Moral Courage- the courage “to put your moral B.

Human Sexual Ethics - human

principles into action even though you may be in sexuality, pre-marital sex, extra-marital
doubt, are afraid, or face adverse consequences. sex, pornography, contraception,
- The inner strength to make decision, take action, loveless and casual sex, rape, etc.
handle and execute any aim or moral task. C. Environmental Ethics - animal welfare
Moral Imagination-Ability to discern and reflect on and rights, environmental sanitation,
various possibilities for acting within a given situation pollution control, kaingin, cyanide fishing,
an envision the potential help and harm of an action. etc.
Will- the capacity to act decisively on one’s desire. D. Business Ethics - harassment, job
-Refers to the faculty of mind that selects, at discrimination, employer-employee
the moment of the decision, from amongst relationship, whistle blowing,
the strongest desires from among the various unprofessionalism, false advertising, etc.
desires present. E. Social Ethics - poverty, child labor, war
Developing the will on drugs, death penalty, racial
 develop and practice self-discipline, discrimination, gender discrimination,
 do mental strength training, etc.
 draw inspiration from people with great Aristotle: Telos; Virtue as Habit; Happiness as
courage, Virtue
 repeatedly do acts that exhibit moral courage  Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) is an Ancient Greek
and will, and philosopher who has significant contributions
 avoid deeds that show lack of moral courage to almost any area of study such as Logic,
and will Biology, Aesthetics and Ethics.
Basic Theories and Frameworks in Ethics  The Principle of the Golden Mean (e.g.
Framework-basic structure underlying a system or Virtue is Courage between cowardice and
concept. recklessness)
-Set of assumptions, concepts, values, and  Telos is a Greek term which means “end” (or
practices that constitutes a way of viewing morality purpose).
1) Meta-ethics- consists in the attempt to answer  Aristotle explains that a person acquires
the fundamental philosophical questions about the character excellence by habituation
nature of ethical theory itself  1) Moral virtues, and 2) Intellectual virtues
A. Cognitivism is a view that ethical  happiness or “eudaimonia” is the summum
judgments are propositions, hence, they can bonum or the supreme good
either be true or false  Eudaimonictic View- Human flourishing,
B. Non-cognitivism is a view that ethical focuses on happiness and how to obtain it
judgments cannot be true or false, but they St. Thomas Aquinas and Natural Law
are most likely expressions of emotions or  Known as the Angelic Doctor and Prince of
exclamations. Scholastics
C. Subjectivism is an ethical view that  Italian philosopher and theologian who ranks
morality depends on the individual’s among the most important thinkers of the
attitudes, beliefs, desires, etc., rather than medieval time period
anything external.  Summa Theologica and Summa Contra
D. Objectivism is an ethical view that Gentiles
morality is absolute (objective) wherein it is  Natural Law is based on the two fundamental
based on moral facts and principles, rather authority the Bible and Aristotle.
than anything from the individual’s attitudes,  Natural Law is universal, unchanging and
beliefs, desires, etc. recognizable
2) Normative ethics- is the study of what makes  “Good is to be done and pursued… and evil
actions right or wrong, what makes situations or to be avoided”.
events good or bad and what makes people virtuous  Four primary types of law
or vicious.  Eternal Law refers to the rational
A. Deontology is a theory that bases plan of God by which all creation is
morality on moral rules or duties. “Let justice ordered
be done through heavens fall.”  Natural Law is that aspect of the
B. Teleology is a theory that determines the eternal law which is accessible to
moral value of actions by their outcomes or human reason
results. “The end justifies the means.”  Human Law refers to the positive
C. Utilitarianism, sometimes called natural laws
consequentialism, is a theory that bases  Divine Law is a law of revelation,
morality on the consequences of actions. disclosed through sacred text or
D. Virtue ethics is a theory that is character- Scriptures and the Church which is
based rather than act-based like deontology also directed toward man’s eternal
or teleology. When we say that it is end”
character-based, it means that we judge or  In order to achieve true happiness, humans
determine goodness (or badness) in the must follow certain natural laws
person by judging the overall character or  the Primary precepts (which ensure
virtues that he/she possesses. self-preservation such as
3) Applied ethics- consists in the attempt to answer reproduction, education, peaceful
difficult moral questions actual people face in their living in a society and worshipping
lives God)
A. Bioethics - abortion, euthanasia,  the Secondary precepts (the ways
surrogate motherhood, cloning and in which the primary precepts can be
genetic manipulation, mutilation, etc. put into practice)
 “believes that all actions are directed towards
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 ends and that eternal happiness is the final  Act as to treat humanity, whether in
end. your own person or in that of any
 habits (as virtues): (1) acquired habits and other person or in that of any other, in
(2) infused habits every case as an end in itself, not as
 infused virtues:(1) the moral and (2) the means only. (Principle of Humanity
theological virtues as End-in-Itself)
 Basic kinds of Moral Virtues  Act so that your will is what makes
 Prudence – this virtue is an exercise universal law. (Principle of
of understanding that helps us know Autonomy)
the best means in solving moral
problems in which we encounter in Rights Theory
the concrete circumstances  Legal rights refer to all the rights that you
 Justice – The habit is an exercise of have (as stated in any existing law) as a
the will to give or render what is due citizen of the Philippines, or any particular
to another country.
 Fortitude – The habit of the will to  Moral Rights- refer to those rights attributed
exercise courage and bravery to all moral entities. These rights are
despite facing grave danger independent and precisely existed before
especially when serious injury or any legal rights.
threat to life is at stake  Human Rights - “They are best thought of as
 Temperance – The habit is an being both moral and legal rights.
exercise of the will to demonstrate
proper control and restrain in the Utilitarianism (Consequentialism)
midst of strong attraction to  Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill
pleasurable acts  a theory that bases morality on the
 Happiness entails the wholeness/totality of consequences of actions
human being that involves body and soul to  from the Latin term “utilis” which means
be united with the highest good or the useful
summum bonum, no other than God himself  The consequence is judged as right or wrong
who is in heaven. only when there is the presence of
happiness.
Immanuel Kant Jeremy Bentham
 a German thinker regarded by many as the  The basis for an act to be treated as
most significant philosopher in the modern morally right or wrong is in its
era consequence they produced. It is
 The Foundations of the Metaphysics of known as consequentialism. The
Morals and The Critique of Practical Reason consequence is judged as right or
 Kant’s ethics is based primarily on an a priori wrong only when there is the
foundation presence of happiness. Happiness is
 Reason alone; not feelings the determining factor and basis for
 Analytic and a priori the morality of an act in utilitarian
 It conforms to a moral law and done for point of view. The end or telos of
the sake of the law every act is to produce happiness.
 Categorical Imperative- Moral laws are  What matters in every act that we do
necessary and applicable to all would be the amount of
 Kant regards man as a rational being acting pleasure/happiness produced. The
on a principle/maxim (Categorical greatest happiness produced should
Imperative) be chosen over other choices.
 Kant’s 3 Ethical Propositions (Mariano, 2016)  Thus, it follows that human beings
 An act must be done from duty in are inclined more to achieving
order for it to have an inner moral happiness and as much as possible
worth. avoid what is painful. Bentham
 An act done from sense of duty emphasizes the quantity of
derives its moral worth, not from the happiness and pleasure in every
purpose, which is to be attained by it, consequence of an action.
but from the maxim by which it is John Stuart Mill
determined.  made the doctrine the subject of his
 Duty is the necessity of acting from philosophical treatise (Utilitarianism)
respect for the law published in 1863
 Kant’s Categorical Imperative (Mariano,  ‘the greatest happiness principle’ which
2016) states that it is the greatest happiness of the
The supreme principle of the moral law is the greatest number that is the measure of right
categorical imperative and wrong”
Versus hypothetical imperatives, which can  rejects the purely quantitative treatment of
either be imperative of skill or imperative of the principle of utility; second, he introduces
prudence the so-called ‘secondary principles’ which set
 Kant’s Formulations of the Categorical the tone for a contemporary variant form of
Imperative (Mariano, 2016) the theory called rule utilitarianism”.
 Act only on that maxim whereby you  qualitative hedonist
can at the same time will that it should
become a universal law. (Principle Business’s Fascination and Utilitarianism
of Universality)  “If the benefit is lesser than the amount
spent, then it is worth it, therefore, it is pain”
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 politics of different groups of people”
Justice and Fairness: Promoting the Common Good  The moral challenges: 1) the rise of radical
 John Rawls- He is one of the important inequality, 2) the problem of managing global
political philosopher during the 20th century environment to prevent global ecological
 His main work is A Theory of Justice collapse, and 3) the intrusion of international
published in 1971 economic organizations on indebted nations
 proposes justice as fairness as an  3 universal values shared by all cultures
ethical framework (Rachels)
 The term fairness refers not to  1) caring for the young, 2) murder is
equality but equity wrong, and 3) telling the truth.
 Justice is the first virtue of a social  5 generations existing in our time
institution  1) traditionalists, (2) baby boomers,
 Distributive justice- everyone in the (3) generation X, (4) generation Y or
society has to share both the burden the millennials, and (5) generation Z
and the benefit of whatever the  the Millennials, who were born from 1981 to
society offers 2000, are also called the “digital natives.
The two principles of justice and fairness Most likely to have conflict with their parents
are as follows: and children.
 “Each person is to have equal right to  the Generation Z are those who were born in
the most extensive scheme of equal 2001 to present, the era of mobile
basic liberties compatible with a technologies such as smartphones, tablets,
similar scheme of liberties for others”. iPad, etc
 “Social and economic inequalities are  things that the Filinnials care more about
to be arranged so that they are both than their millennial counterparts from other
countries
a) reasonably expected to be to
 1) 83% of Filipino youths rely heavily
everyone’s advantage, and b)
on their parents for advice, 2) on
attached to positions and offices adulthood, Filinnials value close
open to all”. family relationships, 3) Filinnials are
The Principles of Taxation and Inclusive Growth more active in social media and are
more easily influenced by peers, etc
 1987 Constitution, Article X - Section V- the
government has the power to create sources The Religious Response: The Role of Religion in
of revenues and to levy taxes, fees and Ethics
charges. The government cannot support its  Religion is a “specific fundamental set of
existence and perform its duties such as beliefs and practices generally agreed upon
projects for the betterment of the land and its by a number of persons or sects”
people without this power of taxation. (dictionary.com).
 “The basis of taxation is necessity and  Religion and ethics are not the same, but the
reciprocal duties. There can be no role of religion is important in a globalized
government without the monetary aspects for world. Inter-religious dialogues are now
its operations. This responsibility springs being done thereby eliminating the gap or
from the concept of rights and duties” disharmony among religions and “working
together to promote peace, justice and social
The Role of Economics and Inclusive Growth harmony”
 “The goal of every economic growth is to  Supernaturalism-Belief in supernatural
increase the production of scares resources being as the foundation of morality
so that every people’s wellbeing shall be  Religious ethics- Concerned with what is
sustained. This happens only when the good or bad, virtuous or vicious in religious
resources are well-distributed for the macro- point of view.
level, which is the (economic growth from  Theistic ethics- God is the foundation of
regional, national and international level), morality.
down to micro-level, which is (economic  Cut-flower thesis- “Morality cannot
growth from the personal level that survive, in a long run, it its ties to religion
addresses their aspirations, capabilities, is cut.”
productivities and opportunities)”  Extremism- Belief and support for ideas that
are very far from what most people consider
Moral Challenges of Globalization correct or reasonable.
 Globalization- as “the continuing world-wide  Threat to religious tradition:
economic integration, recently facilitated by 1. Erosion of human values,
emerging information technologies, that has 2. Onslaught of materialism,
also affected the environment, culture, and 3. Spread of lewd entertainment.

"Even the most rational approach to ethics is defenseless if there isn't the will to do what is
right." Alexander Solzhenitsyn (1918 – 2008)

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