Instrument & Control

UNIT-III

Pressure Measurement
The measurement of pressure is one of the most important measurements, as it is used in almost
all industries.

Pressure

Pressure is the ratio of force to the area over which that force is distributed. Pressure is force per
unit area applied in a direction perpendicular to the surface of an object.

For liquids, the formula may be written:

Where:

• p is the pressure,

• ρ is the density of the liquid,

• g = 9.81 N/kg (the value is equal to the gravitational acceleration),

h is the depth of the liquid in meters.

Applications of Pressure Measurement

• Steam pressure in a boiler is measured for ensuring safe operating condition of the boiler.

• In continuous processing industries such as manufacturing and chemical industries.

• In many flow meter such as venturimeter, orifice meter, flow nozzle, etc.,

• Measurement of pressure change becomes an indication of temperature (as used in

pressure thermometers-fluid expansion type).
 • In day-to-day situations such as maintaining optimal pressure in tubes of vehicle tyres.

Types of Pressure

Atmospheric pressure

Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area exerted on a surface by the weight of air above
that surface in the atmosphere of Earth.

Gauge Pressure

Gauge or gage pressure is the pressure, measured with the help of pressure measuring
instrument, in which atmospheric pressure is taken as datum.

Static Pressure

Static pressure is defined as the force per unit area acting on the wall by a fluid at rest or flowing
parallel to the wall in a pipeline.

Classification of Pressure Measuring Device

 Classification on the Basis of Pressure to be Measured

Type of Pressure to be Measured Pressure Measuring Instrument to be Used

Low Pressure  Manometer
High and Medium Pressure  Bourdon tube pressure gauge.
 Diaphragm gauge.
 Bellows Gauges.
Low Vacuum and Ultra High Vacuum  McLeod vacuum gauge
 Thermal conductivity gauges.
 Ionisation gauges.
Very High Pressures  Bourdon tube pressure gauge.
 Diaphragm gauge.
 Bulk modulus pressure gauge.

Manometer

Measures the pressure at a point in a fluid, by balancing the column of fluid by the same or
another column of fluid.

Types of Manometer

1. Simple Manometers
• Piezometer

• U-tube manometer, and

• Single column manometer

• Vertical single column manometer

• Inclined single column manometer

2. Differential Manometers
 • U-tube differential manometer

• Inverted U-tube differential manometer

Piezometer:

Piezometer is one of the simplest forms of manometers. It can be used for measuring moderate
pressures of liquids. The tube extends vertically upward to such a height that liquid can freely
rise in it without overflowing. The pressure at any point in the liquid is indicated by the height of
the liquid in the tube above that point. The pressure at point A is given by p = wh , where w is
the specific weight of the liquid.

Limitations of Piezometer

• Piezometer can measure gauge pressures only. It is not suitable for measuring negative
pressures.

• Unsuitable for large pressure measurement in the lighter liquids, since this would require
very long tubes, which cannot be handled conveniently.

• Gas pressures cannot be measured with piezometer, because a gas forms no free surface.

U-tube Manometer:
 It has a U shaped glass tube made up of glass. The graduations are made on the tube in
terms of mm. The unknown pressure is applied in the one arm of the tube. Manometeric
liquid (mercury) filled in the tube moves in the tube or rises. The height of the liquid is
measured and noted. The pressure is calculated by using the formula.

P1-P2 = Pthg

Where,

P1 = applied pressure

P2 = 0

Pt = specific gravity of the liquid or water

g = acceleration due to gravity.

P1 – P2 is approximately equal to Pthg.

Advantages of U-tube Manometer

• Simple in construction

• Low cost
 • Very accurate and sensitive

• It can be used to measure other process variables.

Disadvantages of U-tube Manometer

• Fragile in construction.

• Very sensitive to temperature changes.

• Error can happen while measuring the h.

Inclined Tube Manometer:

In an inclined tube manometer, the limb having a large cross-sectional area is known as
well and the limb having small cross-sectional area is known as column. Therefore, it is
considered as a single column manometer. The column of this manometer is inclined at
an angle with respect to the horizontal. The tube is filled with manometric liquid.
Manometer has its measuring leg inclined to the vertical axis by an angle b. This is done
to expand the scale and thereby to increase the sensitivity. The differential pressure can
be written by the equation.

P1-P2 = ρgh [Sin(b) +a2/a1]

Differential Manometers
Differential Manometers are the devices used for measuring the difference of pressures between
two pints in a pipe or in two different pipes. A Differential Manometer consists of a U-tube,
containing a heavy liquid, whose two ends are connected to the points, whose difference of
pressure is to be measured. The working can be understood as shown in Figure below.

Figure: U-Tube Differential Manometer

Let A and B are at a different level and contain liquids of different Sp. gravity and the pressure at
the point A and B and 𝑃A and 𝑃B respectively. The other parameters are as follows:
h = difference of the mercury level in the U-tube
h2 = Distance of the centre of B, from the mercury level in the right limb.
h1 = Distance of the centre of A, from datum line in right limb.
𝜌1 = density of liquid at A
𝜌2 = density of liquid at B
𝜌h = density of heavy liquid or mercury
Taking datum line X-X, Difference of pressure at A and B can be calculated as:

𝑃A+𝜌1g h1 = 𝑃B + 𝜌2 g h2 + 𝜌h g h
𝑃A - 𝑃B = + 𝜌2 g h2 + 𝜌h g h - 𝜌1g h1
Inverted U-Tube Manometer
It consists of a inverted U-tube, containing a light liquid. The two ends of the tube are connected
to the pints whose difference of pressure is to be measured. It is used for measuring the
difference of two pressures. In the given figure the manometer is connected to the two points A
and B. Let the pressure at A and at B are P A and PB respectively. The other parameters are as
follows:

• ℎ1 = height of the liquid in the left limb below the datum line X-X
• ℎ2 = height of the liquid in the right limb
• h = difference of light liquid
• 𝜌1 = density of liquid at A
• 𝜌2 = density of liquid at B
• 𝜌3 = density of light liquid.

Fig. Inverted U Tube Manometer

Taking X-X as datum line, The pressure difference can be calculated as follows:

𝑃A– 𝜌1 gℎ1 = 𝑃B − 𝜌2 gℎ2 – 𝜌3gℎ

𝑃A– 𝑃B = 𝜌1 gℎ1 − 𝜌2 gℎ2 – 𝜌3gℎ
Advantages
• Easy to fabricate and inexpensive.
• Good accuracy
• High sensitivity
• Not affected by vibration

Limitations
• Usually bulk and large in size
• Being fragile, get broken easily.
• Reading of the manometer are affected by change in temperature and gravity.

Dead Weight Tester

The dead weight tester is basically a device for measuring pressure and producing pressure. It is
used to calibrate manometers. The following procedure is adopted to calibrate manometers.
Gauge calibration means entering a precisely known pressure sample into the manometer under
test and then observing the response of the manometer.
Construction and Working:
A deadweight tester consists of a pumping piston with a screw that presses it into the reservoir
containing a fluid like oil, a primary piston that carries the dead weight and the pressure gauge or
transducer to be calibrated as shown in the schematic above. It works by loading the primary
piston (of cross sectional area A), with the amount of weight (W) that corresponds to the desired
calibration pressure (P = W/A). The pumping piston then pressurizes the whole system by
pressing more fluid into the reservoir cylinder.
When the screw is turned the increase in fluid pressure is applied to both the gauge and the
weights. When the weights start to lift the gauge pressure should be the same as the pressure
indicated by the weights. You can calibrate pressure gauges and pressure transducers very
accurately if the weights are correct and there is minimum friction between the weight piston and
the cylinder.
 Figure: Dead Weight Tester
To create this known pressure accurately, the following steps are followed.
The valve of the apparatus is closed.
A known weight is placed on the platform. Now by operating the plunger, fluid pressure is
applied to the other side of the piston until enough force is developed to lift the piston-weight
combination. When this happens, the piston weight combination floats freely within the cylinder
between limit stops.

In this condition of equilibrium, the pressure force of fluid is balanced against the gravitational
force of the weights plus the friction drag.

Therefore, PA = Mg + F

Hence : P = Mg + F / A
where, P = pressure

M = Mass; Kg

g = Acceleration due to gravity ; m/s²

F = Friction drag; N

A = Equivalent area of piston – cylinder combination; m²

Thus the pressure P which is caused due to the weights placed on the platform is calculated.

After calculating P , the plunger is released.

Now the pressure gauge to be calibrated is installed in an appropriate place in the dead weight
tester. The same known weight that was used to calculate P is placed on the platform. Due to the
weight, the piston moves downwards and exerts a pressure P on the fluid. Now the valve in the
device opens so that the fluid pressure P is transmitted to the meter, which causes the meter to
indicate a pressure value. This pressure value shown on the indicator must be equal to the known
inlet pressure P. If the indicator indicates any other value than p, the indicator is set to read a
value equal to “p”. Therefore, the gauge is calibrated.

Advantages:

 It is simple in construction and easy to use.

 It can be used to calibrated a wide range of pressure measuring devices.
 Fluid pressure can be easily varied by adding weights or by changing the piston cylinder
combination.
Limitations:
 The accuracy of the dead weight tester is affected due to the friction between the piston
and cylinder, and due to the uncertainty of the value of gravitational constant ‘g’.
 Elastic Pressure Gauges

Elastic pressure elements are also called mechanical type of transducers. They are used for the
measurement of very high pressures up to about 700 MN/m 2. The action of these mechanical
transducers depends upon the displacement caused by the pressure.

Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

The device was invented by Eugene Bourdon in the year 1849. The basic idea behind the device
is that, cross-sectional tubing when deformed in any way will tend to regain its circular form
under the action of pressure. The bourdon pressure gauges used today have a slight elliptical
cross-section and the tube is generally bent into a C-shape in the form of an arc. The detailed
diagram of the bourdon tube is shown below.
 Figure: Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge
As seen in the figure, the pressure input is given to a socket which is soldered to the tube at the
base. The other end or free end of the device is sealed by a tip. This tip is connected to a
segmental lever through an adjustable length link. The lever length may also be adjustable. The
segmental lever is suitably pivoted and the spindle holds the pointer as shown in the figure
above. A hair spring is sometimes used to fasten the spindle of the frame of the instrument to
provide necessary tension for proper meshing of the gear teeth and thereby freeing the system
from the backlash. Any error due to friction in the spindle bearings is known as lost motion. The
mechanical construction has to be highly accurate in the case of a Bourdon Tube Gauge. If we
consider a cross-section of the tube, its outer edge will have a larger surface than the inner
portion. The tube walls will have a thickness between 0.01 and 0.05 inches.

Working
The Bourdon tube works on a simple principle that a bent tube will change its shape when
exposed to variations of internal and external pressure. As pressure is applied internally, the tube
straightens and returns to its original form when the pressure is released.
The tip of the tube moves with the internal pressure change and is easily converted with a pointer
onto a scale. A connector link is used to transfer the tip movement to the geared movement
sector. The pointer is rotated through a toothed pinion by the geared sector.
This type of gauge may require vertical mounting (orientation dependent) for correct results. The
element is subject to shock and vibration, which is also due to the mass of the tube. Because of
this and the amount of movement with this type of sensing, they are prone to breakage,
particularly at the base of the tube.
The main advantage with the Bourdon tube is that it has a wide operating (depending on the tube
material). This type of pressure measurement can be used for positive or negative pressure
ranges, although the accuracy is impaired when in a vacuum.

Advantages
 Inexpensive
 Wide operating range
 Fast response
 Good sensitivity
 Direct pressure measurement


Disadvantages
 Primarily intended for indication only
 Non linear transducer, linearised by gear mechanism
 Sensitive to temperature variations
 Limited life when subject to shock and vibration

Diaphragm Pressure Transducer

A diaphragm pressure transducer is used for low pressure measurement. They are commercially
available in two types – metallic and non-metallic. Metallic diaphragms are known to have good
spring characteristics and non-metallic types have no elastic characteristics. Thus, non-metallic
types are used rarely, and are usually opposed by a calibrated coil spring or any other elastic type
gauge. The non-metallic types are also called slack diaphragm.

Working
The diagram of a diaphragm pressure gauge is shown below. When a force acts against a thin
stretched diaphragm, it causes a deflection of the diaphragm with its centre deflecting the most.
Since the elastic limit has to be maintained, the deflection of the diaphragm must be kept in a
restricted manner. This can be done by cascading many diaphragm capsules as shown in the
figure below. A main capsule is designed by joining two diaphragms at the periphery. A pressure
inlet line is provided at the central position. When the pressure enters the capsule, the deflection
will be the sum of deflections of all the individual capsules. As shown in figure no. 3 below,
corrugated diaphragms are also used instead of the conventional ones.
Corrugated designs help in providing a linear deflection and also increase the member strength.
The total amount of deflection for a given pressure differential is known by the following
factors:
 Number and depth of corrugation
 Number of capsules
 Capsule diameter
 Shell thickness
 Material characteristics
Non-metallic or slack diaphragms are used for measuring very small pressures. The commonly
used materials for making the diaphragm are polythene, neoprene, animal membrane, silk, and
synthetic materials. Due to their non-elastic characteristics, the device will have to be opposed
with external springs for calibration and precise operation. The common range for pressure
measurement varies between 50 Pa to 0.1 MPa.

Elastic Pressure Gauges

Bellow Type Pressure Gauge: The bellow type gauges are used for the measurement of absolute
pressure. They are more sensitive than bourdon gauges. It may be used for measuring pressures
up to 40 mm Hg.

Construction
The bellows are made up of an alloy with high strength and ductility. It should have very little
hysteresis effect. Commonly brass or phosphor bronze is used for making bellows. The Figure 1
shows bellow pressure gauge arrangements.
 Figure 1: Bellow Pressure Gauge Arrangement

For selecting a specific material for bellows, the parameters to be checked are:
(i) Range of pressure
(ii) Hysteresis
(iii) Fatigue on dynamic operation
(iv) Corrosion
(v) Fabrication ease
(vi) Sensitivity to fluctuating pressures
Out of these hysteresis and sensitivity to fluctuating pressures are the most important ones.
Hysteresis can be minimized by following a proper manufacturing technique. For strong bellows,
the carbon steel is selected as the main element. But the material gets easily corroded.

Working
The bellows are used in two forms. In one arrangement, pressure is applied to one side of the
bellows and the resulting deflection is counter balanced by a spring. This arrangement indicates
the gauge pressure. In the second arrangement, the differential pressure is also indicated. In this
device, one pressure is applied to the inside of one sealed bellow while the other pressure is
applied to the inside of another sealed bellow. By suitable linkage and calibration of the scale,
the pressure difference is indicated by a pointer on the scale. Figure 2 shows pressure bellow
arrangement with gauge.

Figure 2: Pressure Bellow Arrangement with Gauge.

Advantages
(i) Its cost is moderate.
(ii) It is able to deliver high force.
(iii) It is adaptable for absolute and differential pressures.
(iv) It is good to low-to moderate range.

Disadvantages
(i) It needs ambient temperature compensation.
(ii) (ii) It is unsuitable for high pressures.
(iii) (iii) The availability of construction metals is limited.

Differential Pressure Sensors

Dual bellows arrangement is used for the measurement of difference of pressure. The
arrangement of such pressure measuring system is shown below in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Differential Pressure Bellow Sensor

The low process pressure is connected to the first bellows while the high process pressure is
connected to the second bellows.
Both of these process pressures will exert a force on the effective area of the bellows upon which
they act. The resultant force rotates the pointer. These measurement devices can be designed for
the measurement of differential pressures up to 70 bar or more. At such high pressures, bellows
with small diameter are preferred, optionally provided with an internal or external spring. The
accuracy will be less because of the need for a small diameter.
 Temperature Measurement Sensor

Temperature:
Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold something is; specifically, a measure of the
average kinetic energy of the particles in an object, which is a type of energy associated with
motion. Temperature is defined as the energy level of matter which can be evidenced by some
change in that matter. Temperature measuring sensors come in a wide variety and have one thing
in common: they all measure temperature by sensing some change in a physical characteristic.

Basic Temperature Measurement Sensor

There are seven basic types of temperature measurement sensors which are as follows:
1. Thermocouples
2. Resistive Temperature Measuring Devices (RTDs, thermistors)
3. Infrared Sensors
4. Bimetallic Devices
5. Thermometers
6. Change-of-state Sensors
7. Silicon Diode
Resistance Temperature Detector
The term RTD stands for Resistance Temperature Detector. This sensor is also known as
Resistance thermometer. This sensor is used to measure the temperature. Usually, they are
available as a length of fine wire made of platinum nickel or copper, wrapped around a ceramic
or glass core. This sensor makes use of the temperature/resistance relationship of the wire to
measure the temperature. The platinum, nickel, or copper wires, as these materials have a
positive temperature coefficient. This means that a rise in temperature results in an increased
resistance – this change of resistance is then used to detect and measure temperature changes.
Construction of RTD
The resistance thermometer is placed inside the protective tube for providing the protection
against damage. The resistive element is formed by placing the platinum wire on the ceramic
bobbin. This resistance element is placed inside the tube which is made up of stainless steel or
copper steel. The figure (1) shows the schematic of RTD.

Figure 1: Resistance Thermometer

The lead wire is used for connecting the resistance element with the external lead. The lead wire
is covered by the insulated tube which protects it from short circuit. The ceramic material is used
as an insulator for high-temperature material and for low-temperature fibre or glass is used.

RTD Working Principle

As every metal has a definite value of resistance at a particular temperature. Also, this value of
resistance changes with the change in its temperature and is very predictable. So we can calculate
the temperature of metals by knowing its resistance. The resistance of an RTD at any
temperature (Rt) can be calculated from the following formula:

Basic equation for Resistance Thermometer as:

As we know,
Rt = Ro (1 + αt + βt2 + ϒt3 ———)
Rt from the above equation can be approximated as quadratic approximation:
Rt = Ro (1 + αt + βt2 )
When the element is pure platinum,
α = 3.94 Χ 10-3 /⁰C
β = – 5.8 Χ 10-7 /(⁰C)2
The above equation can be rewritten as linear approximation:
Rt = Ro (1 + α t)
t = temperature to be measured
Rt= Resistance of wire at temperature ,t
α = mean resistance temperature coefficient between 0 ⁰C and 100 ⁰C.
t = temperature
and is given by

t=
( Rt −R0
R100 −R 0 )
× 100

Rt, Ro, R100 are the resistance at , t ⁰C, 0 ⁰C, 100 ⁰C

The resistance temperature detector uses the change in electrical resistance of the sensing
element to determine its temperature. This is the basic resistance temperature detector working
principle.

RTD Working
It is generally used in process industries to monitor the change in temperature. To understand
the working of RTD suppose we want to monitor the temperature of steam flowing through a
pipeline. To do this work, the probe of an RTD is inserted into the pipeline. Due to the
temperature of the steam, the resistance of the sensing element of the RTD varies
correspondingly.

Figure 2: RTD Wheatstone Bridge Circuit

The RTD (or its sensing element) is connected to a Wheatstone Bridge circuit by a suitable
cable, as shown in figure (2). The bridge circuit consists of three resistors and the RTD acts as
the fourth resistor. This bridge circuit converts the variation in resistance into the variation in
volts. In this way, we get the variation in temperature in the form of variation in voltage. The
voltmeter is calibrated in terms of temperature to show the temperature readings.

Problem: The resistance of the platinum wire of a platinum resistance thermometer at the ice point
is 5 Ω and at steam point is 5.23 Ω. When the thermometer is inserted in a hot bath, the resistance of the
platinum wire is 5.795 Ω. Calculate the temperature of the bath.

Answer:
Given that,
Let temperature of the bath is =t0 C
Resistance, R0=5Ω at 00C
Resistance, R100=5.23Ω at 1000C
Rt = 5.795Ω,

The temperature coefficient of the platinum thermometer is:

t=
( Rt −R0
)
R100 −R 0
× 100

t= ( 5.795−5
5.23−5 )
×100=345.65 C
0

THERMISTOR
A thermistor is a resistance thermometer, or a resistor whose resistance is dependent on
temperature. The term is a combination of “thermal” and “resistor”. It is made of metallic oxides,
pressed into a bead, disk, or cylindrical shape and then encapsulated with an impermeable
material such as epoxy or glass.

Types of Thermistors
Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC): In PTC thermistor, when temperature increases, the
resistance increases, and when temperature decreases, resistance decreases. This type of
thermistor is generally used as a fuse.
Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) : In NTC thermistor, when the temperature increases,
resistance decreases and when temperature decreases, resistance increases. This type of
thermistor is used the most.

Thermistor Working in a Controlled System

The Thermistor works on a simple principle: Change in temperature of the Thermistor, leads to a
change in its resistance.The Thermistor’s temperature can change either due to external factors or
due to internal factors.The most important internal factor is the current flowing through the
device. As the current through it increases, it starts self heating its elements. This causes a rise in
temperature of the Thermistor.Depending on the type of Thermistor( whether NTC or PTC), its
resistance changes with respect to this change in temperature.Externally the Thermistor
temperature can be changed by changing the ambient temperature.
The main use of a thermistor is to measure the temperature of a device. In a temperature
controlled system, the thermistor is a small but important piece of a larger system. A temperature
controller monitors the temperature of the thermistor. It then tells a heater or cooler when to turn
on or off to maintain the temperature of the sensor.
The Figure 1 shows a system with thermistor, there are three main components used to regulate
the temperature of a device: the temperature sensor, the temperature controller, and the Peltier
device (labeled here as a TEC, or thermoelectric cooler). The sensor head is attached to the
cooling plate that needs to maintain a specific temperature to cool the device, and the wires are
attached to the temperature controller. The temperature controller is also electronically connected
to the Peltier device, which heats and cools the target device. The heatsink is attached to the
Peltier device to help with heat dissipation.
 Figure 1: Device with Thermistor
The job of the temperature sensor is to send the temperature feedback to the temperature
controller. The sensor has a small amount of current running through it, called bias current,
which is sent by the temperature controller. The controller can’t read resistance, so it must
convert resistance changes to voltage changes by using a current source to apply a bias current
across the thermistor to produce a control voltage. It takes the sensor information, compares it to
what the unit to be cooled needs (called the setpoint), and adjusts the current through the Peltier
device to change the temperature to match the setpoint.

Thermocouple Temperature Sensor

A thermocouple consists of two wires of dissimilar metals joined together at one end, called
the measurement ("hot") junction or "measurement junction". The other end, where the wires are
not joined, is connected to the signal conditioning circuitry traces, typically made of copper. This
junction between the thermocouple metals and the copper traces is called the reference ("cold")
junction or "reference junction". Figure (1) one shows schematic of thermocouple principle.
 Figure (1) Thermocouple Principle

The voltage produced at the reference junction depends on the temperatures at both the
measurement junction and the reference junction.
This voltage is called an E.M.F. (electromotive force) and is proportional to temperature.
Most thermocouple metals produce a relationship between the two temperatures and the E.M.F.
as follows:

e = a(T1 - T2) + b(T12 - T22)

e is the e.m.f, a and b are constants for the thermocouple, T 1 and T2 are the temperatures. The
relationship is nearly linear over the operating range.
Thermocouples are usually encased in a protective metal sheath. The sheath material can be
stainless steel, which is good for temperatures up to 870 oC. For temperatures up to 1150oC
Inconel is used. A metallic oxide can be compacted into the sheath. This provides mechanical
support and also electrically insulates the thermocouple junction. The metal sheathed mineral
insulated thermocouple has become the accepted norm in most industries.
Most thermocouples are manufactured with different tip configurations. For maximum
sensitivity and fastest response, the dissimilar-metal junction may be unsheathed (bare). This
design, however, makes the thermocouple more fragile. Sheathed tips are typical for industrial
applications, available in either grounded or ungrounded forms as shown in figure (2)
 Figure 2: Types of thermocouple tips

Grounded-tip thermocouples exhibit faster response times and greater sensitivity than
ungrounded-tip thermocouples, but they are vulnerable to ground loops: circuitous paths for
electric current between the conductive sheath of the thermocouple and some other point in the
thermocouple circuit. In order to avoid this potentially troublesome effect, most industrial
thermocouples are often the ungrounded design.

Reference junction compensation: The temperature of the thermocouple's reference junction

must be known to get an accurate absolute-temperature reading. When thermocouples were first
used, this was done by keeping the reference junction in an ice bath. Figure 3 depicts a
thermocouple circuit with one end at an unknown temperature and the other end in an ice bath
(0°C). This method was used to exhaustively characterize the various thermocouple types, thus
almost all thermocouple tables use 0°C as the reference temperature.
 Figure3: Basic thermocouple circuit

But keeping the reference junction of the thermocouple in an ice bath is not practical for most
measurement systems. Instead most systems use a technique called reference-junction
compensation, (also known as cold-junction compensation). The reference junction temperature
is measured with another temperature-sensitive device, generally an IC, thermistor, diode, or
RTD (resistance temperature-detector).
Cold Junction Compensation Principle:
It is impractical to use the ice bath in industrial uses, so simple technique is to connect a voltage
source in opposite polarity to the J1 junction with a voltage magnitude equal to the voltage
produced at the J2 junction as shown in the figure 4.

Figure 4: Schematic Compensation

In order for such a compensation strategy to work, the compensating voltage must continuously
track the voltage produced by the reference junction. To do this, the compensating voltage source
(Vrjc in the above schematic) uses some other temperature-sensing device such as a thermistor or
RTD to sense the local temperature at the terminal block where junction J2 is formed and
produce a counter-voltage that is precisely equal and opposite to J2’s voltage at all times.
Practical temperature compensating module connected with thermister/RTD is available for cold
junction compensation which is known as icepoint module. Icepoint module acts as a varying
counter voltage as shown Figure 5.

Figure 5: Electronic Ice Compensation Circuit

Advantages of Thermocouple Sensors

 Low cost
 Small size
 Robust
 Wide range of operation
 Reasonably stable
 Accurate for large temperature changes
 Provide fast response
Disadvantages of Thermocouple Sensors:

 Very weak output, milivolts

 Limited accuracy for small variations in temperature
 Sensitive to electrical noise
 Nonlinear
 Complicated conversion from emf to temperature
 Bimetallic Thermometer
Definition: The bimetallic thermometer uses the bimetallic strip which converts the temperature
into the mechanical displacement. The working of the bimetallic strip depends on the thermal
expansion property of the metal. The thermal expansion is the tendency of metal in which the
volume of metal changes with the variation in temperature.

Every metal has a different temperature coefficient. The temperature coefficient shows the
relation between the change in the physical dimension of metal and the temperature that causes
it. The expansion or contraction of metal depends on the temperature coefficient, i.e., at the same
temperature the metals have different changes in the physical dimension.

Working Principle of Bimetallic Thermometer

The working principle of bimetallic thermometer depends on the two fundamental properties of
the metal.

1. The metal has the property of thermal expansion, i.e., the metal expand and contract concerning
the temperature.
2. The temperature coefficient of all the metal is not same. The expansion or contraction of metals
is different at the same temperature.

Constructions of Bimetallic Thermometer

The bimetallic strip is constructed by bonding together the two thin strips of different metals.
The metals are joined together at one end with the help of the welding. The bonding is kept in
such a way that there is no relative motion between the two metals. The physical dimension of
the metals varies with the variation in temperature.

Since the bimetallic strip of the thermometer is constructed with different metals. Thereby, the
length of metals changes at different rates. When the temperature increases, the strip bends
towards the metal which has a low-temperature coefficient. And when the temperature
decreases, the strip bends towards the metal which has a high-temperature coefficient.

The figure below shows the bimetallic strip in the form of the straight cantilever beam. The strip
fixed at one end and deflects at the other end.

The range of deflection of bimetallic strip depends on the type of metals used for construction.
The deflection of the metal is directly proportional to the length of the strip and the variation of
temperature and is inversely proportional to the thickness of the strips.
Let understands this with the help of the mathematical formula. Consider the bimetallic strip is
made of two different metals, i.e., metal A and metal B. Both the metals have a different
temperature coefficient. The T2 – T1 shows the variation of temperature, which causes the
expansion of the string.

Where,

t – the total thickness of the strip

n – the ratio of moduli of elasticity = EB/EA
m – the ratio of the thickness
T2 – T1 – change in temperature
tA, tB – the thickness of metal A and metal B.
αA, αB– the thermal coefficient of expansion of metal A and B.
The expansion causes the strip to move in the uniform circular arc. The radius of the arm is given
by the formula shown below.
The above equation shows that the strip bend towards the metals which has a low-temperature
coefficient (when the temperature increases) and the inverse will happen when the temperature
decreases.

Types of Bimetallic Strip

The linear strip shows the small deflection. If the length of strip increases, the size of
thermometer also increases. For keeping the size of the thermometer in the manageable limit, the
helix or spiral strip is used for making the thermometer.

Spiral Strip bimetallic thermometer – In bimetallic strip thermometer, the spiral-shaped strip
is used. This type of thermometer is used for measuring the ambient temperature. Because of the
thermal expansion property of metal the deformation occurs in the spring with the variation of
temperature. The pointer and dials attached to the spring, which indicates the variation of
temperature.

Helical Types Bimetallic Strip – The helix type bimetallic strip is mostly used for industrial
applications. In this thermometer, the helix shape strip is used for measuring the temperature.
The free end of the strip is connected to the pointer. The deflection of the strip shows the
variation of temperature.
Advantages of Bimetallic Thermometer
 Installation is easy
 Simple maintenance
 Accuracy is good
 Less cost
 Temperature range is wide
 Linear response
 Robust and simple

Disadvantages of Bimetallic Thermometer

 If the measure in low-temperature then they will give a less accurate result.
 If they handled roughly then calibration can be disturbed
 These are not suggested for above 400°C temperature.
 When these thermometers are frequently used, then the bimetallic of this device may
permanently bend so errors will occur.
Applications
 Used in control devices
 A spiral strip-type thermometer is utilized in AC thermostats.
 The helix strip type is used in refineries, tire vulcanizes, oil burners
 These thermometers are utilized in household devices which include AC (air conditioner),
oven, and apparatus in industries like hot wires, refineries, tempering tanks, heater, etc.

Liquid in Glass Thermometer

Principle

The liquid in glass thermometer, is the most commonly used device to measure temperature and
it is inexpensive to make and easy to use.

The liquid in glass thermometer has a glass bulb attached to a sealed glass tube (also called the
stem or capillary tube). A typical liquid-in-glass thermometer is shown in the figure below.
A very thin opening, called a bore, exists from the bulb and extends down the centre of the tube.
The bulb is typically filled with either mercury or red-coloured alcohol and is free to expand and
rise up into the tube when the temperature increases and to contract and move down the tube
when the temperature decreases.In the Liquid in Glass Thermometers (LIG) the thermally
sensitive element is a liquid contained in a graduated glass envelope. The principle used to
measure temperature is that of the apparent thermal expansion of the liquid.

The background of the glass tube is covered with white enamel and the front of the glass tube
forms a magnifying glass that enlarges the liquid column and facilitates with reading the
temperature.

In Below Figure (Left), an all glass thermometer is depicted, with its scale etched into the stem.

Liquid in glass thermometers are fragile and for industrial use, the thermometer is mounted in a
protective housing and the scale is engraved on a separate plate that is part of the protective case.

An industrial thermometer is shown in Below Figure (Right).

It mainly comprises:

 A bulb which acts as a container for the functioning liquid where it can easily expand or
contract in capacity.
  A stem, “a glass tube containing a tiny capillary connected to the bulb and enlarged at the
bottom into a bulb that is partially filled with a working liquid”.
 A temperature scale which is basically preset or imprinted on the stem for displaying
temperature readings.
 Point of reference i.e. a calibration point which is most commonly the ice point.
 A working liquid which is generally either mercury or alcohol.
 An inert gas, mainly argon or nitrogen which is filled inside the thermometer above
mercury to trim down its volatilization.


Advantages
 They are comparatively cheaper than other temperature measurement devices.
 They are handy and convenient to use.
 Unlike electrical thermometers, they do not necessitate power supply or batteries for
charging.
 They can be frequently applied in areas where there is problem of electricity.
 They provide very good repeatability and their calibration remains unaffected.

Limitations
 They are considered inapt for applications involving extremely high or low temperatures.
 They can not be applied in regions where highly accurate results are desirable.
 As compared to electrical thermometers, they are very weak and delicate. Therefore, they
must be handled with extra care because they are likely to break.
 Besides, they can not provide digital and automated results. Hence, their use is limited to
areas where only manual reading is adequate, for example, a household thermometer.
 “Temperature readings should be noted immediately after removal because a glass
thermometer can be affected by the environmental temperature, heat produced by the hand
holding it, cleaning, etc. This temperature should be recorded because a glass thermometer
does not offer a recall of the measured temperature.”
 Reading temperature via liquid-in-glass thermometers call for brilliant eyesight.
 Liquid element contained in a glass thermometer may be perilous or risky to health owing
to their potential chemical spills.
  These thermometers display temperature either in Celsius or Fahrenheit scales. Thus,
temperature conversion would be needed if the temperature reading is wanted in some other
scale.

Temperature Measurement
Temperature:

• Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold something is; specifically, a measure of the
average kinetic energy of the particles in an object, which is a type of energy associated
with motion.

• Temperature measuring sensors come in a wide variety and have one thing in common:
they all measure temperature by sensing some change in a physical characteristic.

PRESSURE SPRING THERMOMETERS

Pressure-spring thermometers are used where remote indication is required, as opposed to glass
and bimetallic devices, which give readings at the point of detection. The pressure system can be
used to drive a chart recorder, actuator, or a potentiometer wiper to obtain an electrical signal

The pressure-spring device has a metal bulb made with a low coefficient of expansion material
along with a long metal narrow bore tube. Both contain material with a high coefficient of
expansion. The bulb is at the monitoring point. The metal tube is terminated with a Bourdon
spring pressure gauge.

As the temperature in the bulb increases, the pressure in the system rises. Bourdon tubes,
bellows, or diaphragms sense the change in pressure. These devices can be accurate to 0.5%, and
can be used for remote indication up to a distance of 100m, but must be calibrated, since the stem
and Bourdon tube are temperature-sensitive.
There are three types of pressure-spring devices. These are:

• Liquid filled;
• Vapor pressure;
• Gas filled.

1.Liquid Expansion Pressure Spring Thermometers

Principle
The liquid-filled thermometer works on the same principle as the liquid in glass thermometer,
but is used to drive a Bourdon tube.

It utilizes the volumetric expansion of a liquid caused by the temperature changes to operate the
pressure spring and indicate the temperature. The relation between volume of expansion of a
liquid and its temperature is given by the law of cubical expansion: Vf = V0(1+BT) Where Vf is
the final volume, V0 is the initial volume, B is the mean coefficient of volumetric expansion and
T is the temperature. The equation indicates a linear relation which is not quite true as the
coefficient of volumetric expansion, B varies slightly, with temperature. Working The bulb is
filled with the thermal liquid at a high pressure. A temperature increase at the bulb results in an
expansion of the liquid which causes expansion of the bourdon tube or pressure spring and thus
indicates the temperature.

Mercury is most widely used thermal liquid because of its wide temperature range. Ethanol or
Toluene may also be used. The thermal expansion of these liquid is about six times greater than
that of mercury and from that standpoint their use is advantageous. The temperature limits of the
mercury filled pressure thermometer are about -35 to 10000F.
 Advantages

1. Greater sensitivity
2. Linear scale shape
3. No head effect
4. No barometric effect
Disadvantages

1. Immersion effect
2. Ambient temperature effect.
2.Gas Expansion Thermometer (Gas Thermometer)

Principle

It utilizes the expansion of a gas caused by the temperature changes to operate the pressure
spring and indicate the temperature. The most commonly use gas is nitrogen. Hydrogen and
helium are also used as thermometric fluids in gas thermometer. There are two main types of gas
thermometer, one operating at constant volume and the other at constant pressure. The constant
volume gas thermometer is more widely used.

It is based on the ideal gas equation: PV = RT, for one mole of an ideal gas; where P, V and T
are the pressure, volume and temperature of the gas, respectively and R is the universal gas
constant.

Since it operates at constant volume, the equation can be written as: T or P1/T1 = P2/T2µP

Where P1 and T1 represent the reference pressure and temperature, respectively and P2 and T2
represent the unknown pressure and temperature, respectively. If P2 can be calculated using a
manometer, the unknown temperature T2 is given by T2 = P2T1/P1.

Working

A simple form of constant-volume gas thermometer is shown in Figure.

The gas is enclosed in the bulb B and the pressure recorded by the difference in levels (h) of the
mercury columns. The mercury level at R is always adjusted so that it coincides with the mark.
The pressure of the gas within the bulb is then given by P2 = P1 + h, where P1 is the atmospheric
pressure. By using different gas thermometers a wide range of temperatures can be measured:

Hydrogen -200°C to +500°C

 Nitrogen +500 oC to + 1500 oC

Helium -270 oC to + 1500 oC

These thermometers can be very accurate, to within 0.005 oC from 0 oC to 100 oC, 0.1 oC
around 500 oC and to within 2 oC at 1500 oC.

Advantages

1. The coefficient of expansion of gases is very large as compared to liquids. Therefore, gas
thermometers are sensitive.
2. The coefficient and the rate of expansion of all gases are the same under similar conditions.
3. The coefficient of expansion of the material of the bulb of the thermometer is negligible in
comparison to the coefficient of expansion of a gas.
4. The gases expand uniformly and regularly over a wide range of temperature.
5. The thermal capacity of a gas is low as compared to liquids. Hence even small changes of
temperature can be recorded accurately.
6. Gases can be obtained in a pure form.
7. Gas thermometers can be used over a wide range of temperature. They are suitable to measure
high and low temperatures.
8. The temperatures measured with a gas thermometer agree with the temperatures on the
thermodynamic scale.
Disadvantages

1. Gas thermometers are not suitable for routine work. They are large and cumbersome. They can
be used only in one position. They are mainly used to standardize and calibrate other
thermometers.
2. Ambient temperature effect
3. Immersion effect
3.Vapour – Actuated Thermometer

Principle

It operates from the vapour pressure of a liquid that partially fills the bulb. The vapour pressure
is measured by a pressure spring and the instrument is calibrated in terms of temperature.

Working

Since the vapour pressure depends solely on the temperature at the free surface of the liquid, the
vapour actuated thermometer indicates only the temperatures existing at the free surface. The
most commonly used fluids for vapour actuated thermometer include methyl chloride, sulphur
 dioxide, ether, toluene, propane, butane and hexane. Its range depends entirely on the filling
medium. However, temperatures as low as -500F and as high as 6000F may be measured.

Advantages

1. Low cost
2. Easy to maintain
3. It requires no ambient temperature compensation.
4. Good speed of response
Disadvantages

1. Scale shape is non-linear

2. Head effect
3. Barometric effect
 Semiconductor Sensors
A sensor detects an event or a change in a factor and responds with an output. The measured
phenomenon may be chemical, electrical, mechanical, radiant, magnetic or thermal.

The sensor picks up a signal and passes it to a modifier, the first part of the sensor’s
measurement system. This transmits the modified signal to the output transducer. The output
transducer emits the final signal in the form of the output. The output is typically an electrical
signal.

Most sensors operate using semiconductors and are therefore called semiconductor sensors. The
materials most commonly used for semiconductors include silicon and other members of groups
III to V. This is because they are readily available, can be easily used, have the required physical
characteristics and are cost-effective.

Among these materials, the use of silicon has progressed enormously, allowing the manufacture
of miniature silicon circuits less than a micron in diameter. Moreover, batch production
techniques allow numerous sensors to be rolled out at the same time at a low cost.

The use of modern semiconductors is based on stacked layers that have different two-
dimensional patterns; being built-up to produce a 3-dimensional device. These are manufactured
either by surface micromachining or by bulk micromachining. Essential steps in sensor
fabrication include deposition, lithography, and etching.

Basic Design of a Semiconductor Sensor

Semiconductors are in general used for the detection of various kinds of charged particles and
photons. Their detection capacity is based on the occurrence of ionization and their applications
are extensive in scope.

The crystalline nature characterizes a semiconductor, as lattice symmetry is fundamental to its

behavior. The atoms show the presence of electron energy bands with an energy gap between the
valence and conduction bands.
Impurities can be introduced (‘doping’) with n-type donor atoms or p-type acceptor atoms
located near it in the periodic table, which have excess mobile electrons and holes, respectively.
The dopants provide shallow doping levels which ionize at about 300 K. The basis of most
semiconductor sensors is the p-n diode and the MOS capacitor.

When two transistors are used at different but unchanging collector current densities, the base-
emitter voltages produced are different. The difference is based on the absolute transistor
temperature and is converted to an electrical current or voltage. This is finally converted to
Celsius or Fahrenheit.

Semiconductor-based temperature sensors, or integrated circuit (IC) temperature sensors, operate

with reverse bias, have a small capacitance and a low leakage current. They are formed on thin
wafers of silicon. They are compact, produce linear outputs, and have a small range of
temperature. They also have a low cost and are accurate following calibration. However, they
cannot be interchanged easily.

Many types of semiconductor temperature sensors are available, and are classified into five
categories:

 Voltage output - linear output, low output impedance.

 Current output - constant current regulator displaying high impedance.
 Digital output - both sensor and analog-to-digital converter integrated on one chip,
typically specific to microprocessor chips rather than measuring devices.
 Resistance output - exploits temperature vs. bulk resistance properties of
semiconductors to provide more stable sensors, but may heat up which can be hazardous.
 Simple diodes - the least expensive, but require two-point calibration and stable current
input for good results

These sensors are more fragile, both electrically and mechanically, compared to many other
types of temperature sensors, and are therefore best used in embedded applications.
Semiconductor temperature sensors are quite sensitive, but since they are usually packaged in
standard housing for embedding into an application, the precision measurement of temperature
may be affected. Also, interchangeability accuracy is below par. Calibration to two or three-point
calibration improves the accuracy, especially with a limited temperature range, and when the
change in temperature is small.

Semiconductor Detectors

Microstrips of silicon are used extensively in particle physics experiments, because of the high
resolution and efficiency they offer. They are durable and inexpensive, with small magnetic
effects. The detector material which is present between a pair of electrodes is affected by the
radiation, setting free a variable number of charge carriers. This helps measure the ionizing
radiation incident on the strip.

Advanced detectors will help analyze the type of radiation, by their alpha, beta and gamma
nature, as well as by activation analysis.

Optical Sensors

Silicon diodes are also used as optical sensors in telescopes and satellites, in X-ray detectors, or
in photodiodes to detect scintillation.

Pressure Sensors

Semiconductor pressure sensors are found in the following four varieties:

 Absolute pressure sensor

 Differential pressure sensor
 Gauge pressure sensor
 Negative pressure sensor

Gas Sensors
Semiconductor gas sensors convert changes in physicochemical properties into electric current
signals, which are picked up by the sensing device.

These have good sensitivity, respond rapidly, are stable over the long term and can be integrated
into devices for gas sensing. However, one disadvantage is their non-specificity to gases which
share, for instance, the same reducing property or combustible nature.

Pyrometer : Working Principle and Its Types

A pyrometer is a device that is used for the temperature measurement of an object. The device
actually tracks and measures the amount of heat that is radiated from an object. The thermal heat
radiates from the object to the optical system present inside the pyrometer. The optical system
makes the thermal radiation into a better focus and passes it to the detector. The output of the
detector will be related to the input thermal radiation. The biggest advantage of this device is
that, unlike a Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) and Thermocouple, there is no direct
contact between the pyrometer and the object whose temperature is to be found out.

Pyrometer

A pyrometer is a device that is used for the temperature measurement of an object. The device
actually tracks and measures the amount of heat that is radiated from an object. The thermal heat
radiates from the object to the optical system present inside the pyrometer. The optical system
makes the thermal radiation into a better focus and passes it to the detector. The output of the
detector will be related to the input thermal radiation. The biggest advantage of this device is
that, unlike a Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) and Thermocouple, there is no direct
contact between the pyrometer and the object whose temperature is to be found out.

Basic principle

The object whose temperature is above absolute zero (i.e.273.15 K) emits or generates
radiation .The emission is heat radiation which depends on temperature.Generally the infrared
radiation is referred to the measurement type as majority of radiations lie in the electromagnetic
spectrum of infrared domain.This domain lies in the spectrum of above visible red light.The
energy radiated by the object is used to measure the temperature of the object through the use of
detective device which converts the received signal in to electrical signal.The instruments or
systems which is used for measurement purpose is known by common names such as
pyrometer/temperature guns or radiation pyrometers .

Types of Pyrometer

To detect the different object’s temperature, pyrometers are classified into 2 types. They are,
  Optical Pyrometers
 Infrared / Radiation pyrometers

Optical Pyrometer

In an optical pyrometer, a brightness comparison is made to measure the temperature. As a

measure of the reference temperature, a color change with the growth in temperature is taken.
The device compares the brightness produced by the radiation of the object whose temperature is
to be measured, with that of a reference temperature. The reference temperature is produced by a
lamp whose brightness can be adjusted till its intensity becomes equal to the brightness of the
source object. For an object, its light intensity always depends on the temperature of the object,
whatever may be its wavelength. After adjusting the temperature, the current passing through it
is measured using a multimeter, as its value will be proportional to the temperature of the source
when calibrated. The working of an optical pyrometer is shown in the figure below.

 An eye piece (observer) at the left side and an optical lens on the right.
 A reference lamp, which is powered with the help of a battery.
 A rheostat to change the current and hence the brightness intensity.
 So as to increase the temperature range which is to be measured, an absorption screen is
fitted between the optical lens and the reference bulb.
  A red filter placed between the eye piece and the reference bulb helps in narrowing the
band of wavelength.

Working

The radiation from the source is emitted and the optical objective lens captures it. The lens helps
in focusing the thermal radiation on to the reference bulb. The observer watches the process
through the eye piece and corrects it in such a manner that the reference lamp filament has a
sharp focus and the filament is super-imposed on the temperature source image. The observer
starts changing the rheostat values and the current in the reference lamp changes. This in turn,
changes its intensity. This change in current can be observed in three different ways.

1. The filament is dark. That is, cooler than the temperature source.

2. Filament is bright. That is, hotter than the temperature source.

3. Filament disappears. Thus, there is equal brightness between the filament and temperature
source. At this time, the current that flows in the reference lamp is measured, as its value is a
measure of the temperature of the radiated light in the temperature source, when calibrated.
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8_Eq2qlFgzE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=swCyKOHM81k

Infrared or Radiation Pyrometers

These pyrometers are designed to detect thermal radiation in the infrared region, which is usually
at a distance of 2-14um. It measures the temperature of a targeted object from the emitted
radiation. This radiation can be directed to a thermocouple to convert into electrical signals.
Because the thermocouple is capable of generating higher current equal to the heat emitted.
Infrared pyrometers are made up of pyroelectric materials like polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF),
triglycine sulfate (TGS), and lithium tantalate (LiTaO3).
Advantages/Disadvantages

 It can measure the temperature of the object without any contact with the object. This is
called Non-contact measurement.
 It has a fast response time
 Good stability while measuring the temperature of the object.
 It can measure different types of object’s temperature at variable distances.
Disadvantages

 Pyrometers are generally rugged and expensive

 Accuracy of the device can be affected due to the different conditions like dust, smoke, and
thermal radiation.

Applications
 To measure the temperature of moving objects or constant objects from a greater distance.
 In metallurgy industries
 In smelting industries
 Hot air balloons to measure the heat at the top of the ballon
 Steam boilers to measure steam temperature
 To measure the temperature of liquid metals and highly heated materials.
 To measure furnace temperature.

Target Flow/Drag Flow Meter

Target flow meters, also known as drag force flow meters, insert a target (drag element),
usually a flat disc or a sphere with an extension rod, into the flow field. They then measure the
drag force on the inserted target and convert it to the flow velocity, Figure 1.
 Figure1: General Structure Drag Flow Meter

Construction:
The target meter measures flow by measuring the force on a target (or disc), centered in the pipe
at right angles to the direction of fluid flow. The fluid flow develops a force on the target which
is proportional to the square of the flow. A target meter consists of a target (or disc) which is
mounted on a force bar (or beam) passing through a flexible seal, and is positioned in the centre
of and perpendicular to the flowing stream. The device may be installed directly in the flow line,
thus eliminating the need for pressure-tap connections, Figure 2.

Figure2: Drag Flow Meter

Working:
The flowing fluid while passing through the pipe, develops a force on the target which is
proportional to velocity head (the square of the flow).The force bar transmits this force to a force
transducer (either electronic or pneumatic) to measure the force which is proportional to the
square of the flow. The relationship between the flow rate and force is expressed by the equation
Q = k √F
Where
Q= flow rate
K= a known coefficient,
F= force
The target meters are available in sizes from 12.5 to 203 mm pipe diameter, and an accuracy of
about ±1/2% with proper calibration.
Another variation of target meter is also available which is known as drag body flow meter.
With the target meter a physical target is located directly in the fluid flow. The deflection of the
target and the force bar is measured in the instrument.
The force on the target can be expressed as:
F = cd ρ v2 At / 2
where
F = force on the target (N)
cd = overall drag coefficient obtained from empirical data
ρ = density of fluid (kg/m3)
v = fluid velocity (m/s)
At = target area (m2)
This force is detected and transmitted by a strain gauge bridge circuitry, into a voltage signal
which is proportional to the square of the flow rate.

Advantages with the Target Flow Meter

 Can be used for any type of liquid, gas, or steam cryogenics.
 There is no moving parts such as bearings, to wear out causing failures.
Disadvantages with the Target Flow Meter
 Calibration must be verified in the field.

Turbine Flow Meter

Turbine flow meters are engineered to accurately measure the flow of liquids and gases in pipes.
They measure flow on a volumetric basis.

Working Principle
Turbine flow meter is used for translates the mechanical action of the turbine rotating in the
liquid flow around an axis into a user readable rate of flow. Blades on the rotor are angled to
transform energy from the flow stream into rotational energy. The rotor shaft spins on bearings.
When the fluid moves faster, the rotor spins proportionally faster.
Turbine Flow Meter is a volumetric measuring turbine type. The turbine wheel is set in the path
of a fluid stream. The flowing fluid impinges on the turbine blades, imparting a force to the blade
surface and setting the rotor in motion. When a steady rotation speed has been reached, the speed
is proportional to fluid velocity, schematic diagram is shown in Figure (3).
The flowing fluid engages the rotor causing it to rotate at an angular velocity proportional to the
fluid flow rate.

Figure 3: Turbine Flow Meter

The angular velocity of the rotor results in the generation of an electrical signal (AC sine wave
type) in the pickup. The summation of the pulsing electrical signal is related directly to total
flow.
The turbine meter is provided with an electrical pickup which detects the rotation of its rotor and
then transforms this speed of the turbine rotor into pulses:
• Flow rate is proportional to the frequency of these pulses
• Volume is proportional to the number of these pulses

Figure4: Pick Up Arrangement

The relationship between volumetric flow rate of the turbine flow meter and the frequency of the
pulses generated by the pickup sensor can be expressed in the form of the equation:
f = kQ
Where,
f = Frequency of pulses generated by pickup sensor (Hz, equivalent to pulses per second)
Q = Volumetric flow rate (e.g. litres/min)
k = “K” factor of the turbine meter (e.g. pulses per litre)

Electronic Flow Meter

The following flow meters have been grouped as electronic flow meters:
(a) Magnetic Flow meters (b) Vortex Flow meters (c) Ultrasonic Flow meters

Magnetic Flow meters

Magnetic flow meters operate on basis of Michael Farady’s electromagnetic induction principle.
Magnetic flow meters works based on Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction. According
to this principle, when a conductive medium passes through a magnetic field B, a voltage E is
generated which is proportional to the velocity v of the medium, the density of the magnetic field
and the length of the conductor. In a magnetic flow meter, a current is applied to wire coils
mounted within or outside the meter body to generate a magnetic field. The liquid flowing
through the pipe acts as the conductor and this induces a voltage which is proportional to the
average flow velocity, Figure 5.

Figure5: Electromagnetic Flow Meter

This voltage is detected by sensing electrodes mounted in the Magflow meter body and sent to a
transmitter which calculates the volumetric flow rate based on the pipe dimensions.
Mathematically, we can state Faraday’s law as:
E is proportional to V x B x L
[E is the voltage generated in a conductor, V is the velocity of the conductor, B is the magnetic
field strength and L is the length of the conductor].

Vortex Flow Meters

When a non-streamlined object (also called a bluff body) is placed in the path of a flow stream
with high Reynolds number, the fluid will alternately separate from the object on its two
downstream sides, and, as the boundary layer becomes detached and curls back on itself, the
fluid forms vortices. These vortices cause areas of fluctuating pressure that are detected by a
piezoelectric or capacitive sensor. The fluid velocity depends on frequency of generated vortices
and on Strouhal’s number as given by:
V = (f x h)/S
Where: V = average velocity of fluid flow stream
f = frequency of the vortices generated
h = Width of bluff body
S = Strouhal’s numberS varies with Reynolds’ number; but is virtually constant over a broad
flow range.
In practice a k-factor, which represents the number of vortices generated per volume unit replace
S. Thus volumetric flow is then:
Q = f/K

Ultrasonic Flow Meters

The ultrasonic flow meters use transducers to transmit and/or receive ultrasonic waves in the
process of pipe flow measurement. The ultrasonic waves have the frequency > 20 kHz. Two
types of ultrasonic flow meter are in common use to measure pipe flow rate. They are
the doppler ultrasonic flow meter and the transit time ultrasonic flow meter.

1. Doppler Ultrasonic Flow Meter

In a doppler ultrasonic flow meter, as shown in Figure 6, one transducer transmits ultrasonic
waves and the other transducer receives ultrasonic waves. The fluid for which pipe flow rate is
being measured must have material like particles or entrained air that will reflect ultrasonic
waves. The frequency of the transmitted beam of ultrasonic waves will be altered, or shifted, due
to being reflected by the air bubbles or particles. The frequency shift, which is proportional to the
fluid flow rate through the meter, is measured by the receiving transducer. The receiving
transducer can thus generate a signal that is proportional to flow rate.
 Figure 6: Doppler Ultrasonic Flow Meter

2. Transit Time Ultrasonic Flow Meter

This type of meter measures the difference in travel time for pulses transmitted against the flow
and pulses transmitted in the direction of the flow rate. In the transit time ultrasonic flow meter
shown in Figure 7, both transducers serve as transmitter and receiver of ultrasonic waves
alternately.

Figure 7: Transit time ultrasonic flow meter

The two transducers are mounted on the outside of the pipe so that one is a known distance
upstream of the other. A pulse will be transmitted by the downstream transducer, for example,
and it will be detected by the upstream transducer, giving the 'transit time' for upstream flow.
Then the process will be reversed and the upstream transducer will transmit a pulse to be
detected by the downstream transducer, to give a 'transit time' in the direction of flow. A
microprocessor is typically used to calculate the pipe flow rate based on the difference between
the downstream transit time and the upstream transit time.
The doppler and transit time ultrasonic flow meter both cause negligible pressure drop when in
use for pipe flow measurement. The effect of fluid viscosity on pipe flow rate measurement is
negligible for both types. The doppler ultrasonic flow meter can be used to measure the pipe
flow rate of dirty liquids and slurries. A transit time ultrasonic flow meter can be used for pipe
flow measurement of both liquids and gases. Both the doppler and transit time ultrasonic flow
meter have a cost that is relatively high in comparison with other types of pipe flow meter.

https://www.omega.com/en-us/resources/dif-between-doppler-transit-time-ultrasonic-flow-
meters

Hot Wire Anemometer

Definition: The Hot Wire Anemometer is a device used for measuring the velocity and direction
of the fluid. This can be done by measuring the heat loss of the wire which is placed in the fluid
stream. The wire is heated by electrical current.
The hot wire when placed in the stream of the fluid, in that case, the heat is transferred from wire
to fluid, and hence the temperature of wire reduces. The resistance of wire measures the flow rate
of the fluid.
The hot wire anemometer is used as a research tool in fluid mechanics. It works on the principle
of transfer of heat from high temperature to low temperature. Figure 1 shows the general
structure of hot wire anemometer.
 Figure 1 : Hot Wire Anemometer

Construction of Hot Wire Anemometer

The hot wire anemometer consists two main parts.
1. Conducting wire
2. Wheat stone bridge.
The conducting wire is housed inside the ceramic body. The wires are taking out from the
ceramic body and connecting to the Wheatstone bridge. The wheat stone bridge measures the
variation of resistance.

Constant Current Method

In the constant current method, the anemometer is placed in the stream of the fluid whose flow
rate needs to be measured. The current of constant magnitude is passed through the wire. The
Wheatstone bridge is also kept on the constant voltage.
 Figure 2: Constant Current Method
When the wire is kept in the stream of liquid, in that case, the heat is transferred from the wire to
the fluid. The heat is directly proportional to the resistance of the wire. If heat reduces, that
means the resistance of wire also reduces. The Wheatstone bridge measures the variation in
resistance which is equal to the flow rate of the liquid.

Constant Temperature Method

In this arrangement, the wire is heated by the electric current. The hot wire when placed in the
fluid stream, the heat transfer from wire to the fluid. Thus, the temperature of the wire changes
which also changes their resistance.

Figure 3:Constant Temperature Method

It works on the principle that the temperature of the wire remains constant. The total current
requires to bring the wire in the initial condition is equal to the flow rate of the gas.

Measurement of the rate of a fluid using a Hot Wire Instrument

In hot wire anemometer, the heat transferred electrically to the wire which is placed in the fluid
stream. The Wheatstone bridge is used for measuring the temperature of wire regarding their
resistance. The temperature of the wire remains constant for measuring the heating current. Thus,
the bridge remains balanced.

Figure 4: Arrange For Measurement

The standard resistor is connected in series with the heating wire. The current across the wire is
determined by knowing the voltage drop across the resistor. And the value of voltage drop is
determined by the potentiometer.

Humidity Measurement
Humidity measurement is an important tool for predicting the climate outdoors as well as
controlling the climate indoors. Humidity control is especially important in living, storage, and
manufacturing sites.
Humidity:
Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air. If there is a lot of water vapor in the air, the
humidity will be high. The higher the humidity, the wetter it feels outside.
Absolute humidity is a measure of the mass of the water vapor present in a specified volume.
Because the mass of water vapor is difficult to measure.
Relative humidity (RH) is the percentage of the amount of water that the air can hold at a given
temperature. The following equation calculates the percent relative humidity.

Where:
Pa = actual pressure
Ps = saturated pressure

Relative Humidity is temperature dependent. At 100% RH, the actual pressure of the water vapor
is equal to the saturation pressure. The temperature where this exists is called the dew point. Any
cooling below the dew point causes water to condense. If the atmosphere stabilizes at a constant
humidity during the day, the falling temperatures at night may go below the dew point causing
the vapor to condense. The condensing vapor creates the phenomenon commonly known as
dew.

Humidity Sensing Method

1. Psychrometric Method:

Psychrometry is commonly known as the “wet” and “dry” bulb method. A psychrometric sensor
does not directly sense humidity, but rather it senses temperature to indirectly find relative
humidity. The sensing elements can be thermometers, RTD’s, or thermistors. The first sensing
element, the dry bulb, measures ambient temperature. The second sensing element, the wet bulb,
is enclosed in a wick saturated with distilled water. Air forced across the wet bulb creates
evaporation, which cools it below ambient temperature. The amount of evaporation (cooling) is
dependent on the vapor pressure of the air. Using the wet and dry bulb temperatures, the relative
humidity can be looked up on a psychrometric chart. Looking up the %RH on a chart for every
measurement is time-consuming and cumbersome. With today’s technology, psychrometric
 charts and dew point equations can be stored in a microprocessor, thus making this a direct
sensing method for RH and dew point.

Figure 1: Psychrometric Method

3. Dew Point Method:

A simple method of measuring the humidity is to obtain the dew point. This is achieved by
cooling the air or gas until water condenses on an object and then measuring the temperature at
which condensation takes place. Typically, a mirrored surface, polished stainless steel, or
silvered surface is cooled from the back side, by cold water, refrigeration, or Peltier cooling. As
the temperature drops, a point is reached where dew from the air or gas starts to form on the
mirror surface. The condensation is detected by the reflection of a beam of light by the mirror to
a photocell. The intensity of the reflected light reduces as condensation takes place and the
temperature of the mirror at that point can be measured.

Figure 2: Dew point method

Hygrometers
Devices that indirectly measure humidity by sensing changes in physical or electrical properties
in materials due to their moisture content are called hygrometers. Materials such as hair, skin,
membranes, and thin strips of wood change their length as they absorb water. The change in
length is directly related to the humidity. Such devices are used to measure relative humidity
from 20 to 90 percent, with accuracies of about ± 5 percent. Their operating temperature range is
limited to less than 70°C.
Laminate hygrometer
Laminate hygrometer is made by attaching thin strips of wood to thin metal strips forming a
laminate. The laminate is formed into a helix as shown in Figure, as the humidity changes the
helix flexes due to the change in the length of the wood. One end of the helix is anchored, the
other is attached to a pointer (similar to a bimetallic strip used in temperature measurements);
the scale is graduated in percent humidity.

Figure 3: Laminate Hygrometer

Hair hygrometer
Hair hygrometer is the simplest and oldest type of hygrometer. It is made using hair as shown in
Figure. Human hair lengthens by 3 percent when the humidity changes from 0 to 100 percent, the
change in length can be used to control a pointer for visual readings or a transducer such as a
linear variable differential transformers (LVDT) for an electrical output. The hair hygrometer has
an accuracy of about ±5 percent for the humidity range 20 to 90 percent over the temperature
range 5 to 40°C.
 Figure 4: Hair hygrometer

Density Measuring Devices

Density, ρ of a material is defined as the mass per unit volume. Units of density are kilogram
per cubic meter (kg/m3).
Specific weight, w is defined as the weight per unit volume of a material. Units of specific
weight is newton per cubic meter (N/m3). Specific gravity (SG) of a liquid or solid is defined as
the density of the material divided by the density of water or the specific weight of the material
divided by the specific weight of water at a specified temperature. The relation between density
and specific weight is given by w=ρg.

1. Hydrometers
Hydrometers are the simplest device for measuring the specific weight or density of a liquid. The
device consists of a graduated glass tube, with a weight at one end, which causes the device to
float in an upright position. The device sinks in a liquid until an equilibrium point between its
weight and buoyancy is reached. The specific weight or density can then be read directly from
the graduations on the tube. Such a device is shown in Figure (1).
 Figure 1: Hydrometer

2. Induction Hydrometers
Induction hydrometers are used to convert the specific weight or density of a liquid into an
electrical signal. In this case, a fixed volume of liquid set by the overflow tube is used in the type
of setup shown in Figure (2), the displacement device, or hydrometer, has a soft iron or similar
metal core attached. The core is positioned in a coil which forms part of a bridge circuit. As the
density/specific weight of the liquid changes, the buoyant force on the displacement device
changes. This movement can be measured by the coil and converted into a density reading.

Figure 2: Induction Hydrometer

3. Vibration Sensors
Vibration sensors are an alternate method of measuring the density of a fluid. Fluid is passed
through a U tube which has a flexible mount so that it can vibrate when driven from an outside
source. The amplitude of the vibration decreases as the specific weight or density of the fluid
increases, so that by measuring the vibration amplitude the specific weight/density can be
calculated. General arrangement is shown in Figure (3).
 Figure 3: Vibration Sensor
4. Differential Bubblers
Differential bubblers can be used to measure liquid density or specific weight. Figure (4) shows
the setup using a bubbler system. Two air supplies are used to supply two tubes whose ends are
at different depths in a liquid, the difference in air pressures between the two air supplies is
directly related to the density of the liquid by the following equation:

where Δp is the difference in the pressures and Δh the difference in the height of the bottoms of
the two tubes.

Figure 4: Differential Bubbler

 Viscosity Measurement
Viscosity is the measure of a substance's resistance to motion under an applied force. The
formula for measuring viscosity is fairly simple:
viscosity = shear stress / shear rate
The result is typically expressed in centipoise (cP), which is the equivalent of 1 mPa s
(millipascal second).
Viscometers or viscosimeters are used to measure the resistance to motion of liquids and gases.
Several different types of instruments have been designed to measure viscosity, such as the inline
falling-cylinder viscometer, the drag-type viscometer, and the Saybolt universal viscometer.

Rotating Disc Viscometer:

A rotating disc viscometer is a drag-type device. The device consists of two concentric cylinders,
with the space between the two cylinders filled with the liquid being measured, as shown in the
Figure (1). The outer cylinder is driven by an electric motor at a constant speed using a
synchronous motor, and the force on the inner cylinder is measured using a torque sensor. The
viscosity of the liquid then can be determined. This type of viscometer can be used for viscosities
from 50 to 50,000 centipoises, with an accuracy of ±1.0% and repeatability of 0.5% of span. The
device can be used for viscosity measurements from −40° to +150°C, and pressures up to 28
MPa(g). In a production environment, the rotating disk viscometer is normally the device chosen.

Figure 1: Rotating Disc Viscometer

Falling Cylinder Viscometer
The falling-cylinder viscometer uses the principle that an object, when dropped into a liquid, will
descend to the bottom of the vessel at a fixed rate. The rate of descent is determined by the size,
shape, and density of the object, and the density and viscosity of the liquid. The higher the
viscosity, the longer the object will take to reach the bottom of the vessel. The falling-cylinder
device measures the rate of descent of a cylinder in a liquid, and correlates the rate of descent to
the viscosity of the liquid.

Figure 2: Falling Cylinder Viscometer

SAYBOLT VISCOMETER
This Saybolt instrument, shown in Figure 3, measures the number of seconds it takes for a fixed
quantity of liquid (60 cubic centimeters) to flow through a small orifice of standard length and
diameter at a specific temperature. The time of flow is taken in seconds, and the viscosity is
expressed as Second, Saybolt Universal (SSU). For example, a certain liquid might have a
viscosity of 80 SSU at 130oF. The Saybolt viscosimeter consists of a container for the liquid
surrounded by a bath heated by heating coils to bring the liquid to the specific temperature at
which the viscosity is to be measured. There is a standard viscosimeter orifice located at the
bottom of the container. Passage through the orifice is blocked with a cork.
The container is filled to a marked level with the liquid to be tested. Then a small container
marked at the 60cc level is placed under the orifice. When the liquid is at the desired
temperature, the cork is removed. The number of seconds required for the liquid to reach the
60cc level gives the SSU reading.
 Figure 3: Saybolt Viscometer

pH Measurement

pH is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration, a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of

a solution. The pH scale usually ranges from 0 to 14. Aqueous solutions at 25°C with a pH less
than 7 are acidic, while those with a pH greater than 7 are basic or alkaline. A pH level of 7.0 at
25°C is defined as "neutral" because the concentration of H3O+ equals the concentration of
OH− in pure water. Very strong acids might have a negative pH, while very strong bases might
have a pH greater than 14.
pH only has meaning in an aqueous solution (in water). Many chemicals, including liquids, do
not have pH values. If there's no water, there's no pH. For example, there is no pH value
for vegetable oil, gasoline, or pure alcohol.
Examples of pH Values of Common Chemicals
We work with many acids (low pH) and bases (high pH) every day. Examples of pH values of
lab chemicals and household products include:
0: hydrochloric acid
2.0: lemon juice
2.2: vinegar
4.0: wine
7.0: pure water (neutral)
7.4: human blood
13.0: lye
14.0: sodium hydroxide

Working Principle
An acidic solution has far more positively charged hydrogen ions in it than an alkaline one, so it
has greater potential to produce an electric current in a certain situation in other words, it's a bit
like a battery that can produce a greater voltage. A pH meter takes advantage of this and works
like a voltmeter: it measures the voltage (electrical potential) produced by the solution whose
acidity we're interested in, compares it with the voltage of a known solution, and uses the
difference in voltage (the "potential difference") between them to deduce the difference in pH.

Construction Glass-Electrode Device:

In the glass-electrode method as shown in Figure (1), the known pH of a reference solution is
determined by using two electrodes, a glass electrode and a reference electrode, and measuring
the voltage (difference in potential) generated between the two electrodes. The difference in pH
between solutions inside and outside the thin glass membrane creates electromotive force in
proportion to this difference in pH. This thin membrane is called the electrode membrane.
Normally, when the temperature of the solution is 30 ℃, if the pH inside is different from that of
outside by 1, it will create approximately 60 mV of electromotive force.

Figure 1: Glass-Electrode pH Device

The liquid inside the glass electrode usually has a pH of 7. Thus, if one measures the
electromotive force generated at the electrode membrane, the pH of the sample can be found by
calculation.
A second electrode is necessary when measuring the electromotive force generated at the
electrode membrane of a glass electrode. This other electrode, paired with the glass electrode, is
called the reference electrode. The reference electrode must have extremely stable potential.
Therefore, it is provided with a pinhole or a ceramic material at the liquid junction. In other
words, a glass electrode is devised to generate accurate electromotive force due to the difference
in pH. And a reference electrode is devised not to cause electromotive force due to a difference
in pH.