DAR ES SALAAM INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

FUNDAMENTALS OF ANALOG ELECTRONIC – ETU 07122

LECTURE- 5
OPAMPS

CLASS:
BENG24COE -1 & 3

LECTURER: Ms. Justiner Joseph

After completing this section, you should be able to

Explain the basic operation of a differential amplifier

• Describe single-ended input operation
• Describe differential input operation
• Describe common-mode input operation
• Define common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR)
• Describe applications of opamps
Introduction

• The diode and transistor are individually packaged devices and are connected in a circuit
with other individual devices to form a functional unit. Individually packaged devices are
referred to as discrete components.

• In this chapter, linear integrated circuits (ICs), in which many transistors, diodes, resistors,
and capacitors are fabricated on a single silicon chip and packaged in a single case to form
an operational amplifier (op-amp) are introduced.

• The manufacturing process for ICs is complex and beyond the scope of this coverage.

• In our study of operational amplifiers, we will treat the entire circuit as a single device;
however, we will look at the input and output stages to understand how they affect circuit
operation.
Background…………….

• Early operational amplifiers (op-amps) were used primarily to perform

mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, integration, and
differentiation—hence the term operational.

• These early devices were constructed with vacuum tubes and worked with
high voltages. Today’s op-amps are linear integrated circuits (ICs) that use
relatively low dc supply voltages and are reliable and inexpensive.
• The standard operational amplifier symbol is shown in Figure (a). It has two
input terminals, the inverting (-) input and the noninverting (+) input, and
one output terminal. The typical op-amp requires two dc supply voltages,
one positive and the other negative, as shown in Figure (b)
The Ideal Op-Amp

To illustrate what an op-amp is, let’s consider its ideal characteristics. A practical op-
amp, of course, falls short of these ideal standards, but it is much easier to understand
and analyze the device from an ideal point of view.
 The Ideal Op-Amp
• The ideal op-amp has infinite voltage gain
and an infinite input resistance (open), so
that it does not load the driving source.
(Input resistance is sometimes called input
impedance.) Also, it has a zero output
resistance.

• (Output resistance is sometimes called

output impedance.) These characteristics are
illustrated in Figure shown

• The input voltage, Vin, appears between the

two input terminals, and the output voltage
is Vin, as indicated by the symbol for internal
voltage source.
Internal Block Diagram of an Op-Amp
A typical op-amp is made up of three types of amplifier circuits: a differential
amplifier, a voltage amplifier, and a push-pull amplifier, as shown
A differential amplifier is the input stage for the op-amp;
it has two inputs and provides amplification of the difference voltage between the
two inputs.

The voltage amplifier is usually a class A amplifier that provides additional op-amp
gain. Some op-amps may have more than one voltage amplifier stage.

A push-pull class B amplifier is used for the output stage.

A differential amplifier
Is a circuit that can accept two input signals and amplify the difference between
these two input signals.
Basic Circuit of Differential Amplifier

The following points may be noted about the differential amplifier :

(i) The differential amplifier (DA) is a two-input terminal device using atleast two
transistors. There are two output terminals marked 1 (vout 1) and 2(vout 2).

(ii) The DA transistors Q1 and Q2 are matched so that their characteristics are the same.
The collector resistors (RC1 and RC2) are also equal. The equality of the matched circuit
components makes the DA circuit arrangement completely symmetrical.

(iii) We can apply signal to a differential amplifier (DA) in the following two ways :
(a) The signal is applied to one input of DA and the other input is grounded. In that case,
it is called single-ended input arrangement.
(b) The signals are applied to both inputs of DA. In that case, it is called dual-ended or
double-ended input arrangement.
(iv) We can take output from DA in the following two ways :

(a) The output can be taken from one of the output terminals and the ground.
In that case, it is called single-ended output arrangement.

(b) The output can be taken between the two output terminals (i.e., between
the collectors of Q1 and Q2). In that case, it is called double-ended output
arrangement or differential output.

(v) Generally, the differential amplifier (DA) is operated for single-ended output.
In other words, we take the output either from output terminal 1 and ground
or from output terminal 2 and ground. Any input/output terminal that is
grounded is at 0V.
Recall

There is a strong tendency in amplifiers to introduce hum due to sudden temperature

changes or stray electric and magnetic fields. Therefore, every high gain amplifier
tends to give noise along with signal in its output.

The noise in the output of an amplifier is undesirable and must be kept to as small a
level as possible. The noise level in amplifiers can be reduced considerably by the use
of negative feedback i.e. by injecting a fraction of output in phase opposition to the
input signal.
Feedback

• The process of injecting a fraction of output energy of some device back to the
input is known as feedback.

• Depending upon whether the feedback energy aids or opposes the input signal,
there are two basic types of feedback in amplifiers viz positive feedback and
negative feedback.
Positive feedback. When the feedback energy (voltage or current) is in phase
with the input signal and thus aids it, it is called positive feedback. Both amplifier
and feedback network introduce a phase shift of 180°. The result is a 360° phase
shift around the loop, causing the feedback voltage Vf to be in phase with the
input signal Vin.

The positive feedback increases the gain

of the amplifier. However, it has the
disadvantages of increased distortion
and instability. Therefore, positive
feedback is seldom employed in
amplifiers.
PHASE SHFT
Negative feedback. When the feedback energy (voltage or current) is out of
phase with the input signal and thus opposes it, it is called negative feedback the
amplifier introduces a phase shift of 180° into the circuit while the feedback
network is so designed that it introduces no phase shift (i.e., 0° phase shift). The
result is that the feedback voltage Vf is 180° out of phase with the input signal
Vin.

Negative feedback reduces the gain of the

amplifier. However, the advantages of
negative feedback are:
• reduction in distortion, stability in gain,
• Increased bandwidth and improved input
and output impedances. It is due to these
advantages that negative feedback is
frequently employed in amplifiers
Common-mode and Differential-mode Signals

The importance of a differential amplifier lies in the fact that the outputs
are proportional to the difference between the two input signals.

Thus, the circuit can be used to amplify the difference between the two
input signals or amplify only one input signal simply by grounding the other
input.

The input signals to a DA are defined as.

(i) Common-mode signal
(ii)Differential-mode signal
(i) Common-mode signals : When the input signals to a DA are in phase and
exactly equal in amplitude, they are called common-mode signals.

The common-mode signals are rejected (not amplified) by the differential amplifier.
It is because a differential amplifier amplifies the difference between the two
signals (v1 – v2) and for common-mode signals, this difference is zero. Note that for
common-mode operations, v1 = v2.
(ii) Differential-mode signals.
When the input signals to a DA are 180° out of phase and exactly equal
in amplitude, they are called differential-mode signals. The differential-
mode signals are amplified by the differential amplifier. It is because
the difference in the signals is twice the value of each signal. For
differential-mode signals, v1 = –v2.
Voltage Gains of DA
The voltage gain of a DA operating in differential mode is called
differential-mode voltage gain and is denoted by ADM. The voltage gain
of DA operating in common-mode is called common-mode voltage gain
and is denoted by ACM.
Common-Mode Input Voltage Range

All op-amps have limitations on the range of voltages over which they
will operate. The common-mode input voltage range is the range of
input voltages which, when applied to both inputs, will not cause
clipping or other output distortion. Many op-amps have common-
mode input voltage ranges of 10 V with dc supply voltages of 15 V.
Open-Loop Voltage Gain, Aol
The open-loop voltage gain of the op-amp is the internal voltage gain
of the device and represents the ratio of output voltage to input
voltage when there are no external components. The open-loop
voltage gain is set entirely by the internal design. Open-loop voltage
gain can range to 200,000 or more. Data sheets often refer to the open-
loop voltage gain as the large-signal voltage gain.
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio, CMRR
The common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR), as discussed in conjunction with the diff-
amp, is a measure of an op-amp’s ability to reject common-mode signals. The
differential voltage gain (Av(d)) of an op-amp is generally defined as its open-loop
gain (Aol).
An infinite value of CMRR means that the output is zero when the same signal is
applied to both inputs (common-mode). An infinite CMRR is never achieved in
practice, but a good op-amp does have a very high value of CMRR.
Slew Rate, SR
The maximum rate of change of the output voltage in response to a step input
voltage is the slew rate of an op-amp. The slew rate is dependent upon the high
frequency response of the amplifier stages within the op-amp.
The high frequency response is limited only by the junction capacitances of the
transistors. The low frequency response goes down to dc (0 Hz) because there are
no coupling capacitors.

The unit of slew rate is volts per microsecond (V/ms)

Advantages of Negative Voltage Feedback

(i) Gain stability: The resultant gain of the amplifier can be made
independent of transistor parameters or the supply voltage variations
(ii) Reduced Distortion: Both harmonic and nonlinear results to a cleaner
more accurate representation of the original signal.
(iii) Increased bandwidth: Negative feedback can extend the frequency
range over which the amplifier operates.
(iv) Reduced Noise. By reducing the overall gain of the amplifier negative
feedback also helps to minimize the amplification of internal noise
(v) Greater stability: Negative feedback can improve the stability of the
amplifier, making it less prone to oscillations or unwanted feedback loop
 Operational Amplifier (OP- Amp)

The following are the important properties common to all operational amplifiers
(OP-amps):
(i) An operational amplifier is a multistage amplifier. The input stage of an OP-amp
is a differential amplifier stage.
(ii) An inverting input and a noninverting input.
(iii) A high input impedance (usually assumed infinite) at both inputs.
(iv) A low output impedance (< 200 Ω).
(v) A large open-loop voltage gain, typically 105.
(vi) The voltage gain remains constant over a wide frequency range.
(vii) Very large CMRR (> 90 dB).
Output Voltage From OP-Amp

The output voltage from an OP-amp for a given pair of input voltages
depends mainly on the following factors:

1. The voltage gain of OP-amp.

2. The polarity relationship between v1 and v2.
3. The values of supply voltages, +V and –V.
1. Voltage gain of OP-amp. The maximum possible voltage gain from a
given OP-amp is called open-loop voltage gain and is denoted by the
symbol AOL. The value of AOL for an OP-amp is generally greater than
10,000. The term open-loop indicates a circuit condition where there
is no feedback path from the output to the input of OP-amp.

When a feedback path is present, the resulting circuit gain is referred

to as closed-loop voltage gain (ACL).
The following points may be noted :
(i) The maximum voltage gain of given OP-amp is AOL. Its value is
generally greater than 10,000.
(ii) The actual gain (ACL) of an OP-amplifier is reduced when negative
feedback path exists between output and input.
2. OP-Amp Input/Output Polarity Relationship.

The polarity relationship between v and v will determine whether the

1 2

OP-amp output voltage polarity is positive or negative.

• There is an easy method for it. We know the differential input

voltage vin is the difference between the non-inverting input (v1) and
inverting input (v2) i.e., vin = v1 – v2 When the result of this equation
,

is positive, the OP-amp output voltage will be positive.

• When the result of this equation is negative, the output voltage will
be negative.
3. Supply Voltages. The supply voltages for an OP-amp are normally equal in
magnitude and opposite in sign e.g., ± 15V, ± 12V, ± 18V. These supply voltages
determine the limits of output voltage of OP-amp

Bandwidth of an OP-Amp
All electronic devices work only over a limited range of frequencies. This range of
frequencies is called bandwidth. Every OP-amp has a bandwidth i.e., the range of
frequencies over which it will work properly. The bandwidth of an OP-amp depends
upon the closed-loop gain of the OP-amp circuit. One important parameter is gain-
bandwidth product (GBW)
It can be proved that the gain-bandwidth product of an OP-amp is
constant. Since an OP-amp is capable of operating as a d.c. amplifier, its
bandwidth is (f2 – 0).

The gain-bandwidth product of an OP-amp is an important parameter

because it can be used to find :
(i) The maximum value of ACL at a given value of f2.
(ii) The value of f2 for a given value of ACL.
OP-Amp with Negative Feedback

An OP-amp is almost always operated with negative feedback i.e., a part of the output is
fed back in phase opposition to the input. The open-loop voltage gain of an OP-amp is very
high (usually greater than 100,000). Therefore, an extremely small input voltage drives the
OP-amp into its saturated output stage.

For example, assume vin = 1mV and AOL = 100,000. Then, Vout = AOL vin = (100,000) × (1
mV) = 100 V Since the output level of an OP-amp can never reach 100 V, it is driven deep
into saturation and the device becomes non-linear.
Application of op Amps