SUMMARY

Ecology: Branch of Science which deals with the relationship between organisms & their
physical & biological environment.
Population: Group of individuals living in a well defined area which share or compete for
similar resources and can interbreed
Example: Lotus plants in a pond, bacteria in a culture plate
Population attributes
1. Birth rate- Average number of young ones born in a period of time with reference to the
members of the population.
2. Death rates- Average number of deaths in a period of time with reference to the members
of the population.
3. Sex Ratio- No. of females and males per 1000 individuals
4. Age pyramid: Plot of age distribution
It reflects whether growth is
(i) Expanding
(ii) Stable
(iii) Declining

Population density: Number of individuals present per unit area at a given time.
Population growth:
Factors affecting change in population density
1. Natality (B) : Number of births during given period in the population that are added to the
initial density
2. Mortality (D) : Number of deaths in the population during a given period.
3. Emigration (E) : Number of individuals of the population who left the habitat and went
elsewhere during the given period
4. Immigration (I): Number of individuals of the same species that have come into the
habitat from elsewhere during the time under consideration.
If N is the population density at time‘t’, then its density at time‘t+1’
Nt+1 = Nt + [(B + I) – (D + E)]
Population density will increase if (B+I) > (D+E)
Exponential growth: When resources are unlimited, each species realizes its innate potential
to grow, population grows exponentially
N – Population size
b – Birth rates ( per capita births)
d – Death rates (per capita deaths
dN/dt – increase/decrease in N during time t
Then, dN/dt = (b – d)xN
Let (b – d) = r, then
dN/dt = r*N
Where, r – intrinsic rate of natural increase
Integral form of exponential growth eq.
Nt = N0ert
Where Nt = Population density after t
N0 =Initial population density
r = Intrinsic rate of natural increase
e = base of natural logarithms
Species growing exponentially under unlimited resources reaches enormous population
density in short time.
Logistic growth: When a population has limited resources, a given habitat has enough
resources to support a maximum possible number, beyond which no further growth is
possible.
Carrying capacity (K) - Maximum population density a habitat’s resources can support
dN/dt = rN [(K – N)/K]
Where N = Population density at time t
r = Intrinsic rate of natural increase
K = Carrying capacity
As resources for most organisms is finite logistic growth is more realistic
Logistic and exponential growth curve
Life history variations
Examples:
1. Breed once in lifetime – pacific salmon fish ,Bamboo
2. Breed many times in life time – birds, mammals
3. Produce large no. of small sized offspring - Oysters, pelagic fishes
4. Produce small no. of large sized offspring - birds, mammals
Types of Interactions:
Name of Interaction Species A Species B
Mutualism + +
Competition - -
Predation + -
Parasitism + -
Commensalism + 0
Ammensalism - 0
Predation
It is an interaction where one animal kills and consumes the weaker animal.
Roles of Predators
Transfer energy, keeping the prey population in check, biological control of pests; reduce
interspecific competition of competing prey species
Predators are prudent as over exploitation of prey by the predators results in extinction of
prey and predator.
Defense to lessen impact of predation
Insects and frog – camouflage
Monarch butterfly – poisons
Thorns- cactus and Acacia
Poisonous cardiac glycosides – Calotropis
Nicotine, Caffeine, Quinine, Strychnine, opium – against grazers & browsers
Competition
Interaction between individuals of the same species or between individuals of different
species.
Occurs among closely related species but not unrelated species also compete- e.g. Flamingo
& fish compete for zooplankton
Feeding efficiency of a species may reduce due to other species even if resources are plenty
– e.g. Abingdon tortoise became extinct due to goats
Evidence for competition
Competitive release – species distribution restricted to small areas due to competitively
superior species.
Gause’s competition exclusion principle - Two closely related species competing for the
same resources cannot coexist as the competitively inferior one will be eliminated.
Resource partition- Two competing species avoid competition by different feeding and
foraging patterns- e.g. Mc Arthur experiment on foraging habits of warblers
Parasitism
It is the interaction where one species (parasite) depends on the other species (host) for food
and shelter in which the host is harmed.
Parasites reduce the survival of the host, reduce growth and reproductive rate and render the
host vulnerable to its predators by making them weak.
Adaptations of parasites
- Loss of unnecessary sense organs
- Hooks and sucker
- Loss of digestive system
- High Reproductive capacity
Types of parasite
Ectoparasite- Parasites that feed on the external surface of the host organism. e.g. head lice
on humans, ticks on dogs
Endoparasite- Parasites that live inside the body of the host organism e.g. Liverfluke
Brood parasitism - the parasitic bird lays its eggs in the nest of its host and lets the host
incubate them
Commensalism
This is the interaction in which one species benefits and the other is neither harmed nor
benefited.
Examples - Orchid growing as an epiphyte on a mango branch, barnacles growing on the
back of a whale, cattle egret and grazing cattle
Mutualism
It is interaction in which both the interacting species are benefited
Examples- Lichen (fungi and algae), mycorrhizae –(fungi and roots of higher plants),
Pollination of plants by insects
Mediterranean orchid employs sexual deceit for pollination. One petal of its flower appears as
a female bee. The male bee pseudo copulates and thus pollinates the flower.
17. Provide an instance where the population size of a species can be estimated indirectly,
without actually counting them or seeing them.
Answer: Tiger census in National parks and Tiger reserves was done on the basis of
counting pug marks/faecal pellets
18. It is generally believed that competition occurs when closely related species compete
for the same resources, like cows and buffaloes compete for the grass. However
totally unrelated species can also compete for the same resources. -Justify using
example.
Answer: In some shallow South American lakes, visiting flamingoes and the resident
fish compete for the common food-zooplankton in the lake.
19. Mention two features that help the parasite to survive in host?
Answer: Loss of unnecessary sense organs
Hooks and sucker
Loss of digestive system
High Reproductive capacity ( any two)
20. The roots of leguminous plants have nodules in their roots formed by the soil
bacterium Rhizobium.
a. Name the type of interspecific interaction between the two?
b. How have the two species benefited from each other?
Answer: Mutualism
The bacterium helps in fixing atmospheric Nitrogen and makes it available to
plant . In turn the plant provides the bacteria shelter and food.
21. If in a pond there were 30 lotus plants last year and through reproduction 6 new plants
are added, calculate the birth rate of lotus plants in that time period?
 Answer: 6/30=0.2 offspring per lotus plant per year.
22. Why can one never see any cattle or goats browsing on Clatropis?
Answer: The plant produces highly poisonous cardiac glycosides as a method of
chemical defense against grazing animals.
23. What is brood parasitism? How does the parasitic bird prevent its eggs from being
discarded from the host’s nest?
Answer: The parasitic bird lays its eggs in the nest of the host bird and lets the host
incubate them.
During the course of evolution, the eggs of the parasitic bird evolved to resemble the
host’s egg in size and colour

SECTION C (3 marks)
24. Study the image and answer the question that follows:

a. Identify the association between the Cattle egret and buffalo and mention the nature
of benefit both the species derive.
b. The ox-pecker eats the insects on the body of the buffalo and helps the buffalo to get
rid of parasites. What type of interaction do they show?
Answer: a) Commensalism- as the cattle move, they stir up and flush out the
insects from the grass which are fed upon by the cattle egret.
b) Mutualism
25. What is an age pyramid? Identify the age pyramids-A, B, C. How does analysis of
age pyramids can provide inputs for long term planning strategies?
 Answer:If the age distribution is plotted for the population such that the pre-
reproductive age group forms the base, reproductive in the middle and post-
reproductive at the top, the resulting structure is an age pyramid.
A= Expanding, B- Stable, C= Declining
Age pyramids can provide us the inputs to find ways to control population size in case
of an expanding population. eg- family planning measures.
26. When certain exotic species are introduced into a geographical area, they become
invasive and grow at the expense of the native species because of absence of natural
predators. – Explain citing examples.
Mention any two roles of predators in the ecosystem.
Answer: The prickly pear cactus introduced into Australia in the early 1920s caused
havoc by spreading into millions of hectares of rangeland. Finally, the invasive cactus
was brought under control after a cactus feeding moth (its predator) from its natural
habitat was introduced into the country.
Roles of Predators
Keep prey population under control, maintain diversity of prey population by
decreasing competition among prey species.
27. What does the letters- A, B, C and D denote with respect to affecting population
density?

Which factor contributes to rise in population density in case of a new island just
colonised?
Answer: A= Natality, B= Mortality, C= Emigration, D= Immigration
 For a newly colonised land immigration may contribute significantly to population
growth.
28. With the decline in the population of fig species it was noticed that the population of
wasp species also started to decline.
a. What is the relationship between the two and what could be the possible reason for
decline of wasps?
b. Does the fig plant derive any benefit from the wasp? Comment.

Answer:
a. Mutualism. The fig plant has a tight one-to-one relationship with the wasp species.
The wasp uses the fig fruit to lay eggs and the developing larvae feeds on the seeds of
the fig
b. The Fig plant in turn is pollinated by the wasp species.
CASE BASED QUESTIONS
29. Read the passage and answer the questions that follows:
At the most basic level, predators kill and eat other organisms. Conventionally
parasites are thought not to kill their hosts. micro predators are small animals that, like
predators, feed entirely on other organisms; theyinclude fleas and mosquitoes that
consume blood from living animals, and aphids that consume sap from living plants.
However, since they typically do not kill their hosts, they are now often thought of as
parasites.Animals that graze on phytoplankton or mats of microbes are predators, as
they consume and kill their food organisms; but herbivores that browse leaves are not,
as their food plants usually survive the assault. When animals eat seeds (seed
predation or granivory) or eggs (egg predation), they are consuming entire living
organisms, which by definition makes them predators. Scavengers, organisms that
only eat organisms found already dead, are not predators, but many predators such as
the jackal and the hyena scavenge when the opportunity arises. Among
invertebrates, social wasps (yellow jackets) are both hunters and scavengers of other
insects.
a. Mention the difference between predation and parasitism.
b. Why is a bird eating seeds considered a predator whereas an herbivore grazing on the
leaves of a plant is not considered predation?
c. Mention two animals that can be classified both as predator and scavenger.
d. Can a mosquito feeding on blood be considered as a parasite or a predator? -Justify.
Answer:
a. Predators generally kill and eat the prey whereas the parasites conventionally do not
kill the host.
b. A bird eating a seed kills the entire organism i.e. that baby plant within the seed while
eating it However, herbivores that browse leaves are not, as their food plants usually
survive the assault.
c. Jackal and hyena
d. If you’re to define that a parasite needs to live on its host, then a mosquito is not a
parasite and is thus a predator that feeds on the blood of a host. However, to be a true
predator the predator should kill the prey and devour it. Hence is broad sense it cannot
be considered a predator too.
30. Study the table below and answer the questions that follows:

a. If the birth rate of a population is 1.05 and its death rate is 1.025, what is the value of
‘r’ for the population?
b. If the value of ‘r’ of a population is zero, what does it signify?
c. Which of the two populations has greater value of ‘r’ A or B. Justify.
 d. Of the given species in the table which one has the least and which one has the
maximum biotic potential?
Answer:
a. r is calculated as the difference between the birth rate and the death rate.
r =(b-d), =1.05-1.025=0.025
b. r value zero indicates that the population growth is in equilibrium i.e the death
rate and the birth rate have the same values.
c. Population ‘B’ has the greater value of ‘r’. More the steepness of the curve more is
the value of ‘r’
d. The maximum biotic potential is that of water fleas and least is that of elephant seals.
Higher the value of ‘r’ higher is the biotic potential.
5 marks Questions
31. In the figure, a population of Paramecium in a small laboratory depression slide is
pictured. In this population the individuals divide once per day. So, starting with a
single individual at day 0, we expect, in successive days, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, and 64
individuals in the population. On any particular day, the number of individuals in the
population is simply twice what the number was the day before, so the number today
i.e
N(today) = 2N(yesterday).

a. Draw the population growth curve of the Paramecium in the above experiment
provided food and space are replenished and write the equation of the curve obtained.
b. How would the growth curve vary in a natural setting? Give the graphical
representation and mention the cause of such a growth curve.
c. What does the letter ‘K’ represent in the equation of Logistic growth curve?