Wireless and mobile technologies are a broad category of technologies that enable LTE (Long-Term Evolution) is a standard for

wireless broadband communication for

communication without the use of physical wires or cables . These technologies include mobile devices and data terminals. The high-level network architecture of LTE is
wireless networks, mobile devices, and wireless communication protocols such as Wi- composed of the following three key components:
Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular networks. 1. The User Equipment (UE).
2. The Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN).
Wireless networks are computer networks that use wireless data connections between 3. The Evolved Packet Core (EPC).
network nodes . They are commonly used in homes, businesses, and public spaces to An improved packet core communicates with packet data networks such as the internet, a
provide internet access and other network services . Mobile devices are portable company’s private network or the IP multimedia subsystem.
electronic devices that can be used to access wireless networks and other User Equipment (UE)
communication services. They include smartphones, tablets, and laptops. The internal architecture of the user equipment for LTE is exactly the same as that of
UMTS and GSM, which is mobile equipment (ME). The mobile equipment has the
Wireless communication protocols are used to transmit data wirelessly between devices following core modules:
. Wi-Fi is a wireless networking technology that uses radio waves to provide wireless 1. All communication functions are handled by Mobile Termination (MT).
high-speed internet and network connections. Bluetooth is a wireless communication 2. The data streams are terminated in Terminal Equipment (TE).
protocol that is used to connect devices such as smartphones, headphones, and speakers 3. The SIM card for LTE equipment is known as the Universal Integrated Circuit
. Cellular networks are wireless communication networks that provide mobile phone Card (UICC). This application is known as the Universal Subscriber Identity
and data services to users Module (USIM).
The information stored on a USIM card is similar to that of a 3G SIM card, including the
user’s telephone number, home network identity, and security keys.
The Evolved Packet Core (EPC) (The core network) The E-UTRAN (The Access network)
The architecture of the Evolved Packet Core (EPC) has been revealed in the diagram. An evolved packet core or ePC controls the various information packets that are sent
Besides, a few elements have not been shown in the diagram for simplicity between mobile devices and the core network. In contrast to an eNB, which is a base
reasonsMobility Management Entity (MME): Responsible for managing the mobility station that controls mobile devices in one or more cells, an eNodeB controls radio
of UEs, including tracking their location, authenticating them, and assigning them communication between an evolved packet core or ePC and mobile devices.
temporary IP addresses. An eNB can perform two main functions when connected to an LTE mobile device:
• Serving Gateway (SGW): Routes • The eBN sends and receives radio signals to and from all the mobile devices using
user data packets between the eNodeB the analogue and digital signal processing functions of the LTE air interface.
and the PDN GW. It performs packet • The eNB sends handover commands to all of its mobiles at a low level, controlling
forwarding, address translation, and their operation.
congestion control. The EPC allows each eBN to be connected
• Packet Data Network Gateway to the S1 interface of nearby base stations
(PDN GW): Connects the EPC to the and the X2 interface for signalling and
external packet data network packet forwarding during handover, but it
(PDN), such as the internet. It can also be connected to them via the S1
performs routing, security interface.
functions, and charging for data A home eNB (HeNB) is a user-owned base
services. station for providing femtocell coverage in
• Home Subscriber Server the home. A home eNB is part of a closed
(HSS): Stores user profiles and subscriber group (CSG) and may only be
subscription information, such as authentication credentials and authorized reached by mobile phones with a USIM that
services. also belongs to the CSG.
• Policy and Charging Rules Function (PCRF): Defines policies for controlling
user access to network resources and charging them for data usage.
• Equipment Identity Register (EIR): Stores information about UE identities and
helps to prevent unauthorized access to the network.
The open wireless architecture of 5G is designed to provide a flexible and scalable
platform for wireless communication . It is based on the principles of software-defined Standards Data Frequency Description Modulation Throughput Range Mult
networking (SDN) and network function virtualization (NFV) 1. The architecture is Rate Band Ante
designed to be open and modular, allowing for the integration of new technologies and
services 802.11 Up to 2.4 GHz Original FHSS, DSSS Low Low No
The high-level architecture of the open wireless architecture of 5G is composed of the 2 standard
following three key components: Mbps providing
basic wireless
connectivity.

802.11a Up to 5 GHz Introduced OFDM Medium Medium No

54 higher data
Mbps rates
operating in
the 5 GHz
band.
802.11b Up to 2.4 GHz Improved data DSSS Low Low No
11 rates
Mbps compared to
the original
standard.
1. Radio Access Network (RAN): The RAN is responsible for transmitting and
receiving radio signals between the user equipment (UE) and the core network 1. It 802.11g Up to 2.4 GHz Enhanced data OFDM Medium Medium No
54 rates in the 2.4
includes the base station (BS) and the distributed unit (DU) 1.
Mbps GHz band
2. Centralized Unit (CU): The CU is responsible for controlling the RAN and with
managing the network resources 1. It includes the central unit (CU) and the network compatibility.
function virtualization infrastructure (NFVI) 1.
3. Core Network (CN): The CN is responsible for providing connectivity between
802.11n Up to 2.4 GHz Utilized OFDM, High High Yes
the UE and external networks such as the internet and private networks 1. It includes 600 and 5 GHz MIMO MIMO
the network function virtualization infrastructure (NFVI) and the network function Mbps technology for
services (NFS) 1. improved
The open wireless architecture of 5G is designed to be open and modular, allowing for speed and
the integration of new technologies and services 1. It is based on the principles of range.
software-defined networking (SDN) and network function virtualization (NFV), which
enable the network to be more flexible and scalable

1. Data Rate: The maximum theoretical speed at which data can be transmitted 4.Modulation: The technique used to encode data for transmission over the wireless
in megabits per second (Mbps). medium (e.g., DSSS, OFDM).
2. Frequency Band: The radio frequency range (in GHz) used for wireless 5.Throughput: The actual achieved data transfer rate in practical conditions (may vary
communication. from the theoretical rate).
3. Description: A brief summary or characteristic of the standard's purpose or 6.Range: The distance over which the signal can maintain a usable connection between
improvement over previous standards. devices.
. 7.Multiple Antennas: Indicates whether the standard employs multiple antennas (MIMO)
to enhance performance
Q. list various simulators used for simulation of wireless network Features LTE LTE-Advanced (LTE-A)
Peak Data Rate Up to 100 Mbps Up to 1 Gbps
1. NS-3 (Network Simulator 3): An open-source discrete-event network simulator Carrier Not fully supported Supports aggregation of multiple carriers
that supports a wide range of networking technologies and protocols. It's highly Aggregation for higher data rates
extensible and used for academic and research purposes. MIMO Up to 4x4 MIMO Supports higher MIMO configurations like
2. OMNeT++: A modular, component-based simulation framework primarily used for 8x8 MIMO and beyond
modeling and simulating communication networks, protocols, and distributed Spectral Lower efficiency compared Higher spectral efficiency achieved through
systems. Efficiency to LTE-A advanced techniques
3. OPNET (Riverbed Modeler): A commercial simulation tool that provides a Backward Follows backward Maintains compatibility with LTE and
comprehensive environment for network modeling, particularly in the field of Compatibility compatibility with previous earlier standards
wireless and wired networks. standards
4. QualNet: A commercial network simulation tool known for its detailed wireless Relaying Minimal support for relaying Enhanced support for relaying to improve
network simulation capabilities, offering various modeling features and scalability coverage and capacity
options. Latency Relatively higher latency Reduced latency for faster response times
5. Matlab/Simulink: Offers simulation capabilities for wireless communication (e.g., for gaming or real-time applications)
systems, allowing users to model and simulate wireless networks using built-in Advanced Limited advanced features Incorporates advanced technologies like
functions and toolboxes. Features and functionalities carrier aggregation, enhanced MIMO, and
relaying for better performance
Parameter 1G 2G (GSM) 3G 4G (LTE) 5G
(Analo (UMTS) Features Infrastructure-based WLAN Ad hoc-based WLAN
g) Network Centralized architecture with AP Decentralized architecture
Year of 1980s Early 1990s Early Late 2000s 2019 Architecture (Access Point) managing without a dedicated
Introductio 2000s (Commercial communications infrastructure or APs
n ) Access Point APs coordinate and control No APs; devices
Data Rate Up to Up to 64 Up to 2 Up to 100 Multi-Gbps (AP) network access, manage communicate directly with
(Peak) 2.4 Kbps Mbps Mbps (Theoretical) connections, and handle traffic each other
Kbps Connectivity Devices connect to APs, and APs Devices communicate
Frequency Multip Multiple Various Multiple Various manage connections to other directly with each other
Band le bands bands bands bands (Sub-6 devices within proximity
bands GHz, Scalability Generally higher scalability due to Limited scalability as it relies
mmWave) centralized management and on individual devices for
Modulation Analog TDMA CDMA OFDMA Advanced coverage provided by multiple connectivity
Techniques Modulation APs
(e.g., OFDM) Coverage Area Coverage area is defined by the Limited coverage area as it
Spectrum Low Moderate Improv High Higher range of APs, providing broader depends on the proximity of
Efficiency ed Efficiency coverage in larger areas devices
Latency High Moderate Reduce Further Ultra-Low Setup More complex setup due to the Simpler setup as devices can
d Reduced Latency Complexity deployment and configuration of directly connect without
Connection Low Moderate Improv High Extremely APs and network infrastructure additional infrastructure
Density ed High Network Easier network management due Lack of centralized control
Mobility Basic Better Enhanc Seamless Ultra- Management to centralized control through APs may lead to challenges in
Support ed Reliable Low managing the network
Latency Security Generally considered more secure Security can be a concern
Communicat with features like encryption and due to the lack of a
ion authentication at the AP level centralized infrastructure
(URLLC) Interference and Better management of interference Susceptible to interference
Multiple Analog FDMA/TD CDMA OFDMA/TD Advanced Congestion and congestion through APs and congestion as devices
Access MA MA Multiple coordinating channel access share the same channel
Schemes Access directly
Schemes GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. GSM is an open and
Key Analog Digital Data High-Speed High digital cellular technology used for mobile communication. It uses 4 different frequency
Technologic Voice Voice Calls, Services Data, IP Throughput, bands of 850 MHz, 900 MHz, 1800 MHz and 1900 MHz . It uses the combination of
al Calls SMS , Video Telephony Low FDMA and TDMA. This article includes all the concepts of GSM architecture and how it
Advanceme Calling Latency, works. GSM is having 4 different sizes of cells are used in GSM :
nts Massive 1. Macro : In this size of cell, Base Station antenna is installed.
Connectivity 2. Micro : In this size of cell, antenna height is less than the average roof level.
3. Pico : Small cells’ diameter of few meters.
4. Umbrella : It covers the shadowed (Fill the gaps between cells) regions.
1. Mobile Station (MS): The mobile device used by the subscriber, including the GSM is nothing but a larger system which is divided into further 3 subsystems.
mobile phone or IoT device. 1. BSS : BSS stands for Base Station Subsystem. BSS handles traffic and signaling
2. Base Transceiver Station (BTS): Responsible for radio transmission and between a mobile phone and the network switching subsystem. BSS having two
reception to and from the mobile device. It houses the antennas and amplifiers. components BTS and BSC.
3. Base Station Controller (BSC): Manages multiple BTSs, handles call setup, 2. NSS : NSS stands for Network and Switching Subsystem. NSS is the core network
handovers, and radio frequency allocation. It's responsible for managing radio of GSM. That carried out call and mobility management functions for mobile phone
resources. present in network. NSS have different components like VLR, HLR and EIR.
4. Mobile Switching Center (MSC): The central component that connects the GSM 3. OSS : OSS stands for Operating Subsystem. OSS is a functional entity which the
network to external networks (PSTN, other mobile networks). It handles call network operator monitor and control the system. OMC is the part of OSS. Purpose
switching, routing, and management of subscriber databases. of OSS is to offer the customer cost-effective support for all GSM related
5. Visitor Location Register (VLR): Stores temporary subscriber information when maintenance services.
users roam into a new location. It's a database associated with the MSC.
6. Home Location Register (HLR): Stores permanent subscriber information,
including subscriber profiles, authentication keys, and location information.
7. Authentication Center (AuC): Manages security functions by providing
authentication and encryption keys for secure communication between the MS and
the network.
8. Equipment Identity Register (EIR): Maintains a database of mobile equipment
identities to track stolen, unauthorized, or faulty devices.
9. Gateway Mobile Switching Center (GMSC): Responsible for interfacing
between the GSM network and external networks, especially when routing calls
between different networks.
Features of GSM are :
1. Supports international roaming
2. Clear voice clarity
3. Ability to support multiple handheld devices.
4. Spectral / frequency efficiency
5. Low powered handheld devices.
6. Ease of accessing network New features and services.