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Differential Amplifier
The differential amplifier is one of the important circuits in analog systems and circuit designs. It is an electronic amplifier that has
two inputs and amplifies the voltage difference between those inputs. There are mainly two types of differential amplimers; ones made
using Op-Amps and ones made using transistors (BJTs or FETs). Among these, the commonly used differential amplifier is the
amplifier made using Op-Amps because they are suitably configured to result in a much practical differential amplifier.
Operation of Differential amplifier
In the differential amplifier made using BJTs, input signals (V1 and V2) are applied to the base terminal of the transistors and the
outputs are collected from the collector terminal of the transistors.

Differential Amplifier built using BJT

Considering the differential amplifier built using BJTs, if the input
voltage V1 at transistor Q1 is sinusoidal, then as V1 goes on increasing,
the transistor Q1 starts conduction which results in a large collector
current in Q1 increasing the voltage drop across Rc1, causing a decrease
in output voltage V01. Due to the same effect, even IE1 increases
which increases the common emitter current (IE1) resulting in an
increase of voltage drop across emitter resistor (RE).
Therefore, this shows that the emitter terminals of two transistors Q1
and Q2 are moving to the positive that in turn indicates a more negative
base terminal at the transistor Q2. The above process leads to less
amount of collector current(IC2) in transistor Q2 which reduces the
voltage drop through the collector terminal resistor (RC2) of transistor
Q2 and increases in the voltage output . Therefore, this evidence
supports the conclusion of the fluctuations in the input sinusoidal signal
of the transistor Q2 is reflected as the same through the collector
terminal of transistor and appear with a phase difference of 180 degrees
through the collector of the transistor Q1. The differential amplification
procedure can be implied by observing the outputs of the collectors of
the two transistors Q1 and Q2. There are mainly four configurations for
the differential amplifiers. They are as follows;
1. Single input unbalanced output
2. Single input balanced output
3. Dual input unbalanced output
4. Dual input balanced output

1. Single input unbalanced output 2. Single input balanced output 3. Dual input unbalanced output 4. Dual input balanced output
The differential amplifier using op-amp is a combination of both inverting and non-inverting amplifiers. When the non-inverting
terminal is connected to the ground, the circuit operates as an inverting amplifier then the input voltage signal V1 is amplified by the
gain of -(Rf/R1). When the input terminal is connected to the ground the circuits operate as a non-inverting amplifier.

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Differential Amplifier built using Op-Amp

Input voltage V2 is potentially divided across the resistors R2 and R3 to give VR3, and then VR3 is amplified by (Rf+R1)/R1.
With V2 = 0,

With V1 = 0,

If the input resistances R1 = R2 and Rf = R3, then V02 = [ Rf/R1 ] * V2

When both the input signals V1 and V2 are present, the output voltage is,
V0 = V02 + V01 = -V1 * (Rf + R1) / R1 + (Rf / R1) * V2
V0 = -(Rf / Rf) * [V1 – V2]
Differential gain (AD) is the gain obtained at the output signal with respect to the difference in the input signal (V1 – V2) is applied.
Therefore, we can conclude that the gain (AD) of the differential amplifier circuit which is made using Op-Amp is given by -(Rf/R1).
Differential amplifier gain
The output of an ideal differential amplifier is denoted as follows:
V0 = AD * [(VIN+) – (VIN-)]
Where AD is Differential amplifier gain and VIN+ and -VIN- are the input voltages.
But in practical conditions the differential gain is denoted as follows:
V0 = AD * [(VIN+) – (VIN-)] + AC * [(VIN+) + (VIN-)]/2
Where AC is the common mode gain of the amplifier.
Input resistance
The problem arises when selecting the difference amplifier resistors as R1 = R2 and Rf = R3 is that the input resistances of the
inverting amplifier and non-inverting amplifier are not equal.
This difference in the input resistances results in one of the input signals to be more amplified than the other. The output equation of
the difference amplifier V0, can be obtained by making the ratio R3/R2 the same as Rf/R1, instead of making R1 = R2 and Rf = R3.
If the signal source resistances are smaller than the input resistances the input resistance difference will not cause a serious issue. Also,
it is usually desirable to have R1 = R2 and Rf = R3, which will reduce the input offset voltages.
Common mode Input
The differential amplifier amplifies the difference between the two input voltages. Therefore, in ideal conditions, common mode input
VCM will get canceled out since the inputs voltages are (V1 + VCM) and (V2+ VCM).
When considering the practical conditions, the output depends upon the ration of the input resistances. When these resistor ratios are
not equal, one input voltage is amplified by a considerable amount than the other input. Therefore, the common mode voltage VCM

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will not be completely canceled. Because it is practically difficult to match resistor ratios perfectly, so the presence of common mode
output voltage is inevitable in practical scenarios.
Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
Common mode rejection ratio is the ability of a differential amplifier to reject common mode input signals. This can be
mathematically expressed as the ratio of the differential voltage gain of the differential amplifier to its common mode gain.
Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) = | AD / AC |
When considering an ideal amplifier, the common mode voltage gain of a differential amplifier is zero and CMRR is infinite. But in
real life implantations, it is not so and has a finite value.
Characteristics of a Differential Amplifier
A differential input signals results in variations in the output currents and voltages, whereas a common mode input sign does not result
in any output current/voltage variations. Above mentioned characteristics of a differential pair is as shown in the diagram below.

Input-output
characteristics of differential amplifier
Differential Amplifier Equation

According to the above diagram differential amplifier equation can be expressed as follows:
V0 = -(R3 / R1) * [V1 – V2]
If all the resistors have the same resistor values the circuit will become a unity gain differential amplifier. Then the voltage gain will
be exactly one or unity. Therefore, the output voltage expression will be:
V0 = -[V1 – V2]
Differential amplifier applications
Differential amplifiers are used in circuits which support series negative feedback, whereas one input is used for the feedback and
other one for the input signal. Another general use of the differential amplifier is it can be used as a volume control circuit. We can
observe these circuits mostly in motor or servo controllers and signal amplification applications.
Fully differential amplifier
A fully differential amplifier also known as FDA is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier having differential inputs and
differential outputs. In its normal usage, the output of the fully differential amplifier is controlled by two feedback paths which,
because of the amplifier’s gain is gain, almost completely determine the output voltage for any specified input.

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Fully differential amplifier

Fully differential amplifiers have special use as part of a mixed-signal integrated circuit because it can reject common mode noise
such as power supply disturbances.
A fully differential amplifier is used in many modern high-precision analog to digital converters, to convert an analog signal into a
form more suitable for driving into an analog-to-digital converter.
Real fully differential amplifiers have limitations such as DC imperfections, AC imperfections, nonlinear imperfections and power
considerations.
BJT differential amplifier
As shown in diagram V1 and V2 are the two inputs and V01 and V02 are the outputs for the differential amplifier built using BJTs.
The emitters of the two transistors are connected to a common emitter resistor RE, because of that the two outputs get affected by the
common emitter VCC and the VEE supplies voltage to the circuit. This circuit also works without any errors with a single voltage
supply. Working of this amplifier is briefly discussed at the beginning of the article.

Differential amplifier built using BJT

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Single ended differential amplifier

Single ended differential amplifier

Single ended differential amplifiers can be made when the output voltage is taken out from the connection point of C. This output is
one times smaller than the output gives by the normal differential amplifier. When the increase of input voltages occurs, in both ends
collector voltages reduces, therefore the common mode signal cannot be suppressed when the signal ended outputs. But increasing
emitter resistance will increase negative feedback to the common mode signals and also the suppression of the output.
Differential amplifier as a comparator
A differential amplifier circuit can be also used as a comparator circuit, since it can be configured to either addition or subtraction of
the input voltages, by suitably adding more resistors in parallel with the input resistors. Wheatstone bridge differential amplifier and
Light activated differential amplifier are some of the examples for this.
Wheatstone bridge differential amplifier
In the figure below circuit design of a Wheatstone bridge differential amplifier can be observed. This circuit behaves as a differential
voltage comparator as discussed previously.

Wheatstone bridge differential

amplifier
The differential amplifier circuit can detect high or low levels of temperature (or intensity of light) as the output voltage becomes a
linear function of the changes in the active leg of the resistive bridge network, by connecting one input to a fixed voltage and the other
input to a thermistor or a light-dependent resistor.
Another use of the Wheatstone bridge differential amplifier is to find the resistance values of unknown resistors in the resistive ridge
network. This can be done by comparing the input voltages across the resistors in the resistive ridge network.
Light Activated Differential Amplifier
A circuit which acts as a light-dependent switch is shown in the diagram below. The circuit turns the output relay either switch ON or
switch OFF as the intensity of the light falling upon the light-dependent resistor exceeds or falls below a given value at the non-
inverting input terminal.
The voltage at the non-inverting terminal (V2) is determined by the variable resistor VR1. The resistors R1 and R2 act as a potential
divider in the connected network. A fixed reference voltage is applied to the inverting input (V1), through the resistors R1 and R2.

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Circuit of the light-dependent switch can be modified to sense variations in temperature, simply by replacing the light-dependent
resistor by a thermistor. By interchanging the positions of light-dependent resistor/thermistor and resistor VR1, the circuit can be made
to detect dark or light and heat or cold.
Op amp [Operational Amplifier]
Operational Amplifiers, also called Op-amp, are one type of differential amplifier that amplifies the difference of the signals provided
at its input. Like resistors and capacitors, an Op-amp is a basic building block in many important analog electronic circuits. It can
operate on an AC and a DC signal, giving a vast possibility for its applications. Some other differential amplifiers are fully differential
amplifiers, instrumentation amplifiers, and isolation amplifiers. When used with different configurations, it can be used to build
circuits for mathematical operations, buffers, wave generators, and amplifiers.
This article aims to introduce the reader to Op-amp, its characteristics, and applications and have an informative discussion on its
types concerning the way of connections. First, we will start with the definition of an Op-amp, followed by its applications and
characteristics. Then we will see its types based on configurations and learn how to open loop and close loops set up for different
types of applications.
What is Op amp?
Operational amplifiers (Op-amp) are analog circuit blocks that take differential voltage inputs and produce single-ended voltage
outputs, the input stage of an operational amplifier is usually a differential amplifier.
It consists of three terminals: two high-impedance inputs and a low-impedance output port. A minus sign denotes the inverting input
(-), while the non-inverting input is denoted by a positive sign (+).
Block Diagram of Op amp
An ideal and a practical Op-amp are shown in the figure below.

Op amp Symbol
An operational amplifier represents a triangle symbol with inputs, outputs, and supplies.

Op amp IC 741 Pin Diagram

The operational amplifier is an 8-pin DIP integrated circuit named IC 741. The pin connections and assigned numbers are shown in
the below figure.

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Open Loop and Closed Loop Op amp Configuration
An open loop system has no feedback components, and its output does not influence its operation and inputs. While a closed loop
system connects the system’s inputs to its output via a feedback path, this feedback can have a degenerative or constructive effect on
the output levels of the system.
The feedback path and element can alter the stability of a system. A negative feedback path is used in Amplifiers, and positive
feedback is used for oscillators.
Open Loop Configuration
The magnitude of the open loop gain AOL is very high, so even a small difference at the input terminals will spike the outputs, but due
to the saturation condition of the Op amp device, we will get the most positive output +V Supply when the difference (V+-V–) is positive
and most negative -VSupply when the difference (V+-V–) is negative.

Closed Loop Configuration

The response of a closed loop Op amp is characterized by a transfer function, representing the system’s gain and the relation between
outputs and inputs.
Transfer Function for Inverting Closed Loop Op amp
VOut=(- Rf / R1) VIn
ACL= (- Rf / R1)
Transfer Function for Non-Inverting Closed Loop Op amp
VOut=(1+ Rf / R1) VIn
ACL= (1+ Rf / R1)
Inverting and Non-inverting Op amp
Depending on the input terminal, the configuration inverting or non-inverting is decided.
 Inverting Op amp
When the input is provided only at the inverting terminal (Pin-2), keeping the non-inverting terminal (Pin-3) grounded.
 Non-Inverting Op amp
When the input is provided only at the non-inverting terminal (Pin-3), keeping the inverting terminal (Pin-2) grounded.
When the input is provided to both the inputs, the operational amplifier will work as a differential amplifier and hence also be used for
calculating the summation and difference of applied signals. The inputs of an op amp are usually differential inputs.
Differentiating Between an Ideal and Practical Op amp
There is no such thing as an ideal Op-amp, but present-day Op-amps are so close to ideal that analyzing an ideal Op-amp becomes
similarly accurate as analyzing an actual Op-amp. Op-amps depart from the ideal in two ways. First, dc parameters, such as input
offset voltage, are large enough to deviate from the ideal. On the other hand, the idea is based on the assumption that the input offset
voltage is zero. Second, as parameters, such as gain, are a function of frequency, they go down from high to low frequencies at dc.
Op amp Characteristics
There are certain important characteristics of an Op-amp, and we will be considering them from the perspective of an ideal case. Since
it will simplify the explanation, the results may also be easily seen in approximation with the practical case.
 Open Loop Gain
Open-loop gain refers to the gain of an operational amplifier without any feedback, and ideally, it is considered infinite (very
high in a practical case).
 Input Impedance
Its ideal value is infinity, which minimizes source loading. An Input impedance is measured between a negative and positive
terminal (practically, there is a small leakage current).
 Output Impedance
Ideally, an operational amplifier should have zero output impedance, and its output determines its ability to drive current and
buffer voltage (practically a very small value).

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 Frequency Response and Bandwidth (BW)
Ideally, an operational amplifier can maintain a high gain regardless of signal frequency (practically, there is a 20dB/decade
decrease after a finite BW, i.e., 3dB point).
 Gain Bandwidth Product (GBP)
At a given frequency, GBP is calculated as the point at which the gain of the operational amplifier reaches unity, allowing the
user to calculate the device’s open-loop gain.
 Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
CMRR is the ability of an operational amplifier to cancel out the noise or the common inputs at the terminals. Ideally, the
CMRR value is expected to be infinite (practically very good at avoiding noise).
Assumptions for an Ideal Op amp
Voltage Rule
If one of the input potentials changes, the Op-amp output will reverse the polarity to the input and, via a feedback loop, maintain the
difference between the input potentials.
Current Rule
Both inputs cannot carry current because their input impedances are infinitely high.
Types of Op-amp
Two possible configurations depending on the terminal where we will provide the input. However, the response and gain can be found
similarly using KVL, KCL, and ideal Op-amp assumptions. Now that we have gone through the basics of an ideal Op-amp, we can
move ahead and classify them into four main ways. The major types of op-amp are:
 Voltage amplifiers (voltage as input, voltage as output)
 Current amplifiers (current as input, current as output)
 Transconductance amplifiers (voltage as input, current as output)
 Transimpeadance amplifiers (current as input, voltage as output)
Application of Op-amp
The IC 741 Op amp has a huge list of applications, and the list involves operational circuits like Differentiator, Integrators, Rectifiers,
Wave Generators, Signal Amplifications, Analog, and Digital Converters, etc. For understanding the applications and respective
circuit designs, check out our other articles on Op-amp.

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