7 Motion in a circle Define the radian and express angular displacement in radians, Understand and use angular speed to solve problems, Recall and use v=re to solve problems. Understand the centripetal acceleration for motion in a circle at constant speed. Recall and use the centripetal acceleration equations a=ra* and Describe how motion in a curved path needs a perpendicular force. ooo ooao Recall and use the centripetal force equations F=mro* and =, Kinematics of uniform circular motion Radians and angular displacement The angular displacement @ of an object moving in a circular path is usually measured in radians (Figure 7.1) OL ALevel For a complete circle (360°), !=20r, so 0=2 radians: 1 diane 2 575% PY ae Angular velocity ‘The angular velocity @ of an object is the rate of change of angular displacement with time: ‘ 46 one ‘A Figure 7.1 Radian measure where AQ is the angle ‘swept’ by the radius in time Ar and is measured in radians per second (rads or just s“), The linear speed v is related to the angular speed « by the equation: vere For an object moving with constant angular speed @ around a circle of radius + (see Figure 7.2), the time for one complete revolution is T, where: 2ar on vy @ Worked example ‘The approximate distance from the Earth to the Moon is 3.84x10"m; the | _& Figure 7.2 Angular velocity Moon takes 27.3 days to orbit the Barth. Caleulate: a) the angular velocity @ of the Moon around the Earth b) the average speed v of the Moon, ns Answer me dn a) on 6610-8 YO 373x204 XOXO * 1 = 3,84 10"%2.66% 10 = 1.02kns*Centripetal acceleration and centripetal force Centripetal acceleration “ Velocity is a vector quantity—it has both magnitude and direction. Since an object moving in a circle is constantly changing direction, its velocity is | \r constantly changing. It is accelerating From Figure 7.3, for an object moving a small angular displacement A@in a small time Af, the change in velocity Av is ine at av=20sin%2)=v00 (@8 Ag is very small) z So the centripetal acceleration a is: ae vae rhe aan 0 z A Figure 7.8 Centripetal a=reta) acceleration SIT Worked example ‘A wind turbine (see Figure 7.4) rotates at 14 revolutions per minute (p.m). The diameter of the turbine is 70m. For small angles: sin where the angle #is measured in radians. a) Calculate the angular velocity of the turbine in sads 'b) Determine the centripetal acceleration of a point i) at the end of one of the turbine blades at the midpoint of one of the turbine blades, Answer fi = =o Lariads a) w= 14rpm.=—o b) i) a=ro'=35x1.47'=75.6ms* ii) a=rw"= 17.51.47 Centripetal force From F=ma, a force is needed to accelerate an object. If an object is moving along a curved path it must be accelerating because its velocity (a vector) is changing direction, even if its speed is constant. ‘The force needed to keep an object of mass m moving in a circle of radius r with constant speed v is: A Figure 7.4 Wind turbine P) Femombor Fema= mre? = The direction of the acceleration is towards the centre of the circle so the force must act towards the centre of the circle (Figure 7.5) 4A Figure 7.5 Centripetal force SMotion ina circle @ Worked examples 1. The international space station ISS (Figure 7.6) orbits the Earth at a height of 400km above the Earth's surface, taking 92 minutes, to complete one orbit. ‘The radius of the Earth is 6370km. a) Calculate: i) the angular velocity of the space station ii) the centripetal acceleration of the space station, 1b) The mass of the space station is 4.2 10°kg. i) Calculate the centripetal force acting on the space station. i) What provides this force? Answer ) @e2% 22 sade" D228 2 ot rads ‘A Figure 7.6 International Space Station orbiting the Earth I) a=ret= (6.37% 106 +4% 105) (1.1410 = b) i) F=ma=4.2« 105x8,80=3.70%10°N i) The gravitational pull of the Earth on the space station keeps it in orbit around the Earth. sms 2 A ball of mass m connected to a string of length tis whirled in a vertical circle at a constant speed v, as shown in Figure 7.7. a) Explain why the ball is accelerating even though itis travelling at constant speed. 'b) Calculate the tension in the string i) when the ball is at its lowest point i) when the ball is at its highest point. ©) Determine the minimum velocity needed for the ball to A Figure 7.7 Vertical rotation of continue to travel in a cizcular path. aball Answer a) Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity~a vector quantity, which has both magnitude and direction. As the direction of the ball is changing continuously, the velocity is also changing. It is accelerating. b) i) At the lowest point fi) At the highest point (ove Figure 78) (see Figure 75) 1 mv ma fe rome emg =H a Tame + pee A Figure 78 7 ©) From b) i, the tension in the string cannot be less than zero (otherwise the string will be slack and the ball will be in free fall). {2 . ris a nis0 wT A Figure 7.90 Raise your grade conical pendulum consists of a small ball of mass 50g suspended on a string and rotated in a circle of radius 0.40m at a constant speed of 90 rp.m., as shown. [The value of gis .81ms*] (@) () Show that the angular velocity w of the sphere is 9.4 rads". w= 40 cpm =LX2k Gh rad sv (Comect method ard eaeuation, 11 (i) Hence show that the centripetal acceleration of the ball is 35 ms~. (©) @) Calculate the centripetal force acting on the ball Fama= (50x10) x393=1T] vx centripetal force=1 71, (i) State the direction of this force. Outwards from the centre of the circle x (c) Show that the angle is approximately 75°. i x 107 x 0.40 x 4.4® Tsin@ _ ATI tan =“co60)~ 0.441=8 Exam-style questions (The value of gis 9.81ms*,] 1 (a) Express the following angles in radians: (0° ii) 250° (3) (b) Express the following radian measures in degrees: = 3a oa oF af (3) An electric fan rotates at 800 rp.m. The distance from the tip of a blade of the fan to the centre is 30.0em, Calculate: (9) the angular speed of the fan in rads* (b) the linear speed of the tip of ablade. [2] A simple pendulum consists of a small ball of ‘mass 80.0g tied to a thin string of length 0.60m. 0.6m we oe ‘The ball is pulled to one side so that it is raised 0.051 above its lowest position and released. Calculate: (@) the speed of the ball when it reaches its lowest position (b) the maximum tension in the sting. A ball of mass mis connected to a string of length and whirled around to form a conical pendulum moving with angular velocity « in a horizontal circle of radius r. (@) State an expression, in terms of m, rand 0 for: () the centripetal acceleration of the ball (i the centripetal force acting on the ball. [2] Motion ina (b) Hence show that: @ T=mlo? w tondt e A ball of mass 0.20kg is connected to a light, inextensible string and rotates in a vertical circle of radius 0.40m. The speed of the ball at its lowest point is 6.0ms (@) Use the principle of conservation of energy to show that the speed of the ball at its highest point is 4.5ms", (2) (©) Hence calculate the tension in the string: (0 at its lowest point (ip at its highest point. BI (6) Descrie and explain what would happen if the speed of the ball at its lowest point was 3.0mst, (2) A cyclist travels in a circle of radius 50.01 at a speed of 20ms*, as shown below. The combined mass of the motorcyclist and motorcycle is 250 kg. (@) Calculate: ( the combined weight W of the motorcyclist and the motorcycle (ip the vertical reaction force R. Pl (©) ( Calculate the centripetal acceleration of the ‘motorcycle and motorcyclist (i Hence show that the centripetal force Fis 20kN, Gl {6) Explain what provides the force F Pl (4) Show that the angle @ is 1°. State any assumptions you make. elALevel, 8 Gravitational fields A19.1-135 pages 196-207 Understand the idea of gravitational field as an example of field of force, and define gravitational field strength as force per unit mass. [2 Understand that, outside the sphere, the mass of a sphere can be treated as a point mass at its centre Recall and use Newton’s law of gravitation in the form Analyse circular orbits in inverse square law fields, including geostationary orbits, by relating the gravitational force to the centripetal acceleration it causes. (Derive, from Newion's law of gravitation and the definition of gravitational field strength, the equation g= for the gravitational field strength of a point mass, ‘ ion go fon 1 Recall and solve problems using the equation g= > for gravitational field strength of a point mass. Appreciate that, on the surface of the Earth, x is approximately constant. [Define gravitational potential at a point as the work done in bringing unit mass from infinity to the point, Newton’s law of gravitation Any two masses will attract each other. The size of the force of attraction depends on the product of the two masses and varies inversely as the square of their distance apart, This can be summarised in Newton's law of gravilat Gyn, r 4A Figure 8.1 Newton's law of where m, and m, are the masses, and r the distance between the centres of gravitation the two masses (Figure 8.1). G is a constant, called the universal gravitational constant, and is equal to 6.67% 10 Nm? kg?, For objects such as planets and moons, each mass can be treated as if all the mass fs acting at the centre of the object (in the same way as a charged sphere can be treated as if all the charge is at the centre of the sphere). ‘The value of G is provided Worked examples in Exam Papers 1, 2, and 4. The Earth has a mass of 6.0%10%'kg, and the Moon has a mass of 7.4% 10%kg. The average distance between the centre of the Earth, and the centre of the Moon is 3.9% 10*km. Calculate the gravitational force exerted on the Moon by the Earth. eee entS eeTa Answer by the Moon on the Earth. IP) Remember ‘Spherical masses can be treated as if all the mass is concentrated at the centre. 2x 10°" x (6.0 x 10") x (7.4.x 10") (3.9 10" x 10°F 95 x10" NGravitational fields oe Gravitational field strength The gravitational field strength g at a point is the force per unit mass on a small test mass at that point (see Figure 8.2). It is a vector (having both magnitude and dizection) and has units of N kg" + From Newton's law, for a mass M the gravitational field a distance r from the centre of the mass is: ‘4 Figure 8.2 Gravitational cM field strength g ar ‘The direction of the fore is towards the centre of mass M. Gravitational field lines can be drawn to show the direction of the gravitational field. Figure 8.3 illustrates that the Earth’s gravitational field is radial (it varies as 1/r), but on a smaller scale, such as near the Earth’s surface, the field Near the Earth’s surface strength is constant in both magnitude and direction a uniform field, the gravitational field g is ‘constant and has a value of 9.81 kg". Worked example [GM for Barth is 4.0x10"N mékg; radius of the Earth is 6.4% 10*km.} Calculate the gravitational field strength: a) onthe Earth’s surface b) 1.00km above the Earth’s surface Answer. A Figure 8.3 Radial ay gM. 4010 ig gnig These values illustrate gravitational field PF Gaxl0y why g near the Earth's a surface can be considered FO py 2 SNkg* (Sconce (“ake care to be consistent ‘with units. In this question, GMis in S. units, sor nv Orbital motion Ihanoa beceabatan Any object moving round in a circle of radius r at a constant speed v is “the value for r into the accelerating because it is constantly changing direction. Acceleration is the ‘equation. rate of change of velocity (a vector), and an object moving in a circle is changing direction. The acceleration is a where Using F=ma, the force F needed to keep an object of mass m moving in a citcle of radius r with constant speed v (see Figure 8.4) is: In the case of a satellite orbiting the Earth, or a planet orbiting the Sun, this force is the gravitational force of attraction. For a mass m orbiting a mass M at a distance r: GM _ mv" r e ‘A Figure 8.4 Orbital motion The time T for one orbit is:Worked example [GM for Earth =4.0% 10" Nam'kg-*, radius of the Earth=6.4%10*km] A satellite is orbiting in a low Earth orbit, 1000km above the Earth’s surface. Calculate: For more details about circular motion see Unit 7 Motion in a circle. a) the speed of the satellite b) the time taken for one orbit of the Earth ‘Answer cM 40 coms a) vay ea wt IOS by 7e2et_2e (64 x10" +10) a 7.410" [ Remember that the radius ‘of treat isihe radius of 6.28 x 10's (about 105 minutes) Geostationary satellites Satellites in geostationary orbit complete one rotation of the Earth in 24 hours, as shown in Figure 8.5. Viewed from Earth, the satellites appear stationary. = Rev To dal erarranging T= 2x7 the radius & of a geostationary orbit is (carr _ [#108 x 04x 6x 60 i a i ‘A Figure 8.5 Geostationary orbit R=4.8x 10m ‘The height # of a geostationary satellite above the Earth’s surface is: h=4,23% 10" 6.4% 10°=3,59 x 10’ m Gravitational potential Eo ‘The gravitational potential @ at a point P is defined as the work done in By convention, bringing unit mass (1kg) from infinity to that point (see Figure 8.6). As gravitational potential work would need to be done in taking unit mass from the point to infinity, is zero at infinity, so gravitational potential is always negative. anywhere else the gravitational potential [Riong way aay Distance fom the © centre of oe ‘A Figure 8.6 Gravitational potential ‘A Figure 8.7 Variation of gravitational potentialGravitational fields oe For point P, a distance r from a mass M, as shown in Figures 8.6 and 8.7, the gravitational potential is: cM. oe ‘This means that (GM/r) joules of energy are needed to move 1kg from Pio _| The units of gravitational a long way away from M. The closer point P is to mass M (the smaller the potential are Jkg”. value of r), the greater the value of (GM/r), and so the greater the energy needed to move 1kg to a point far away from M. Worked example ‘The escape velocity is. Ignoring air resistance how fast must an object be thrown up in the air to | the velocity an object not come down again? (What is its escape velocity?) needs to completely break free from the Answer gravitational field of a mass and ‘escape’ to ' gM On the Earth's surface the gravitational potential is -& so where Ris the zadius of the Earth, and M its mass. ‘An amount of energy equal to St is needed for 1g 0 ‘escape’ Gam soa mass m would need joules of energy. ‘The kinetic energy given to the object must be at least as large as this for the object to escape: dmv! = BoM ve Po R For Earth, GM=4,0x 10" N mékg , R=6.4% 10° km, so px4.0x10" ‘The ‘escape velocity’ x10 from Earth is about =1.12x10'ms! ules Gum R Ponape Gravitational field and gravitational potential difference ‘The gravitational potential difference between two points is the work done in moving unit mass (1kg) from one point to the other. If the two points are close enough together, such that the gravitational field strength g does not change significantly, the change in gravitational potential A@ in moving a small distance A/t is: Ag=galt Fora mass m moving a distance Af, the change in gravitational potential energy AE, is mgd (the equation for gravitational potential energy calculations on, or near, the Earth's surface). See Unit 6 Work, energy and power for examples of the use of this equation.0 Raise your grade The graph shows how the gravitational potential ¢ due to the planet Mars varies with distance r from the centre of the planet. The mean radius of Mars is 3.4 x 10m. rg 6/107? {@) () Define gravitational potential. ‘The gravitational potential at a point is the energy ded to move mass the other way. 7 (b) Use the graph to find the gravitational potenti () onthe surface of Mars 13x10! Teg y, gravitational potential: Gi) at a point P, 6.0x 10m from the centre of Mars. Ux to’ Teg. gravitational potenti (c) Calculate the energy needed to move 100kg from the surface of Mars to the point P. Ener, ede 100 x (12 X 1o'=11 x 10) Ixolvy.8 Exam-style questions [Use G= 6.67% 10" Nm?kg® radius of the Earth=6.4%10' km) 1 Two average-sized adults are standing approximately 1.0m apart (@) Estimate the mass of one adult. fea (0) Hence estimate the gravitational force between the two adults 0 (6) If both adults are standing on a frictionless surface, and in the absence of air resistance, estimate the size of the acceleration towards each other. 0 2 The Moon orbits the Earth once in 27.3 days. Its mean orbital radius is 3.8% 10°km. Use this {information to calculate the mass of the Earth. [3] 8 Use g on the Earth’s surface as 9.81 Nkg*. The Earth’s radius is 6.37%10*km, (@) Calculate the mass of the Earth. (©) Justify the number of significant figures in your answer. 13] 4 A planet is in a circular orbit around a star of ‘mass M. The radius of the orbit is X, and the time for one orbit is T. (a) Show that the velocity v of the planet is: Fe Rg pera constant 8) (b) Hence show that: 5 Use g on the surface of the Moon as 1.6ms*, ‘The radius of the Moon is 1.74 10°km. calculate: (a) the mass of the Moon (©) the gravitational potential on the surface of the Moon (6) the escape vetoetty from the Moon’s surface. (4) 6 Europa, one of Jupiter's moons, orbits the planet once every 85 hours at a radius of 6.7% 10°km, Calculate: (@) the speed of Europa (©) the mass of Jupiter, (3) Gravitational fields oe 7 (@) Define gravitational potential in} (b) A spacecraft, of mass 6.0% 10‘kg, is in orbit round the Earth at a height of 200 km, Calculate: @ the gravitational field strength at this height Gi the gravitational potential at this height. B) (6) The spacecraft moves to an orbit SOOkm above the Earth's surface. Calculate: @ the gravitational potential at this new height i) the increase in gravitational potential energy of the spacecraft. (3 8 A weather satellite, of mass 320 kg, is to be placed in geostationary orbit, 3.56x10’m above the Earth's surface. (@) {State the time taken for one orbit. i) Show that the speed of the satellite is 3.1x10'ms" Gil) Calculate the kinetic energy of the satellite. a) (b) Calculate the gravitational potential: @) on the Earth's surface Gi at the orbit height of 3.5910" m. B) (6) Calculate the increase in gravitational potential energy of the satellite in being lifted from the Earth’s surface to its orbit height. (1) (d) Suggest one reason why the energy needed to launch the satellite into orbit is much more than the sum of your answers to (@) Git) and (©) a