profiles across the channel, Co = 1
For homogeneous flow, (local slip = 0 & bubble conc profile = uniform),
υv = j, Vvj = 0, and Co = 1, hence {α} = {β} for HEM

DRIFT FLUX MODEL SLIP RATIO, -1

If S > 1, several possibilities
Case 1: At G is high, the localexists
relative velocity effect/relative velocity is
negligible, (i.e., Vvj = 0). {α} = K{β}
An implied assumption in the old relations of Armand and Treshchev(1959)
and Bankoff(1960), for steam–water systems
where the constant K is then defined by
K = 1/Co
For this case, Armand and Treshchev [1959] suggested
K = 0.833 + 0.05ln(10p) for β < 0.9 where p is in MPa
while Bankoff [1960] suggested that
K = 0.71 + 0.0001p (psi)
Case 2: For all flow regimes, Dix [1971] suggested a general
expression for Co,

  1  
b
 
0.1

Co    1  
  1  b v 
       l 
 

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DRIFT FLUX MODEL SLIP RATIO, -1

1
   Combine 1  x v 1   
 1  x v  Vvj v S
Co 1   x l  
 x l  xG

SLIP RATIO is given as

Due to local velocity

Due to non-uniform differential between
void distribution vapor and liquid
S  Co 
 Co  1 x  l 
Vvj  l
1  x   v 1  x  G

Drift Flux Model

37
 6/4/2022

Lockhart-Martinelli ( 1 949) correlation

• A definite portion of the flow area is assigned to each phase, assuming
conventional friction pressure-drop equations can be applied to the flow
path of each phase.
• Interaction between the phases is thus ignored (which led to an
inconsistent result for the relationship between dp/dz and 
• Four flow regimes were defined on the basis of the behaviour of the flow
(viscous or turbulent) passing alone through the channel.
• Liquid and gas phase pressure drops were considered equal irrespective of
the details of the particular flow pattern.
• As initially only frictional component of the pressure drop was considered
hence the acceleration and static head components being assumed
negligibly small
• Therefore, the frictional pressure drop in the gas phase must equal the
frictional drop in the liquid phase irrespective of the flow pattern details

The Lockhart-Martinelli Method -1

Martinelli and his co-workers argued that the two-phase friction multipliers
ϕ2L and ϕ2G can be correlated uniquely as a function of a parameter X, where
 dp  This was verified using their experimental data. The
  resulting graphical correlation is shown where friction factor
 dz  fr , L
X 
2
multipliers are plotted against X for all four flow regimes
 dp 
 
 dz  fr ,G

Remember  not 2 is
plotted against X not X2

38
 6/4/2022

The Lockhart-Martinelli Method -2

 2 f g x 2G 2 v g   2 f f 1  x  2 G 2 v f 
g2    2f  
 D   D 

 dp 
   dP  2  dP  2  dP 
 dz  f , fr
X2     g    f  
 dp   dz fr  dz  g , fr  dz  f , fr
 
 dz  g , fr

 dp 
 
 dz  f , fr g
2

X2   2
 dp  f
 
 dz  g , fr
By definition we know that pressure
gradient can be written as

The Lockhart-Martinelli Method -3

n
 u D
ff  K  f f 
 2 f f 1  x 2 G 2 v f    f 
 

 D 
X 
2

 2 f g x 2G 2 v g 
   u D
n

 D  fg  K  g g 
For non circular   f 
geometry D = De

n
Simplification    1  x  2n   g 
X  f
2
    
 g
  x   f
leads to
 

0.25
Using Blasius   1.75
 g 
1 x 
correlation where X2  f     
 g
n= 0.25    x  f 

39
 6/4/2022

The Lockhart-Martinelli Method -4

Curves are well represented by these when C has the following values in
the following equations
1. Turbulent (L)-Turbulent (G) ϕtt C = 20 C 1
2. Viscous (L)-Viscous (G) ϕvv C=5 L2  1   2
X X
3. Turbulent (L)-Viscous (G) ϕtv C = 10 G2  1  CX  X 2
4. Viscous (L)-Turbulent (G) ϕvt C = 12

How to use the Lockhart-Martinelli correlation to calculate the two-phase

friction pressure gradient
• Calculate the friction pressure gradients for each phase alone flowing in
the channel at its actual flow rate and then use the Figure OR use the
above correlations in terms of X to get the multipliers.
• Correlation was developed for horizontal two-phase flow of two-
component systems at low pressures (close to atmospheric) and its
application to situations outside this range of conditions is not
recommended

The Lockhart-Martinelli Method -5

Lockhart-Martinelli also derived a relation between ∅ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∅

 dP  2  dP   dP 
    fo     f2  
 dz fr  dz  fo , fr  dz  f , fr

 dP   2 f foG 2 v f   2 f f G 2 1  x 2 v f 
    2
fo 
    f 
2

 dz fr  D  D 
  f , fr
 0.25
 G 1  x  D 
f f  0.079   ff
1  x 
2
 f  ff  1 
0.25  2fo   2f
 f fo
 GD 
 0.25 f fo 1  x 
f fo  0.079    2fo   f2 1  x 
1.75

  f 

40
 6/4/2022

The Martinelli-Nelson ( 1 948) correlation -1

The Lockhart-Martinelli correlation was related
1. To the adiabatic flow of low pressure air-liquid mixtures,
2. However, the information was purposely presented in a
generalized manner to enable the application of the model to
single component systems and to steam-water mixtures.

Features of Martinelli-Nelson correlation

1. For the prediction of pressure drops during forced circulation boiling
Martinelli and Nelson (1948) assumed the flow regime would always
be ‘turbulent-turbulent’ i.e. C = 20

2. Correlation of frictional pressure gradient is worked in terms of  fo the

2

parameter which is more convenient for boiling and condensation

problems than  f
2

The Martinelli-Nelson ( 1 948) correlation -2

3. Thermodynamic equilibrium was assumed to exist at all points in
the flow and the curve correlating  f ,tt was arbitrarily applied to
2

atmospheric pressure steam-water flow.

4. A relationship between ϕf and Xtt was established for the critical
pressure level by noting that as the pressure is increased towards
the critical point, the densities and viscosities of the phases
become similar. The relationship may be represented by
C 1
 f2  1   2
X X
with the value of C=1.36
5. Knowing the CURVES for critical and atmospheric pressure,
curves at intermediate pressures were established by trial and error
using the experimental data of Davidson et al. (1943) as a guide.
6. With this knowledge of f and Xtt for a number of pressures a
plot of 2fo and mass quality x was made using  2fo   2f  f f f fo  1  x 
2

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 6/4/2022

The Martinelli-Nelson ( 1 948) correlation -4

HEM
correlation

The Martinelli-Nelson ( 1 948) correlation -5

In order to calculate the total two phase pressure drop let us revisit the
separated flow model equation
2 f foG 2 v f L  1 x 2 
p     fo dx   pacc  pgrav
D x 0 

Need to solve this

term, an average
value of friction
factor multiplier

Martinelli & Nelson

evaluated this integral

42
 6/4/2022

The Martinelli-Nelson ( 1 948) correlation -6

Martinelli and Nelson used

the Lockhart - Martinelli
curve for steam-water flow
at Patm showed that, at the.
critical pressure α = β = x.
Knowing the α-Xtt curves
for both atmospheric and
critical pressures, curves at
intermediate pressures were
interpolated. These curves
were then transposed to give
values of α as a function of
mass quality x with pressure
as parameter

The Thom correlation -1

1 x

An alternative set of consistent values for the terms r3    dx  ,  and x
2
fo
x 0 
Why there was a need Values were interpolated between Patm and Pcr
Thom ( 1964)
revised values
were derived
using an
extensive set of
experimental
data for steam-
water pressure
drops obtained
at Cambridge,
England, on
heated and
unheated
horizontal and
vertical tubes.

43
 6/4/2022

The Thom correlation -1

Application of the SFM to experimental observations -1

1. Lockhart-Martinelli-Nelson model used extensively for the correlation of
experimental pressure gradients and void fraction for both single- and
two-component gas-liquid flow.
2. Two general observations concerning the application of the Lockhart -
Martinelli correlation.
1. Widely recognized that the curves of experimental ϕf or ϕg versus X are
not smooth as shown. Discontinuities of slope are present, associated
with changes of flow pattern. (Sze-Foo Chen and Ibele 1962; Gazley
and Bergelin 1949; Charvonia 1961 ; Kegel 1948; Dukler 1949).
2. G effects the curves of ϕf versus X. Widely reported for steam-water
flow at high pressures. Original Martinelli-Nelson correlation
corresponds to a G= 500 - 1000 kg/m2s. Homogeneous model yields
values close to those obtained experimentally for mass velocities
G>2000 kg/m2s. (Isbin 1959; Sher and Green 1959; Muscettola 1963)

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 6/4/2022

Application of the SFM to experimental observations -2

Quantitative data illustrating the

effect.
• Zuber et al. (1967), Freon at
elevated pressures
• Hughmark and Pressburg
(1961) for low-pressure air-
liquid flow

Correlations for use independent of the Model

Attempts to correct existing models for the influence of mass velocity on the
frictional multiplier,  fo2 ,tt have been published by Baroczy (1965), by
Chisholm (1968), and by Friedel (1979) and many others.

THE BAROCZY CORRELATION

This method employs the use of two separate set of curves
First: A plot of  fo ,tt as a function of a physical property index with ‘x’ as a
2

parameter for a reference G = 1356 kg/m2 s (1×106 1b/hr-ft2)

Second: A plot of correction factor Ω expressed as a function of the same

physical property index for G = 339, 678, 2712, and 4068 kg/m2 s with ‘x’ as
parameter. This plot serves to correct the value of  2fo ,tt obtained from the first
plot to the appropriate value of G

The method proposed by Baroczy was tested against data from a wide range
of systems including both liquid metals and refrigerants with satisfactory
agreement between the measured and calculated values.

45
 6/4/2022

THE BAROCZY CORRELATION plot-1

THE BAROCZY CORRELATION DATA-1

46
 6/4/2022

THE BAROCZY CORRELATION plot-2

p  dP  2 f G 2v f 2
   fo  fo ( G 1356)
L  dz  fo , fr D

CHISHOLM'S METHOD -1
Chisholm and Sutherland proposed the following procedure to account for
effects of G for steam-water flow in pressure tubes at pressures above 3
MPa (435 psia /30 bar)

For Gm ≤ G*; (G* is a reference mass flux)

C 1
 f2  1   2
X X
where
 v 
0.5
  v 
0.5
v 
0.5

C      C2     fg    g   f  
  vg   v f  vg 
       
  0.5  2 2n   2   n  power coeff of Re in the 'f ' relation

G*
C2 
G

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 6/4/2022

CHISHOLM'S METHOD -2
For Gm > G*; (G* is a reference mass flux)  C 1 
 f2  1   2 
 X X 
where 0.5 0.5
v   vf   1 
  1   2  1   2 
C 1 C
C  g    
 vf  T T   T T 
   vg 
2 n n 2 12
 x  n  f   vf 
T      
1 x   g   vg 
For rough tubes;
G*=1500kg/m3s, λ = 0.75
and n = 0.2
C is obtained as in the case of
G ≤ G*
For smooth tubes;
G*=2000kg/m3s, λ = 1.0
and n = 0

COMPARISON OF METHOD -4

 fo2

 2fo ( HEM )

For G > G*, ψ <1

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THE JONES CORRELATION -1

Jones(1961), an empirical approximation of Martinelli-Nelson ∅ for water

  l   0.824 
 2fo    p, Gm  1.2    1 x   1.0
   v   
where :   p, Gm   psia, lb / hr ft 
2

G  G 
 1.36  0.005 p  0.1 m6   0.000714 p  m6 
 10   10 
G 
for  m6   0.7
 10 
 106   106 
 1.26  0.004 p  0.119    0.00028 p  
 Gm   Gm 
G 
for  m6   0.7
 10 

THE ARMAND-TRESCHEV CORRELATION -1

Armand-Treschev (1959)
Model does not account for the G effect but describe the effect of the  in a
more precise way.
Database of the model is steam-water flowing in rough pipes 25.5 to 56 mm
in diameter at pressures between 1.0 and 18 MPa

   0.833  0.05ln 10 p
 
 
1 x
1.75

for    0.9 and    0.5,  fo 

2

1   
1.2

0.48 1  x 
1.75

for    0.9 and    0.5,  fo 

2

1   
n

where n  1.9  1.48 10 2 p (in MPa )

0.025 p  0.055
for    0.9 ,  fo2  1  x 
1.75

1   
1.75

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 6/4/2022

COMPARISON OF CORRELATIONS

0.25
 v fg   v    g 
HEM 1:   1  x 
2
 HEM 2 :  2fo  1  x  fg   1  x   1 
fo v v 
 f    f     f 

THE FRIEDEL CORRELATION -1

Friedel (1979), One of the most accurate two-phase Δp correlations

It was obtained by optimizing an equation for  2fo to using a large data

base of two-phase pressure drop measurements
3.24 A2 A3
 fo2  A1 
Fr 0.045We0.035
where
 f 
A1  1  x   x 2  f go  A2  x 0.78 1  x 
2 0.224

  g f fo 
 
0.91 0.19 0.7
       G2 G2D
A3   f   g   1  g  Fr  We 
 g    f    f gD  2 
     
Substituting A2 and A3 to get the following relation
0.91 0.19 0.7
 f   g   g 
1  x 
0.24
  A1  3.24 x
2 0.78
     1   Fr 0.045We 0.035
 g  f  f
fo
  

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 6/4/2022

THE FRIEDEL CORRELATION -2

where fgo and ffo are the friction factors defined for the total mass velocity
G as all vapour and all liquid, respectively by the equation
2
2 f fo / goG 2v f / g   Re fo 
 dp  f fo  0.25  0.86859 ln 
   
 dz  fo / go D   1.964 ln Re fo  3.8215  
 D is the equivalent diameter
 σ is the surface tension
   v f  x  v g  v f  
1
  the homogeneous density given by eq.

 Standard deviations are about 40-50 per cent, which is large with
respect to single-phase flows but quite good for two-phase flows.
 The correlation is valid for vertical upwards flow and for horizontal flow
 For vertical, downward flow, Friedel’s correlation gives
0.9 0.73 0.74
 f   g   g 
1  x 
0.29
  A1  48.6 x
2 0.8
     1   Fr 0.03We 0.12
 g  f  f
fo
  

COMPARISON

HEM and Friedel friction pressure gradient correlations compared to

Gaspari et al. CISE data [24] for water at p = 7.14 MPa flowing in a 5.08
mm diameter tube. (HEM evaluated using Equation 11.83 with n = 0.2 and
ffo = 0.184 Re-0.2.)

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THE WHALLEY CRITERIA

Whalley (1980) has evaluated separated flow models against a large
proprietary data bank and gives the following recommendation:

(a) For ( f g) < 1000: Utilize the Friedel (1979) correlation;
(b) For ( f g) > 1000 and G > 100 kg/m2 s: Utilize the most recent
refinement of the Chisholm (1973) correlation;

(c) For ( f  g ) > 1000 and G < 100 kg/m2 s: Utilize the correlations of
Lockhart and Martinelli (1949) and Martinelli and Nelson (1948)

For most fluids and operating conditions, ( f g ) is less than 1000 and
the Friedel correlation will be the preferred method.

THE ACCELERATION Δp FOR TWO PHASE FLOW

Net force acting due to acceleration pressure drop is cross-sectional area times
acceleration pressure drop = rate of change of linear momentum (ONLY 1-D)
F  pa Ac  m f V fe  m gVge  mV
t i

1  xe  mV
 t fe xe mV
 t ge mV
t i
pa     G 1  xe V fe  xeVge  Vi 
Ac Ac Ac
m f v f 1  xe  m t v f 1  xe  m t v f 1  xe  Gv f
V fe    
Afe A fe 1   e  Ac 1   e 
xeGvg
Vge  and Vi  Gvi
e
Acceleration multiplier
 1  xe 2 x2 
Finally pa  G  2
v f  e vg  vi   r G 2
 1   e e 

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THE MINOR LOSSES FOR TWO PHASE FLOW

Similar to frictional pressure drop, often a two–phase multiplier is used
P  PL 0 L 0  PG 0 G 0  PL L  PG G
2P P in a sudden expansion using the definitions of hem
 L  1  x   L x 2 
2
Pex  PL 0,ex L 0,ex L 0,ex    
   1    G  
2–phase pressure drop in a sudden contraction
1 G 2  1 
2

Pcon  PL 0,con L 0,con PL 0,con     1   1   2  
2  L   Cc  

Cc  AC A2 and   A2 A1
Homogeneous flow model has been found to do well in predicting
experimental data (Guglielmini, 1986)

Schmidt & Friedel (1997) experimental data for 2P P across contractions for
air-water mixtures, Freon 12, aqueous solution of glycerol, & an aqueous
solution of calcium nitrate. For D ≈ 17.2 to 44.2mm range resulting  ≈ 0.057
to 0.445. No vena–contracta was observed in these experiments.

THE MINOR LOSSES FOR TWO PHASE FLOW

Empirical correlations for two phase pressure drop and it is assumed
that the pressure drop associated with single-phase flow is known
For flow through orifices,
Beattie (1973) proposed

For flow through spacer

grids in rod bundles,
Beattie (1973) proposed
Chisholm (1967, 1981)
for two-phase pressure
drop in a bend
Martinelli’s factor
defined for the bend

where KL0 is the bend’s single–phase loss coefficient for the conditions when
all the mixture is pure liquid, R = bend curvature radius and D = pipe diam

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CRITICAL FLOW -1
Po 0 0

Pressure
1 1
2
2 Pb
Pe * 3
5
4
Length

Pexit
Po Pback

5
4
V* 3
Velocity

2
2
1
1
0 0
0
Length

CRITICAL FLOW

There are two kinds of waves propagating inside a two-phase fluid:

pressure wave and void wave; the latter is also sometimes called a
density wave. The pressure wave is related to the compressibility of fluid
and is the same as a sound wave. The void wave exists even if the fluid
does not have compressibility and it moves with the fluid when the
velocities of the two phases are the same. The void wave stands for
propagation of void fraction fluctuation, and, therefore, it is a major
source of instability when evaluating flow stability of two-phase flow. If
unstable flow occurs in the core or steam generator in a nuclear power
plant, it causes reduction of critical heat flux or wall temperature
fluctuation of heat exchangers. Because of this, careful consideration in
the design stage needs to be paid to the void wave.

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CRITICAL FLOW

CRITICAL FLOW

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CRITICAL FLOW
IMPLICATIONS OF 2 PHASE CRITICAL FLOW
1. This phenomenon occurs in both single- and two- phase flow
2. Phenomenon has long been observed in boiler and turbine systems,
flow of refrigerants and rocket propellants, and many others
3. In nuclear reactors, the phenomenon is of utmost importance in
safety considerations of both boiling and pressurized systems
4. A break in a primary coolant pipe causes two-phase critical flow in
either system since even in a pressurized reactor, the reduction of
pressure of the hot coolant from about 10 MPa to near atmospheric
causes flashing and two-phase flow
5. This kind of break results in a rapid loss of coolant and is considered
to be the maximum credible accident in power reactors built to date
6. An evaluation of the rate of flow in critical 2P systems is important
for the design of emergency cooling and for the determination of the
extent and causes of damage in accidents

Steady, 1-D Isentropic Flow With Area Change

Governing equation for Steady 1-D Flow
With Area Change;
Assumptions:
1. No body forces, gdz = 0
2. No friction, Ff = 0
3. No heat Transfer, adiabatic flow, Q = 0
4. No drag force, D = 0
5. No work done, W = 0

Continuity Eq. Momentum Eq. Energy Eq.

m   AV  constant dp   VdV  0 V2
h  constant  H
2
Entropy Equation s  constant

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CRITICAL MASS FLOW RATE

The energy equation (no heat transfer or work)
𝑉
𝑑ℎ + 𝑉𝑑𝑉 = 0 ℎ+ =ℎ =𝐻
2

Where,
h and ho are the specific enthalpy & stagnation enthalpy of the fluid.

Thus V  2 g  ho  h 

 T 
For an ideal gas dh = CpdT, so V  2 gC P To  T   2 gCPTo 1  
 To 

  1 1

p  p

T  p 

p
 o  
for an ideal gas (reversible)  
RT RTo  po 
To  po 

applying the continuity equation, 𝐴𝑝 𝑝 𝑝

𝑚= 2𝐶 𝑇 −
equation becomes 𝑅𝑇 𝑝 𝑝

Effect of pressure ratio on mass flow rate

The value of rp* can be obtained by differentiating m above with

respect to p and equating to zero.

 2   1
r *

  1
p

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Effect of pressure ratio on mass flow rate

A representative value of rp* is 0.53 for air at low temperatures,  = 1.4

Steam is not a perfect gas

rp* for single-phase steam flow is approximated from the perfect gas
relationship by replacing  with 1.3 for superheated & saturated steam

rp* value of 0.545

Two Phase Critical Flow -1

Δptotal (HEM) = Δpfric + Δpacc + Δpgravity

1
dp f  G2   x 1  x  
  TP  m  2 P   


dz fric, HEM De  2  m  m
  g  f 

dp d m d  1  1 1  
  Gm2  Gm2      x
dz acc, HEM dz dz   f   g  f  

dp
   m g cos 
dz static, HEM

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Two Phase Critical Flow -1

For a 2P critical flow condition, the requirement is that dp/ dz  ∞

𝑓 𝐺 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑝 +𝐺 𝑣 + 𝜌 𝑔 cos 𝜃
𝐷 2𝜌 𝑑𝑧
− =
𝑑𝑧 , 𝑑𝑣
1 dp
G 
1+𝐺 𝑥
𝑑𝑝 2
m cr 
x dvg

Δptotal (SFM), (Reference KAZMI, P=491)

1
dp  x 2 vg 
  1  Gm2 
dz Total ,SFM   p 
 2 f  G2   2 xvg 2 1  x  v f  dx 
lo lo  m   Gm    
2

 De  2  f    1     dz 
 
 2  1  x  x 2  d
2
  dp
Gm  v  2 vg 
 dz
  m g cos    Gm2    2
  1   
2 f
 cr x dvg
 

Two Phase Critical Flow -2

• Different results for the above 2 models  different slip ratio
• In flashing fluids, a certain length of flow in a valve or pipe is needed
before thermal equilibrium is achieved
• Before that particular length there should be non equilibrium
conditions in terms of both the velocity and the temperature
differences between the two fluids
• Hence length of the flowing section plays a critical role in
determining the flow rate at the exit
• In the absence of sub-cooling and non-condensable gases the length to
achieve equilibrium appears to be on the order of 0.1 m
Source D(mm) L/D L (mm)
Fauske (water) 6.35 6  100
Relaxation length
Sozzi & Sutherland (water) 12.7  10  127
observed in various
Flinta (water) 35 3  100
critical flow Uchida & Nariai (water) 4  25  100
experiments with Fletcher (freon II) 3. 2  33  105
flashing liquids Van Den Akker et al . (freon 12) 4  22 90
Marviken data (water) 500 > 0.33 < 166

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Two Phase Critical Flow -3

In the absence of sub-cooling and non-condensable gases the length to
achieve equilibrium appears to be of the order of 0.1 m

In long channels,
1. Residence time is sufficiently long and thermodynamic equilibrium
between the phases is attained
2. Liquid partially flashes into vapor as the pressure drops along the
channel, and the specific volume of the mixture v attains a
maximum value at the exit.
3. As v is a function of x & , it must be a function of the slip ratio S

• If flow lengths < 0.1m,

• Discharge rate increases strongly with decreasing length as the
degree of non-equilibrium increases
• More of the fluid remains in a liquid state

Equilibrium Models For Two Phase Critical Flow

Total enthalpy of 2P mixture under 2 2
thermal equilibrium conditions undergoing ho  xhg  1  x  h f  x Vg  1  x  V f
isentropic expansion can be written as: 2 2

Thermodynamic properties are found at experimentally determined Pcrit

so  s f
Total entropy of 2P mixture is: so  xsg  1  x  s f  x 
sg  s f

Since we have: xGm   vVv  and 1  x  Gm  l 1   Vl 

Combining the above equations to get Gcr in terms of the enthalpy of the 2P
mixture undergoing isentropic expansion under thermal equilibrium conditions
1
  x 1  x  S   1  x 1 2 
Gcr      2 ho  xhg  1  x  h f  where        x 2  
   g  f   S  

Vg
S and Gcr  G  ho , po , pcr , S 
Vf

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CRITICAL FLOW IN LONG CHANNELS -1

• If the critical pressure is known, ρg , ρf , hg , s and hf are known, x can be
determined provided the slip ratio (S) is known
• There are three models available to use the value of slip ratio S

HEM model Moody model Fauske model

S    f g  S    f g 
13 12
S 1

Moody model is based on maximizing   xVg 1  x V f 

2 2

the specific kinetic energy of the   0

S  2 2 
mixture with respect to the slip ratio

Fauske model is based on maximizing

𝜕
the pressure gradient at the pipe exit 𝑥𝑣 + 1 − 𝑥 𝑣 =0
𝜕𝑆
with respect to slip ratio

Moody model

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CRITICAL FLOW IN LONG CHANNELS -4

Solutions for the set of equations defining the Fauske slip-equilibrium model

Critical flow is described

by local conditions at the
channel exit. Flow is
seen to increase with
increasing pressure &
with decreasing quality
at the exit.

The Fauske model assumes thermodynamic equilibrium a case which due

to the duration of flow, applies to long flow channels.

Experimental data by many investigators showed the

applicability of the Fauske model to L/D ratios above 12

CRITICAL FLOW IN LONG CHANNELS -4

Data obtained on 0.25 in. ID channels with sharp-edged entrances
1. Having L/D, ratios between
0 (an orifice) and 40
2. Believed to be independent
of diameter alone
3. Critical pressure ratio was
found to be approx, 0.55 for
long channels in which the
L/D ratio exceeds 12, region
III
4. This is the region in which
the Fauske slip-equilibrium
model is applicable

The critical pressure ratio varies with L/D, for shorter

channels, but independent of the initial pressure in all cases

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CRITICAL FLOW IN LONG CHANNELS -4

A comparison of the predicted flow rate from various models
• HEM model prediction is good for pipe lengths greater than 300 mm
and at pressures higher than 2.0 MPa
• Moody' s model over predicts the data by a factor of 2
• Fauske's model falls in between
• When the length of the tube is such that L/D > 40
• HEM model appears to do better than the other models
• Generally, the predictability of critical two-phase flow remains
uncertain
• Results of one model appear superior for one set of experiments
but not others

CRITICAL FLOW IN SHORT CHANNELS - 1

Thermal non-equilibrium cases
Liquid flashing into vapor occurs when the liquid moves into a region at
pressure lower than psat, if thermal equilibrium is maintained,
Flashing can be delayed due to
1. lack of nuclei about which vapor bubbles may form
2. surface tension which retards their formation
3. heat-transfer problems
Such a situation is called a case of metastability

Metastability occurs in rapid expansions, particularly in short flow channels,

nozzles, and orifices.

The case of short channels has not been completely investigated analytically

The experimental data covers both long and short tubes, 0 < L/D < 40
For 0 < L/D <12 the critical pressure ratios depend on L/D, unlike long channels

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CRITICAL FLOW IN SHORT CHANNELS - 2

For orifices (L/D = 0) the experimental
data showed that because residence
time is short flashing occurred outside G  0.61 2   po  pb 
the orifice and no critical pressure
existed.

The flow is determined from the incompressible flow orifice equation

For Region 1, 0 < L/D < 3,

the liquid immediately
speeds up and becomes a G  0.61 2   po  pcr 
metastable liquid core jet
where evaporation occurs
from its surface

The flow is determined from the incompressible flow orifice

equation but pb changes to pc which can be obtained from

CRITICAL FLOW IN SHORT CHANNELS - 3

For 3 < L/D < 12, the metastable liquid
core breaks up, resulting in high-
pressure fluctuations. The flow is less
than would be predicted.

experimental critical flows for region II.

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CRITICAL FLOW IN SHORT CHANNELS - 5

In the absence of significant frictional losses, Fauske proposed
h fg 1 N, a non-equilibrium h2fg
Gcr  N  10 L
v fg NTc f parameter 2 p  f K 2 v 2fgTc f

where Δp = po - pb
K = discharge coefficient (0.61 for sharp edge)
L = length of tube, ranging from 0 to 0.1 m

For large values of L (L  0.1 m) , N =1.0 and above eq. reduces to

h fg 1 When the properties are evaluated at po the value of

Gcr  Gcr predicted by this eq. is called the equilibrium rate
v fg Tc f
model (ERM)

CRITICAL FLOW IN SHORT CHANNELS - 6

A comparison of ERM model with experimental data and other models

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CRITICAL FLOW IN SHORT CHANNELS - 7

• The effect of sub-cooling on the discharge rate is simply obtained by
accounting for the increased single-phase pressure drop [po - p(To)]
resulting from the sub-cooling
• For flow geometries where equilibrium rate conditions prevail for
unsaturated inlet conditions (L  0.1 m) , the critical flow rate is

Gcr 2  po  p To  l   GERM

2
Eq. A

If sub-cooling is zero [p(To) = po] , the critical flow rate is approximated

by ERM model

Good agreement between this prediction and various data including the
large-scale Marviken data

CRITICAL FLOW IN SHORT CHANNELS - 8

Comparison of typical Marviken data

(D ranging from 200 to 509 mm and L
ranging from 290 to 1809 mm) and
calculated values using Eq. A

Comparison of Marviken test 4 (D =

509 mm and L/D = 3.1) and calculated
values based on Eq. A

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Two-Phase Pressure Drop Characteristics

• Total P drop is a sum of friction + gravity + acceleration pressure drops
• Total channel P-flow rate behavior, however does not show a simple
increasing behavior when considering the entire flow rate range
• For a wide range of pressure and heating rates, the p vs m characteristic
curve has a shape that can lead to multiple solutions and instabilities
• Two-phase flow systems are prone to a number of instability and
oscillation phenomena
• For a fixed set of boundary conditions, there are often multiple solutions
for the steady-state operation of a boiling/two-phase flow system, some of
which are unstable
• Small perturbations can cause a system that has multiple solutions for the
given boundary conditions to move from one set of operating conditions to
an entirely different set or to oscillate back and forth among two or more
unstable operating conditions
• Two-phase flow instability is of great concern for BWRs, steam generators
and boilers, heat exchangers, and cryogenic equipment, among others, and
has been extensively studied

Two-Phase Pressure Drop Characteristics

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BUBBLE STATICS AND DYNAMICS -1

BUBBLE FORMATION REQUIRES LIQUID SUPERHEAT
(to what degree later)
Bubble Formation Aided By So Called Nucleation Aids
1. DISSOLVED GASES OR VAPORS PRESENT IN LIQUID
 Prominent in nuclear reactors the presence of ionization radiations
 Charged particles presence in bubbles aid bubble motion
 ‘h’ in BWR > ‘h’ in conventional boilers

2. CAVITIES OR CREVICES ON THE SOLID SURFACE

 Never completely filled due to surface tension
 Retain gases
 Centers of high temperature

BUBBLE STATICS AND DYNAMICS -2

1. WETTING CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLID SURFACE
Term Wetting Always Refer To The Liquid Phase
Depends on the interaction of solid, liquid and gas at interface
For a bubble resting on a solid surface there are three interfaces
1. Solid-liquid interface, function of liquid and solid surface properties
2. Liquid-vapor interface, function of liquid and vapor phase properties
3. Solid-vapor interface, function of vapor and solid surface properties
Making a force balance along the surface reveals

 gs   fs   fg cos 

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BUBBLE STATICS AND DYNAMICS -3

If  > 90, unwetted surface

If  < 90, wetted surface

If  = 90, borderline wetted and unwetted surface

BUBBLE STATICS AND DYNAMICS -4

SURFACES DESIRABLE FOR BUBBLE FORMATION ???

First study Bubble Growth Depends on 

 > 90, If  > 90, facilitates

lesser superheat required bubble grows / larger bubbles

 > 90, larger bubbles, Film, lesser heat transfer,

film is readily formed, not desired

If  < 90,  < 90,

More superheat required Smaller Bubbles

No Film, higher heat  < 90

transfer, desired Bubble more easily detached

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Homogeneous & Heterogeneous Nucleation

Degree of superheat required Degree of superheat required
for heterogeneous nucleation for homogeneous nucleation

BUBBLE STATICS AND DYNAMICS -5

To form a bubble some degree of superheat is required
(ODD isn’t it)
Consider a stable floating bubble of radius ‘r’ in a saturated liquid
A force balance reveals

 D2 4
 pb  pl    D fg pb  pl  fg

4 D

But pb > pl to overcome Bubble is at thermal equilibrium

the surface tension force T b = Tl

Since pb corresponds to at Hence, Tl > Tsat

least Tsat, Liquid is superheated

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BUBBLE STATICS AND DYNAMICS -6

What degree of superheat is required
4 fg 2 fg pg = vapor pressure of
pb  pl  
D r * liquid inside bubble

 dp  h fg pg = pb & Tg = Tb vapor pressure and

   vapor temperature can be related
 dT  sat Tsat  vg  v f  using Clausius Clapeyron eq.

Assume vapors exist dpb hfg

at Tsat (pg/b ) inside 
dTb Tb  vg 
the bubble & vg >> vf
pg vg  RTg

Integrate between limits d pb h fg using Ideal Gas

 d Tb
of pb to pl & Tb to Tsat pb R T b2 relation to get

BUBBLE STATICS AND DYNAMICS -7

p  h 1 1  RTbT sat  p b 
ln  b    fg    Tb  T sat  ln  
 pl  R  Tb Tsat  h fg  pl 
4 fg 2 fg
Combine to get pb  p l  
D r*
RTbTsat  2 fg  2  fg T sa t
Tb  Tsat  ln 1   T b  T sat 
h fg  pl r *  h fg  b r *

2 fg
pb  pl if  1 and RTb pb  vb  v fg
pl r *
If rc  the order of molecular dimension  Tg – Tsat quite large,
2 fgTsat
r* 
h fg  g Tb  Tsat 

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BUBBLE STATICS AND DYNAMICS -7

 For water, predicted Tg – Tsat  430oF,
 Measured Tg – Tsat  16oF
 Thanks to dissolved/trapped gases,
which reduce required vapor pressure for
bubble mechanical equilibrium, i.e.
4 fg 2 fg
p g  pvap  pl  
D rc

Bubble Detachment
Process

BUBBLE STATICS AND DYNAMICS -7

• Micro-cavities  10-3 mm at the surfaces act as gas storage volumes

• Such surfaces exist at solid surfaces or on suspended bodies
• Vapor exist in contact with sub-cooled liquid, if angular opening of
the crack is small (micro-cavity) surface tension effect
• Solid surfaces contains a large number of micro-cavities with a
distribution in sizes
• Boiling at the surface can begin if the Tcoolant near the surface is high
enough that the pre-existing vapor at the cavity site may attain
sufficient pressure to initiate the growth of a vapor bubble at that site.

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The Boiling Regimes

The various stages in the pool boiling curve

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The Boiling Regimes

Nucleate Boiling Heat Transfer

• Csf is a surface−fluid constant

dependent on and tabulated for various
surface−fluid combinations with typical
values between 0.0025 and 0.015.
• The velocity in the Re is taken as the
liquid velocity toward the surface
sufficient to supply the vapor being
produced, that is
• Length in Nu and Re is taken as
• m and n are given as:

The Boiling Regimes

Nucleate Boiling Heat Transfer

valid for the range 10-4≤P/ Pc ≤0.97; where dd is the bubble

diameter at departure and α is the liquid thermal diffusivity

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The Boiling Regimes

Film Boiling Heat Transfer
Horizontal flat plate

Horizontal Cylinder

Vertical Plate

Boiling Crisis and Burn Out

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Jets and Columns

Nucleate boiling at high heat flux

Film Boiling

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Critical Heat Flux Correlations

Saturated Non-flow Pool Boiling

Critical Heat Flux Correlations

Subcooled Non-flow Pool Boiling

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Critical Heat Flux Correlations

Subcooled Flow Boiling

Critical Heat Flux Correlations

Saturated Flow Boiling

78