NUMBER THEORY

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu

Department of Mathematics
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
Google Scholar: https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ZJfCMyQAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao
ResearchGate ID: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gabriel_Fosu2

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Number Theory 1 / 27

Lecture Outline

1 Introduction to Numbers
Natural Numbers
Integers
Rational and Irrational Numbers
Real Number

2 Mathematical Induction

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 Introduction to Numbers Natural Numbers

Natural Numbers (N)

Definition
The set of natural numbers, denoted by N, admits a minimum number called one. It is
denoted by the symbol 1.

What happens if we add 1 to itself a certain number of times?

1 + 1 = 2,
1 + 1 + 1 = 3,
1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 4, and

1 {z· · · + 1} = n.
| +1+
n times
We obtain N (also called positive integers).

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Number Theory 4 / 27

 Introduction to Numbers Natural Numbers

Natural Numbers

Some Properties
For any natural numbers a, b, c, the following are true
1 Addition is Commutative: a + b = b + a
2 Addition is Associative: a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
3 Multiplication is commutative: ab = ba
4 Multiplication is Associative: a(bc) = (ab)c
5 Multiplication Distributes over Addition: a(b + c) = ab + ac = (b + c)a

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Number Theory 5 / 27

 Introduction to Numbers Integers

Integers (Z)
Conversely, by subtracting 1 i.e. adding −1,

1 − 1 = 0, (1)
0 − 1 = −1,
−1 − 1 = −2,
.. .. ..
. . .
| − 1{z
−1 − · · · − 1} = −n. (2)
n times

Except 0, these numbers are called negative integers.

An integer (from the Latin integer meaning “whole") is colloquially/informally defined as a

number that can be written without a fractional component. For example, 21, 4, 0, and
-2048 are integers.
Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Number Theory 6 / 27
 Introduction to Numbers Integers

Integers

Definition
1 The set of integers
Z = {· · · , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, · · ·} (3)

2 The set of non-negative integers

Z+ = {0, 1, 2, · · · } (4)

3 The set of non-positive integers

Z− = {· · · , −2, −1, 0} (5)

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Number Theory 7 / 27

 Introduction to Numbers Integers

Integers

Some properties (a, b, c ∈ Z)

1 Addition is Commutative: a + b = b + a
2 Addition is Associative: a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
3 Multiplication is commutative: ab = ba
4 Multiplication is Associative: a(bc) = (ab)c
5 Multiplication Distributes over Addition: a(b + c) = ab + ac
6 Identity Element of Integer Addition is Zero: a + 0 = a = 0 + a
7 Identity Element of Integer Multiplication is One: a · 1 = a = 1 · a
8 Transitivity: a > b and b > c then a > c .
9 Cancellation law: If a · c = b · c and c ̸= 0 then a = b

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Number Theory 8 / 27

 Introduction to Numbers Integers

Rational Number (Q)

Definition
A rational number is a number that can be in the form p/q where p and q are integers and
q is not equal to zero.

1 Also, we can say that any fraction fits under the category of rational numbers, where
the denominator and numerator are integers and the denominator is not equal to zero.
2 When the rational number (i.e., fraction) is divided, the result could be an integer or a
decimal. The decimal may either be terminating or repeating.
3 Example are 1/1 = 1, 1/2 = 0.5, 20/7 = 2.85714285714285714

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 Introduction to Numbers Rational and Irrational Numbers

Rational Numbers Q

Example: Rational numbers are solutions of the equation

nr − m = 0.

2
3 is a rational number and solution of the equation −3r + 2 = 0.

Some Properties
1 Integers are rational numbers i.e. Z ⊂ Q.

2 Multiplicative inverse of nonzero elements of Q belong to Q (i.e.

1
∀q ∈ Q, q ̸= 0 =⇒ q ∈ Q.)

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Number Theory 10 / 27

 Introduction to Numbers Rational and Irrational Numbers

Irrational Numbers

Definition (Irrational Numbers)

These are numbers that cannot be represented as a simple fraction. It cannot be
expressed in the form of a ratio, such as p/q , where p and q are integers, q ̸= 0.
Again, the decimal expansion of an irrational number is neither terminating nor
recurring.

Example
p p
Some examples are 2, 3, π, and the Euler number e

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 Introduction to Numbers Real Number

Real Numbers (R)

Definition (Real Numbers)

Real numbers can be defined as the union of both the rational and irrational numbers.
They can be both positive or negative, decimals or fractions.

Real numbers are often represented along a graduated line with extreme values −∞ and
+∞.

Figure 1: Real numbers

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 Introduction to Numbers Real Number

Real Numbers

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 Introduction to Numbers Real Number

Real Numbers
Some properties (a, b, c ∈ R)
1 Addition is Commutative: a + b = b + a
2 Addition is Associative: a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
3 Multiplication is commutative: ab = ba
4 Multiplication is Associative: a(bc) = (ab)c
5 Multiplication Distributes over Addition: a(b + c) = ab + ac
6 Identity Element of Addition is Zero: a + 0 = a = 0 + a
7 Identity Element of Multiplication is One: a · 1 = a = 1 · a
8 Transitivity: a > b and b > c then a > c .
9 Cancellation law: If a · c = b · c and c ̸= 0 then a = b
10 R is closed under addition (a + b ∈ R), and multiplication (ab ∈ R)

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 Introduction to Numbers Real Number

Theorem (Q is dense in R)
For any two real numbers x and y, if x < y then there exists a rational number q such that
x < q < y (∀x, y ∈ R; x < y =⇒ ∃q ∈ Q; x < q < y ).

Archimedean Property
If x and y are real numbers, and x > 0, then there exist a positive integer n such that

nx > y (6)

Trichotomy
For any x and y , then exactly one of these applies

x < y, x = y, x>y (7)

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 Mathematical Induction

Mathematical Induction

1 The principle of mathematical induction is an important property of positive integers.

2 It is especially useful in proving statements involving all positive integers when it is
known for example that the statements are valid for n = 1, 2, 3 but it is suspected or
conjectured that they hold for all positive integers.
3 The method of proof consists of the following steps:

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 Mathematical Induction

Mathematical Induction
1 Prove the statement for
n=1 (8)
This is the Basis Step, that is P (1) is true
2 Assume the statement true for
n=k (9)
where k is any positive integer. The premise P (n) in the inductive step is called
Induction Hypothesis.
3 From the assumption in (2) prove that the statement must be true for

n = k +1 (10)

That is if P (n) is true, then P (n + 1) is true.

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 Mathematical Induction

Mathematical Induction

a. The basis step states that P (1) is true.

b. Then the inductive step implies that P (2) is also true.
c. By the inductive step again we see that P (3) is true, and so on.
d. Consequently, the property is true for all positive integers.

In the basis step we may replace 1 with some other integer m. Then the conclusion is that
the property is true for every integer n greater than or equal to m.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Number Theory 19 / 27

 Mathematical Induction

Example
Prove that the sum of the n first odd positive integers is n 2 , that is
1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n 2 .

Let S(n) = 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1). We want to prove by induction that for every positive
integer n , S(n) = n 2 .
1 Basis Step: If n = 1 we have S(1) = 1 = 12 , so the property is true for 1
2 Inductive Step: Assume (Induction Hypothesis) that the property is true for some
positive integer n, i e S(n) = n 2 .
3 We must prove that it is also true for n + 1, i.e.,

S(n + 1) = (n + 1)2 (11)

that is the Expected results.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Number Theory 20 / 27

 Mathematical Induction

n + 1 case
1 Picking up from the n = k case, we have

S(k) = 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2k − 1) (12)

2 then the n = k + 1

S(k + 1) = 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2k − 1) + (2k + 1) (13)

= S(k) + (2k + 1) (14)

But by induction hypothesis (12), S(k) = k 2 , hence equation (14) reduces to

S(k + 1) = k 2 + 2k + 1 = (k + 1)2 (15)

This completes the induction, and shows that the property is true for all positive
integers.

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 Mathematical Induction

Example
Prove that 2n + 1 ≤ 2n for n ≥ 3
Solution
This is an example in which the property is not true for all positive integers but only for
integers greater than or equal to 3.
1 Basis Step: If n = 3 we have 2n + 1 = 2(3) + 1 = 7 and 2n = 23 = 8, so the property is true
in this case.
2 Inductive Step : Assume (Induction Hypothesis) that the property is true for some
positive integer n , that is
2n + 1 ≤ 2n (16)

3 We must prove that it is also true for n + 1, that is ,

2(n + 1) + 1 ≤ 2n+1 expected result (17)

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Number Theory 22 / 27

 Mathematical Induction

1 By the induction hypothesis we know that for n = k we have

2k + 1 ≤ 2k (18)

2 Multiplying both sides by 2

2(2k + 1) ≤ 2 × 2k (19)
k+1
4k + 2 ≤ 2 (20)

3 for k > 3 then 4k + 2 > 2k + 3, thence

2k + 3 ≤ 2k+1 (21)

This completes the induction, and shows that the property is true for all n ≥ 3.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Number Theory 23 / 27

 Mathematical Induction

Example
n(n + 1)
Prove that 1 + 2 + · · · + n =
2

Solution
This formula is easily verified for small numbers such as n = 1, 2, 3, or 4, but it is impossible
to verify for all natural numbers on a case-by-case basis. To prove the formula true in
general, a more generic method is required.
We need to show that
1(1 + 1)
n 0 = 1, since 1 = (22)
1
Expected results
(n + 1)(n + 2)
1 + 2 + · · · + n + (n + 1) = (23)
2

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Number Theory 24 / 27

 Mathematical Induction

So for n = k
k(k + 1)
1+2+···+k = (24)
2
then for next time step
k(k + 1)
1 + 2 + · · · + k + (k + 1) = +k +1 (25)
2
k 2 + 3k + 2
= (26)
2
(k + 1)(k + 2)
= (27)
2
This is exactly the formula for the (n + 1)th case.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Number Theory 25 / 27

 Mathematical Induction

Exercise
1 Let consider two natural numbers m, n. Prove that
a) m + n ∈ N
b) m × n ∈ N
2 Prove that n 3 + 4n m + 6 ∈ N if n, m ∈ N.

3 Find a condition on n ∈ N such that 2n 2 − 7n − 4 ∈ N.

4 Prove that for all integers n,
1 if n ≥ 3 then 2n > n + 4.

1−x n+1
2 1 + x + x2 + . . . + xn = 1−x , n ∈ {0, 1, . . .} where x ∈ R − {1}.

3 12 + 22 + . . . + n 2 = 16 n(n + 1)(2n + 1), n ≥ 1.

4 if n ≥ 1, then (1 + x)n ≥ 1 + nx for x ∈ R+ (i.e. x is a non-negative real number).

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Number Theory 26 / 27

 END OF LECTURE
THANK YOU

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Number Theory 27 / 27

 ALGEBRA OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu

Department of Mathematics
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
Google Scholar: https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ZJfCMyQAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao
ResearchGate ID: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gabriel_Fosu2

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Lecture Outline

1 Introduction

2 Operations with Complex Numbers

3 Argand Diagram

4 Argument

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 Introduction

Complex Numbers (C)

p
1 The 4 = ±2, which are real numbers, because 2(2) = 4 and −2(−2) = 4
p
2 A complex number is a number which is not real. The square root of minus three −3
is a complex number because there is no real number which can be multiplied by itself
in order to get −3.
p
2 −1 ± −3
3 The roots of the equation x + x + 1 = 0 are . Hence, no real root.
2
p
4 Mathematician represented −1 by i called the imaginary number. Engineers will
often use j instead.
p p
p p p p −1 ± −3 −1 ± 3i
5 Thus −3 = 3 −1 = 3i and again = This root of complex
2 2 p
number is made up of the real part −1/2 and the imaginary parts ± 3i /2

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Algebra of Complex Numbers 4 / 32

 Introduction

Complex Number

Definition
1
z = x + iy is called a complex number;

2
x = Re(z) is its real part and

3
y = I m(z) is its imaginary part

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 Introduction

Properties
Given that z 1 , z 2 and z 3 are complex numbers:
1 Commutative law of addition z 1 + z 2 = z 2 + z 1
2 Commutative law of multiplication z 1 · z 2 = z 2 · z 1
3 Associative law of addition (z 1 + z 2 ) + z 3 = z 1 + (z 2 + z 3 )
4 Associative law of multiplication (z 1 · z 2 ) · z 3 = z 1 · (z 2 · z 3 )
5 Additive identity: There is a unique complex number 0 = (0, 0) such that z + 0 = 0 + z = z
for all z = (x, y) ∈ C.
6 Multiplicative identity: There is a unique complex number 1 = (1, 0) such that z ·1 = 1·z =
z for all z = (x, y) ∈ C.
7 Additive inverse: For any complex number z = (x, y) there is a unique −z = (−x, −y) ∈ C
such that z + (−z) = (−z) + z = 0.
8 Distributive law z 1 · (z 2 + z 3 ) = z 1 · z 2 + z 1 · z 3

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 Introduction

Properties
Given that z 1 , z 2 and z 3 are complex numbers and for all integers m, n :
1 z m · z n = z m+n

zm
2 = z m−n
zn

3 (z m )n = z mn

4 (z 1 · z 2 )n = z 1n + z 2n

z 1n
¶n
z1
µ
5 =
z2 z 2n

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 Operations with Complex Numbers

Operations With Complex Numbers

Given that z 1 = x 1 + y 1 i and z 2 = x 2 + y 2 i

Addition
z 1 + z 2 = (x 1 + y 1 i ) + (x 2 + y 2 i ) = (x 1 + x 2 ) + (y 1 + y 2 )i ∈ C (1)

Multiplication
z 1 · z 2 = (x 1 + y 1 i )(x 2 + y 2 i ) = (x 1 x 2 − y 1 y 2 ) + (x 1 y 2 + x 2 y 1 )i (2)

Scaler Multiplication
For a real number λ and a complex number z = x + yi , then

λ · z = λ(x + yi ) = λx + λyi (3)

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 Operations with Complex Numbers

Operations With Complex Numbers

Subtraction
z 1 − z 2 = (x 1 + y 1 i ) − (x 2 + y 2 i ) = (x 1 − x 2 ) + (y 1 − y 2 )i (4)

Power
For z ̸= 0,
1 z0 = 1
2 z n = |z × z{z
× · · · z}
n times

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 Operations with Complex Numbers

Division
a + bi
To simplify the quotient , multiply the numerator and the denominator by the complex
c + di
conjugate of the denominator (c − d i ).

Division

1 1
= (5)
z1 x1 + i y 1
x1 − i y 1
= (6)
(x 1 + i y 1 )(x 1 − i y 1 )
x1 − i y 1
= 2 (7)
x 1 + y 12

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 Operations with Complex Numbers

Examples

Example
(4 + 2i ) − (3 − 5i ) = 4 + 2i − 3 + 5i = (4 − 3) + (2 + 5)i = 1 + 7i .

Example
(4 + 2i )(3 − 5i ) = 4 × 3 + 4 × (−5i ) + 3 × (2i ) − 2i × (5i ) = 12 − 20i + 6i − 10i 2 = 22 − 14i .

Example
4 + 2i (4 + 2i )(3 − 5i ) 22 − 14i 22 − 14i
= = 2 =
3 + 5i (3 + 5i )(3 − 5i ) 3 + 52 34

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 Operations with Complex Numbers

Complex Conjugate
We consider the application

con j : C → C
x + yi 7→ x − yi .

Definition
The application con j is called complex conjugate and con j (z) is the complex conjugate of
z. It is simply denoted by z̄.

For a complex number z = x + yi the number z̄ = x − yi is called the complex conjugate of z .

For instance, if z 1 = 3 + i then con j (z 1 ) = con j (3 + i ) = 3 − i . We observe that
Re(z̄ 1 ) = Re(z 1 ), and I m(z̄ 1 ) = −I m(z 1 ).

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 Operations with Complex Numbers

Complex Conjugate
Example
The complex conjugate of −9 − 10i is −9 + 10i and that of 2 + 3i is 2 − 3i

Example
3 − 2i
Let find the complex conjugate of z = .
1+i

It is prudent to simplify or to find the algebraic form of z first. Indeed,

(3 − 2i )(1 − i ) 1 − 5i 1 5
z= = = − i. (8)
12 − i 2 2 2 2
Therefore,
1 5
z̄ = + i (9)
2 2
Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Algebra of Complex Numbers 14 / 32
 Operations with Complex Numbers

Properties

Properties
1 The relation z = z̄ holds if and only if z ∈ R
2 For any complex number z the relation z = z̄¯ holds.
3 For any complex number z the number z · z̄ ∈ R is a nonnegative real number.
4 z 1 + z 2 = z¯1 + z¯2
5 z 1 · z 2 = z¯1 · z¯2
z1 z¯1
µ ¶
6 = ; z 2 ̸= 0
z2 z¯2
7 z −1 = (z̄)−1

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 Operations with Complex Numbers

Modulus of a complex number

p
The number |z| = x 2 + y 2 is called the modulus or the absolute value of the complex
number z = x + yi .
In the Cartesian plane |z| could also be written as ∥z∥
Example
For example, the complex numbers z 1 = 4 + 3i , z 2 = −3i , z 3 = 2 have the moduli
p
|z 1 | = 42 + 32 = 5 (10)
p
|z 2 | = 02 + (−3)2 = 3 (11)
p
|z 3 | = 22 = 2 (12)

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 Operations with Complex Numbers

Properties

Properties
1 |z| ≥ 0 for all z ∈ C. Moreover, |z| = 0 if and only if z = 0.
2 |z| = | − z| = |z̄|.
3 z · z̄ = |z|2
4 |z 1 · z 2 | = |z 1 | · |z 2 |
5 |z 1 | − |z 2 | ≤ |z 1 + z 2 | ≤ |z 1 | + |z 2 |
6 |z −1 | = |z|−1 ; z ̸= 0
n n
7 |z | = |z| ; z ̸= 0
¯ ¯
¯ z 1 ¯ |z 1 |
¯ z ¯ |z | , z 2 =
̸ 0
8 ¯ ¯=
2 2

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 Argand Diagram

Argand Diagram

1 The complex number z = x +i y can be represented on a plane by a point of coordinate

(x, y)

2 This plane is called complex plane or Argand diagram.

3 Given complex number Z = x + yi , The real part is denoted by Re Z = x takes values

on the x-axis of the 2D Cartesian plane,

4 The imaginary part I m Z = y takes values on the y-axis.

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 Argand Diagram

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Algebra of Complex Numbers 20 / 32

 Argand Diagram

Example
Plot the following in an
Argand diagram
1 Z1 = 3
2 Z2 = −2
3 Z3 = 3 + 4i
4 Z4 = 3 − 4i
5 Z5 = −3 + 4i
6 Z6 = −3 − 4i
7 Z7 = 3i
8 Z8 = −2i
9 Z9 = 5 + i
10 Z10 = −4 + 21

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 Argand Diagram

The Power of i

From the previous example, the complex numbers are seen as vectors, that is, they have
magnitude and direction. Similarly, powers of i can be simplified and be plotted on the
Argand diagram.
Z = 1 = i 4 is represented along the
positive x-axis (that 0°and 360°)
Z = i =⇒ 90°
Z = −1 = i 2 =⇒ 180°
Z = −i = i 3 =⇒ 270°

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Algebra of Complex Numbers 22 / 32

 Argand Diagram

Example
The following can be simplified as
1 i 5 = i obtained by dividing 5 by 4, giving one complete revolution and leaving reminder
1.
2 i 31 = i 3 = −i
3 i 38 = i 2 = −1

Exercise
1 Plot the following on an Argand diagram
1 a + bi
2 i 10
3 i 225
2 Express the above complex numbers in coordinate set form.

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 Argument

Argument

Definition (Argument)
On the Argand diagram the angle θ between the
−→
positive x -axis and the vector 0Z 1 is called an
argument of z 1
Its denoted by ar g (z 1 ).
1 We are saying an argument since every angle in the set {θ + 360◦ } is also an argument
of z 1 .
2 We can make this arg(z 1 ) unique by imposing that its value is between 0◦ and 360◦ (or
−180◦ and 180◦ ).
In this case we will use the notation Ar g (z 1 ) instead of ar g (z 1 )

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 Argument

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Algebra of Complex Numbers 26 / 32

 Argument

Argument
1st Quadrant
³y´
Ar g (z) = tan−1 ; x > 0 and y ≥ 0 (13)
x

2nd and 3rd Quadrant

³y´
Ar g (z) = 180◦ + tan−1 ; if x < 0 (14)
x

4th Quadrant
³y´
Ar g (z) = 360◦ + tan−1 ; x > 0, y < 0 (15)
x

(
90◦ if x = 0, y > 0
Ar g (z) = ◦
(16)
270 if x = 0, y < 0

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 Argument

Argument

Example
Find the argument of the following complex
numbers
1 z 1 = 3 + 4i ,
2 z 2 = −3 + 4i ,
3 z 3 = −3 − 4i = z̄ 2
4 z 4 = 3 − 4i = z̄ 1 .

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 Argument

Argument
1
p p
∥z 1 ∥ = 32 + 42 = 25 = 5 = ∥z 4 ∥ = ∥z 3 ∥ = ∥z 2 ∥ (17)

µ ¶
−1 4
2 tan = 53.13◦ , 1st Quadrant ⇐⇒ Ar g (z 1 ) = 53.13◦ .
3
µ ¶ µ ¶
−1 4 −1 4
3 tan = − tan , 2nd Quadrant ⇐⇒
−3 3
Ar g (z 2 ) = 180◦ + (−53.13◦ ) = 126.87◦ .
µ ¶ µ ¶
−4 4
4 tan−1 = tan−1 , 3rd Quadrant ⇐⇒
−3 3
Ar g (z 3 ) = 180◦ + 53.13◦ = 233.13◦ .
µ ¶ µ ¶
−4 4
5 tan−1 = − tan−1 , 4th Quadrant ⇐⇒
3 3
Ar g (z 4 ) = 360◦ + (−53.13◦ ) = 306.87◦ .

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 Argument

Argument

Remarks
An
(
argument θ, 0 ≤ θ < 360◦ , can be converted to an argument α, −180◦ ≤ α < 180◦ , such that
α = θ if θ < 180◦
α = θ − 360◦ if 180◦ ≤ θ < 360◦

Note
We sometimes use radian (that is multiples of π) as the unit of the argument instead of
degree since π is the equivalence of 180◦ .

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Algebra of Complex Numbers 30 / 32

 Argument

Exercise
1 Write the following complex numbers in the standard form, then find their imaginary
part, modulus, argument and complex conjugate.
¶2
(3 − i )(1 + 2i ) 3−i
µ
1 1
z1 = + , z2 = , z3 = .
2+i 2−i (1 − 3i )(2 + i ) 1 − 2i

2 Show that p p
3+i 3−i
p +p − 1 = 0.
3−i 3+i
3 + 2i 3 − 2i
3 Show that if z 1 = and z 2 = then z 1 − z 2 is a real number and z 1 + z 2 is an
−5 + 7i 5 + 7i
imaginary number.
4 Let A, B and C be the representations on the complex plane of z A = 3 + i , z B = −2 − i
−→ −→ −→ −→
and zC = −1 + 4i . Find the coordinates of the vectors: AB , AC and 2 AB − 3 AC . What is
−→ −→
the argument of 2 AB − 3 AC ?
Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Algebra of Complex Numbers 31 / 32
 END OF LECTURE
THANK YOU

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Algebra of Complex Numbers 32 / 32

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

ALGEBRA OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu

Department of Mathematics
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology

March 16, 2022

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 1/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Outline

1 Polar Form of Complex Numbers

Trigonometry Form
Exponential Form
The power of a complex number

2 Roots of Complex Numbers

3 Complex Logarithm

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 2/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Outline of Presentation

1 Polar Form of Complex Numbers

Trigonometry Form
Exponential Form
The power of a complex number

2 Roots of Complex Numbers

3 Complex Logarithm

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 3/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Definition (Trigonometric Form)

The trigonometric form of z = x + iy is z = r (cos θ + i sin θ) where arg(z) = θ and
||z|| = r.
Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 4/34
 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Trigonometry and complex number

1 For a complex number z = x + yi we can write the trigonometric representation

z = r(cos θ∗ + i sin θ∗ ), where r ∈ [0, ∞) and θ∗ ∈ [0, 2π) are the polar coordinates
of the geometric image of z.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 5/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Trigonometry and complex number

1 For a complex number z = x + yi we can write the trigonometric representation

z = r(cos θ∗ + i sin θ∗ ), where r ∈ [0, ∞) and θ∗ ∈ [0, 2π) are the polar coordinates
of the geometric image of z.
2 The polar argument θ∗ of the geometric image of z is called the argument of z,
denoted by arg z.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 5/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Trigonometry and complex number

1 For a complex number z = x + yi we can write the trigonometric representation

z = r(cos θ∗ + i sin θ∗ ), where r ∈ [0, ∞) and θ∗ ∈ [0, 2π) are the polar coordinates
of the geometric image of z.
2 The polar argument θ∗ of the geometric image of z is called the argument of z,
denoted by arg z.
3 The polar radius r of the geometric image of z is equal to the modulus of z.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 5/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Trigonometry and complex number

1 For a complex number z = x + yi we can write the trigonometric representation

z = r(cos θ∗ + i sin θ∗ ), where r ∈ [0, ∞) and θ∗ ∈ [0, 2π) are the polar coordinates
of the geometric image of z.
2 The polar argument θ∗ of the geometric image of z is called the argument of z,
denoted by arg z.
3 The polar radius r of the geometric image of z is equal to the modulus of z.
4 The set Argz = {θ : θ∗ + 2kπ, k ∈ Z} is called the extended argument of the
complex number z. Then

z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) = z = r[cos(θ∗ + 2kπ) + i sin(θ∗ + 2kπ)] (1)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 5/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Example
Find the trigonometric representation of the following numbers and determine their extended
argument:
√
1. z1 = 2 + 2i 3. z3 = −1 + i 3
2. z2 = −1 − i 4. z4 = 1 + i

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 6/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Example
Find the trigonometric representation of the following numbers and determine their extended
argument:
√
1. z1 = 2 + 2i 3. z3 = −1 + i 3
2. z2 = −1 − i 4. z4 = 1 + i

√ √
r1 = 22 + 22 = 2 2

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 6/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Example
Find the trigonometric representation of the following numbers and determine their extended
argument:
√
1. z1 = 2 + 2i 3. z3 = −1 + i 3
2. z2 = −1 − i 4. z4 = 1 + i

√ √
r1 = 22 + 22 = 2 2
π
θ1∗ = tan−1 (1) =
4

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 6/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Example
Find the trigonometric representation of the following numbers and determine their extended
argument:
√
1. z1 = 2 + 2i 3. z3 = −1 + i 3
2. z2 = −1 − i 4. z4 = 1 + i

√ √
r1 = 22 + 22 = 2 2
π
θ1∗ = tan−1 (1) =
4
√  π π
z1 = 2 2 cos + i sin
4 4

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 6/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Example
Find the trigonometric representation of the following numbers and determine their extended
argument:
√
1. z1 = 2 + 2i 3. z3 = −1 + i 3
2. z2 = −1 − i 4. z4 = 1 + i

√ √
r1 = 22 + 22 = 2 2
π
θ1∗ = tan−1 (1) =
4
√  π π
z1 = 2 2 cos + i sin
nπ 4 4 o
Argz1 = + 2kπ; k ∈ Z
4

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 6/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

z2 = −1 − i
p √
1 r2 = (−1)2 + (−1)2 = 2

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 7/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

z2 = −1 − i
p √
1 r2 = (−1)2 + (−1)2 = 2
2 Because is in the third quadrant
y
θ2∗ = tan−1 +π
x
= tan−1 (1) + π
π 5π
= +π =
4 4

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 7/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

z2 = −1 − i
p √
1 r2 = (−1)2 + (−1)2 = 2
2 Because is in the third quadrant
y
θ2∗ = tan−1 +π
x
= tan−1 (1) + π
π 5π
= +π =
4 4

√
 
5π 5π
3 z2 = 2 cos + i sin
4 4

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 7/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

z2 = −1 − i
p √
1 r2 = (−1)2 + (−1)2 = 2
2 Because is in the third quadrant
y
θ2∗ = tan−1 +π
x
= tan−1 (1) + π
π 5π
= +π =
4 4

√
 
5π 5π
3 z2 = 2 cos + i sin
4 4
 
5π
4 Argz2 = + 2kπ; k ∈ Z
4
Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 7/34
 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number
√
z3 = −1 + i 3

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 8/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number
√
z3 = −1 + i 3

q √ 2
r3 = (−1)2 + 3 = 2

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 8/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number
√
z3 = −1 + i 3

q √ 2
r3 = (−1)2 + 3 = 2
√ π 2π
θ3∗ = tan−1 (− 3) + π = + π =
3 3

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 8/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number
√
z3 = −1 + i 3

q √ 2
r3 = (−1)2 + 3 = 2
√ π 2π
θ3∗ = tan−1 (− 3) + π = + π =
 3
 3
2π 2π
z3 = 2 cos + i sin
3 3

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 8/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number
√
z3 = −1 + i 3

q √ 2
r3 = (−1)2 + 3 = 2
√ π 2π
θ3∗ = tan−1 (− 3) + π = + π =
 3
 3
2π 2π
z3 = 2 cos + i sin
3 3
 
2π
Argz3 = + 2kπ; k ∈ Z
3

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 8/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

1+i
√ π
z = 1 + i has modulus 2 and argument arg(z) = + 2kπ, k ∈ Z.
4

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 9/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

1+i
√ π
z = 1 + i has modulus 2 and argument arg(z) = + 2kπ, k ∈ Z.
4
In other words, the trigonometric form of z can be any one of the following
√
z = 2 (cos π/4 + i sin π/4) ; k = 0 (2)
√
= 2 (cos(π/4 ± 2π) + i sin(π/4 ± 2π)) ; k = ±1 (3)
√
= 2 (cos(π/4 ± 4π) + i sin(π/4 ± 4π)) ; k = ±2 (4)
√
= 2 (cos(π/4 ± 6π) + i sin(π/4 ± 6π)) ; k = ±3 (5)
.
= .. (6)

If there is no ambiguity, we choose the argument between 0 and 2π. Thus

√
z = 2 (cos π/4 + i sin π/4) (7)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 9/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Remarks
1 = cos 0 + i sin 0

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 10/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Remarks
1 = cos 0 + i sin 0
π π
i = cos + i sin
2 2

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 10/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Remarks
1 = cos 0 + i sin 0
π π
i = cos + i sin
2 2
−1 = cos π + i sin π

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 10/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Remarks
1 = cos 0 + i sin 0
π π
i = cos + i sin
2 2
−1 = cos π + i sin π
3π 3π
−i = cos + i sin
2 2

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 10/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Remarks
1 = cos 0 + i sin 0
π π
i = cos + i sin
2 2
−1 = cos π + i sin π
3π 3π
−i = cos + i sin
2 2

If z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) and z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) then

z1 z2 = r1 r2 [cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 )]

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 10/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Remarks
1 = cos 0 + i sin 0
π π
i = cos + i sin
2 2
−1 = cos π + i sin π
3π 3π
−i = cos + i sin
2 2

If z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) and z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) then

z1 z2 = r1 r2 [cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 )]

If z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) and z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) 6= 0 then

z1 r1
= [cos(θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 − θ2 )]
z2 r2
Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 10/34
 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Example
√
Let z1 = 1 − i and z2 = 3 + i, then
√
 
7π 7π
z1 = 2 cos + i sin ,
4 4

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 11/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Example
√
Let z1 = 1 − i and z2 = 3 + i, then
√
 
7π 7π  π π
z1 = 2 cos + i sin , z2 = 2 cos + i sin
4 4 6 6

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 11/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Example
√
Let z1 = 1 − i and z2 = 3 + i, then
√
 
7π 7π  π π
z1 = 2 cos + i sin , z2 = 2 cos + i sin
4 4 6 6

and
√
    
7π π 7π π
z1 z2 = 2 2 cos + + i sin +
4 6 4 6
√
 
23π 23π
= 2 2 cos + i sin
12 12

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 11/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Properties

Let z1 and z2 be two non-zero complex numbers. We have

1 z2 = z1 ⇐⇒ ||z2 || = ||z1 || and arg(z2 ) = arg(z1 ) + 2kπ, k ∈ Z.
2 arg(z1 z2 ) = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 ) + 2kπ.
3 arg(z1n ) = n arg(z1 ) + 2kπ.
4 arg(1/z1 ) = − arg(z1 ) + 2kπ.
5 arg(z¯1 ) = − arg(z1 ) + 2kπ.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 12/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Euler and De Moivre’s Form

Definition (Euler’s equation)

The relation

eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ (8)

is called Euler’s equation.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 13/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Euler and De Moivre’s Form

Definition (Euler’s equation)

The relation

eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ (8)

is called Euler’s equation. Thus, if z ∈ C − {0}

(Trigonometric form) z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) ⇐⇒ (Exponential form): z = reiθ .

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 13/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Euler and De Moivre’s Form

Definition (Euler’s equation)

The relation

eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ (8)

is called Euler’s equation. Thus, if z ∈ C − {0}

(Trigonometric form) z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) ⇐⇒ (Exponential form): z = reiθ .

Also, because any two arguments for a give complex number differ by an integer multiple
of 2π we will sometimes write the exponential form as,

z = rei(θ+2πk) , k = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · (9)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 13/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Forms
1 Standard form : z = x + iy

2 Trigonometric form : z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) where r = ||z|| and arg(z) = θ + 2kπ.

3 Exponential form: z = reiθ where r = ||z|| and arg(z) = θ + 2kπ.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 14/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Forms
1 Standard form : z = x + iy

2 Trigonometric form : z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) where r = ||z|| and arg(z) = θ + 2kπ.

3 Exponential form: z = reiθ where r = ||z|| and arg(z) = θ + 2kπ.

Example
√
z = 2 + 2i 3 has modulus ||z|| = 4 and argument θ = π/3.

Therefore,
z = 4eiπ/3 (10)
is its exponential form.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 14/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

De Moivre’s and Euler

De Moivre’s theorem
For all real number θ and all integer n,

(cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ). (11)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 15/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

De Moivre’s and Euler

De Moivre’s theorem
For all real number θ and all integer n,

(cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ). (11)

Definition (Euler’s formula)

eiθ + e−iθ einθ + e−inθ

cos θ = cos(nθ) = (12)
2 2
eiθ − e−iθ einθ − e−inθ
sin θ = sin(nθ) = . (13)
2i 2i

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 15/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Trigonometric identities
Let us use De Moivre’s formula to express cos 2θ in terms of cos θ and sin θ

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 16/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Trigonometric identities
Let us use De Moivre’s formula to express cos 2θ in terms of cos θ and sin θ

cos 2θ + i sin 2θ = (cos θ + i sin θ)2 (by the theorem) (14)

2 2
= cos θ − sin θ + 2i cos θ sin θ (15)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 16/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Trigonometric identities
Let us use De Moivre’s formula to express cos 2θ in terms of cos θ and sin θ

cos 2θ + i sin 2θ = (cos θ + i sin θ)2 (by the theorem) (14)

2 2
= cos θ − sin θ + 2i cos θ sin θ (15)
We observe that,

cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ (16)

and
sin 2θ = 2 cos θ sin θ (17)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 16/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Trigonometric identities
Let us use De Moivre’s formula to express cos 2θ in terms of cos θ and sin θ

cos 2θ + i sin 2θ = (cos θ + i sin θ)2 (by the theorem) (14)

2 2
= cos θ − sin θ + 2i cos θ sin θ (15)
We observe that,

cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ (16)

and
sin 2θ = 2 cos θ sin θ (17)

Exercise
Express cos 3θ and sin 4θ in terms of cos θ and sin θ.
Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 16/34
 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

The power of a complex number

De Moivre’s Revisited
For z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) and n ∈ N, we have

z n = rn (cos θ + i sin θ)n

z n = rn (cos nθ + i sin nθ)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 17/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Example
√
If z = 2 + 2i 3 find z 3

This has modulus ||z|| = 4 and argument θ = π/3. so

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 18/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Example
√
If z = 2 + 2i 3 find z 3

This has modulus ||z|| = 4 and argument θ = π/3. so

z n = rn (cos nθ + i sin nθ) (18)

3 3
z = 4 (cos 3(π/3) + i sin 3(π/3)) (19)
3
z = 64(cos(π) + i sin(π)) (20)
3
z = −64 (21)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 18/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Example
√
If z = 2 + 2i 3 find z 3

This has modulus ||z|| = 4 and argument θ = π/3. so

z n = rn (cos nθ + i sin nθ) (18)

3 3
z = 4 (cos 3(π/3) + i sin 3(π/3)) (19)
3
z = 64(cos(π) + i sin(π)) (20)
3
z = −64 (21)

Thus √
(2 + 2i 3)3 = −64

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 18/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Example
Let us compute (1 + i)1000

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 19/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Example
Let us compute (1 + i)1000
√
The trigonometric representation of 1+i is 2(cos π/4+i sin π/4). Applying de Moivre’s
formula we obtain

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 19/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers Trigonometry Form
Roots of Complex Numbers Exponential Form
Complex Logarithm The power of a complex number

Example
Let us compute (1 + i)1000
√
The trigonometric representation of 1+i is 2(cos π/4+i sin π/4). Applying de Moivre’s
formula we obtain
√ 1000
(1 + i)1000 = 2 (cos 1000(π/4) + i sin 1000(π/4))
= 2500 (cos 250π + i sin 250π)
= 2500

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 19/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Outline of Presentation

1 Polar Form of Complex Numbers

Trigonometry Form
Exponential Form
The power of a complex number

2 Roots of Complex Numbers

3 Complex Logarithm

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 20/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Roots of Complex Numbers

Definition (Complex polynomials)

Polynomials with complex coefficients and unknown are called complex polynomials.
√
P (z) = iz 4 − 2z + i 2 + 4 is a complex polynomial of degree 4.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 21/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Roots of Complex Numbers

Definition (Complex polynomials)

Polynomials with complex coefficients and unknown are called complex polynomials.
√
P (z) = iz 4 − 2z + i 2 + 4 is a complex polynomial of degree 4.

Theorem (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra)

Every complex polynomial equation of degree n has exactly n complex roots.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 21/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Roots of Complex Numbers

Definition (Complex polynomials)

Polynomials with complex coefficients and unknown are called complex polynomials.
√
P (z) = iz 4 − 2z + i 2 + 4 is a complex polynomial of degree 4.

Theorem (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra)

Every complex polynomial equation of degree n has exactly n complex roots.

The roots of the complex polynomial z 3 − 3z 2 + 2z are 0, 1, 2. Note degree = 3 and

number of roots = 3.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 21/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

The nth Roots of Unity

Consider a positive integer n ≥ 2 and a complex number z0 6= 0. As in the field of real

numbers, the equation
√
Z n − z0 = 0 =⇒ Z = n z0 (22)
is used for defining the nth roots of number z0 .
Hence we call any solution Z of the equation (22) an nth root of the complex number
z0 .

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 22/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Definition (Trigonometric)
Let z0 = r(cos θ + i sin θ) be a complex number with r > 0 and θ ∈ [0, 2π), then the
number z0 has n distinct nth roots given by the formulas
√
 
n
θ + 2kπ θ + 2kπ
Zk = r cos + i sin (23)
n n

where k = 0, 1, · · · , n − 1

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 23/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Definition (Trigonometric)
Let z0 = r(cos θ + i sin θ) be a complex number with r > 0 and θ ∈ [0, 2π), then the
number z0 has n distinct nth roots given by the formulas
√
 
n
θ + 2kπ θ + 2kπ
Zk = r cos + i sin (23)
n n

where k = 0, 1, · · · , n − 1

Alternatively definition for Exponential

If we had considered z = reθi , the roots should have been
√
n
θ+2kπ
i
Zk = re n ; k = 0, 1, · · · , n − 1 (24)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 23/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Example
Let us find the third roots of the number z = 1 + i

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 24/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Example
Let us find the third roots of the number z = 1 + i
The trigonometric representation of z = 1 + i is
√
z = 2 (cos π/4 + i sin π/4)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 24/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Example
Let us find the third roots of the number z = 1 + i
The trigonometric representation of z = 1 + i is
√
z = 2 (cos π/4 + i sin π/4)
The cube roots of the number z are
√
    
6 π 2π π 2π
Zk = 2 cos +k + i sin +k ; k = 0, 1, 2
12 3 12 3

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 24/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Example
Let us find the third roots of the number z = 1 + i
The trigonometric representation of z = 1 + i is
√
z = 2 (cos π/4 + i sin π/4)
The cube roots of the number z are
√
    
6 π 2π π 2π
Zk = 2 cos +k + i sin +k ; k = 0, 1, 2
12 3 12 3
or in explicit form as
√
6
 π π
Z0 = 2 cos + i sin
 12 12 
√
6 3π 3π
Z1 = 2 cos + i sin
4 4
√
 
6 17π 17π
Z2 = 2 cos + i sin
12 12
Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 24/34
 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Exercise
2π 2π
Find the argument and the standard form of the fourth roots of a = cos + i sin .
3 3
Solution  
π 4π 7π 10π
arg(z) = , , ,
6 6 6 6

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 25/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

The nth roots of unity

The roots of the equation Z n − 1 = 0 are called the nth roots of unity. Since 1 =
cos 0 + i sin 0, from the formulas for the nth roots of a complex number (23) we derive
that the nth roots of unity are

2kπ 2kπ
Zk = cos + i sin , k = 0, 1, 2, · · · , n − 1 (25)
n n

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 26/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

The nth roots of unity

The roots of the equation Z n − 1 = 0 are called the nth roots of unity. Since 1 =
cos 0 + i sin 0, from the formulas for the nth roots of a complex number (23) we derive
that the nth roots of unity are

2kπ 2kπ
Zk = cos + i sin , k = 0, 1, 2, · · · , n − 1 (25)
n n
Simplified as:
2 4 2(n−1)
z0 = 1, z1 = e n πi , z2 = e n πi , . . . , zn−1 = e n
πi
(26)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 26/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

The nth roots of unity

The roots of the equation Z n − 1 = 0 are called the nth roots of unity. Since 1 =
cos 0 + i sin 0, from the formulas for the nth roots of a complex number (23) we derive
that the nth roots of unity are

2kπ 2kπ
Zk = cos + i sin , k = 0, 1, 2, · · · , n − 1 (25)
n n
Simplified as:
2 4 2(n−1)
z0 = 1, z1 = e n πi , z2 = e n πi , . . . , zn−1 = e n
πi
(26)

The nth of unity in Exponential form

2kπ
i
Zk = e n k = 0, 1, 2, · · · , n − 1 (27)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 26/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Outline of Presentation

1 Polar Form of Complex Numbers

Trigonometry Form
Exponential Form
The power of a complex number

2 Roots of Complex Numbers

3 Complex Logarithm

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 27/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Complex Logarithm

Consider z = rei(θ+2kπ) . By assuming that ln z exists, we use the properties of the

logarithm function to simplify z.

We get ln z = ln(rei(θ+2kπ) ) = ln r + i(θ + 2kπ).

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 28/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Complex Logarithm

Consider z = rei(θ+2kπ) . By assuming that ln z exists, we use the properties of the

logarithm function to simplify z.

We get ln z = ln(rei(θ+2kπ) ) = ln r + i(θ + 2kπ).

Definition
The complex logarithm of a complex number z = rei arg(z) is defined as

ln z = ln r + iθ (28)

where θ is the argument of z that lies in the range [ −π, π) .

In general, we use
ln(z) = ln r + i(θ+2kπ) (29)
Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 28/34
 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Example

ln(−i) = ln e−iπ/2 (30)

π 
= ln 1 − i + 2kπ (31)
2
π
=− i (32)
2

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 29/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Example

ln(−i) = ln e−iπ/2 (30)

π 
= ln 1 − i + 2kπ (31)
2
π
=− i (32)
2

Example

5πi 5π
ln(3e 3 ) = ln 3 + i( +2kπ) (33)
3 
5π
= ln 3 + i −2π (34)
3
π
= ln 3 − i (35)
3
Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 29/34
 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Example
Find the trigonometric form of z = 2i

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 30/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Example
Find the trigonometric form of z = 2i

ln(z) = ln(2i ) (36)

= i ln(2) = i ln 2 (37)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 30/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Example
Find the trigonometric form of z = 2i

ln(z) = ln(2i ) (36)

= i ln(2) = i ln 2 (37)

z = eln(z) (38)
i ln 2
=e (39)
= cos(ln 2) + i sin(ln 2) (40)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 30/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Example
Find the trigonometric form of z = i2i+3

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 31/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Example
Find the trigonometric form of z = i2i+3

ln(z) = (2i + 3) ln(i) (41)

π
= (2i + 3)i( ) (42)
2
3π
= −π + i( ) (43)
2
0 3π
z = eln(z ) = e−π ei( 2 ) (44)
i( 3π
= e−π e 2 ) (45)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 31/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Example
Find the trigonometric form of z = i2i+3

ln(z) = (2i + 3) ln(i) (41)

π
= (2i + 3)i( ) (42)
2
3π
= −π + i( ) (43)
2
0 3π
z = eln(z ) = e−π ei( 2 ) (44)
i( 3π
= e−π e 2 ) (45)
or
π
2i+3
z = i2i+3 = e 2 i (46)
−2 π 3π 3π
=e = e−π e
2+ 2 i 2 i (47)
 
3π 3π
= e−π cos + i sin . (48)
2 2
Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 31/34
 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Exercise
1 Find the square and cubic roots of the following complex numbers:

1 z =1+i
2 z=i √ √
3 z = 1/ 2 + i/ 2
2 Find the fourth roots of the following complex numbers:
1 z = −2i
√
2 z = 3+i
3 z = −7 + 24i
3 Solve the equations:
1 z 3 − 125 = 0
2 z 4 + 16 = 0
3 z 7 − 2iz 4 − iz 3 − 2 = 0;

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 32/34

 Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

Exercise
1 Find the polar coordinates for the following points, given their cartesian coordinates

1 M1 = (−3,√3);
2 M2 = (−4 3, −4);
3 M3 = (0, −5);
2 Find the cartesian coordinates for the following points, given their polar coordinates:

1 P1 = (2, π/3)
2 P2 = (3, −π)
3 P3 = (1, π/2)
3 Find polar representations for the following complex numbers
√
1 z1 = 6 + 6i 3
2 z2 = −4i
3 z3 = cos a − i sin a, a ∈ [0, 2π)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 33/34

Polar Form of Complex Numbers
Roots of Complex Numbers
Complex Logarithm

END OF LECTURE
THANK YOU

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 34/34

 VECTORS

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu

Department of Mathematics
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
Google Scholar: https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ZJfCMyQAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao
ResearchGate ID: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gabriel_Fosu2

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 1 / 38

Lecture Outline

1 Introduction To Vectors
Introduction
Vectors in Rn

2 Vector Products
Dot Product

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 2 / 38

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction

Introduction To Vectors
Definition (Vector)
A vector is an object that has both a magnitude and a direction.

1 An example of a vector quantity is velocity. This is speed, in a particular direction. An

example of velocity might be 60 mph due north.
2 A quantity with magnitude alone, but no direction, is not a vector. It is called a scalar
instead. One example of a scalar is distance.
Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 4 / 38
 Introduction To Vectors Introduction

Geometric representation

Definition (Geometric representation)

−→
A vector v is represented by a directed line segment denoted by AB .
A −→
v = AB
B

1 A is the initial point/origin/tail and B is the terminal point/endpoint/tip.

2 The length of the segment is the magnitude of v and is denoted by ∥v∥.
3 A and B are any points in space.

−−→
Vectors are represented with arrows on top (⃗
v or OP ) or as boldface v.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 5 / 38

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction

Definition
Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and direction.

Example
D

B u

u
C u

−→ −−→
AB = u = DC

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 6 / 38

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction

Addition of Vectors
Theorem (Parallelogram law)
Vector u + v is the diagonal of the parallelogram formed by u and v.

Addition Laws
B
u
A u+v D B
u v
v A u+v
D
C
(b) Triangle law of vector addition: The tip of u
(a) Parallelogram law of vector addition: The tail coincides with the tail of v. (Also called head to
of u and v coincide. tail rule)

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 7 / 38

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction

Addition
If the two vectors do not have a common point, we can always coincide them by shifting one of the
vectors.
By observing that
−→ −−→ −−→
AB + B D = AD (1)

Zero Vector
−→ −→ −−→ →
−
1 AB + B A = A A. This is the zero vector. It has zero magnitude and is denoted by 0 or 0 . Its
origin is equal to its endpoint.
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
2 For any vector w, w + 0 = w [if we let w = M N and 0 = N N then w + 0 = M N + N N = M N = w.]

Negative vector
−→ −→ −→ −→ −−→ −→
B A and AB have the same magnitude but opposite directions and satisfy AB + B A = A A = ⃗0. B A is
−→ −→ −→
the negative of AB i.e. B A = − AB .

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 8 / 38

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction

−→ −→ −→ −→ −→
1 + · · · + AB} = k AB if k ∈ Z. The coefficient
In general, we have k AB . For instance |AB + AB{z
k
k is a scalar and the product between a scalar and a vector is called scalar
multiplication.
2 w and kw are said to be parallel; they have the same direction if k > 0 and opposite
direction if k < 0.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 9 / 38

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction

Position Vectors

Definition (Position Vectors)

While vectors can exist anywhere in space, a point is always defined relative to the origin,
O . Vectors defined from the origin are called Position Vectors

−→ −−→ −−→
AB = AO + OB (2)
a ] +⃗
= [−⃗ b (3)
=⃗b −⃗
a (4)
−−→ −−→
= OB − O A (5)

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 10 / 38

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction

It is natural to represent position vectors using

coordinates. For example, in A = (3, 2) and we
−−→
write the vector ⃗ a = O A = [3, 2] using square
brackets. Similarly, ⃗b = [−1, 3] and ⃗
c = [2, −1]

1 The individual coordinates [3 and 2 in the case of ⃗

a ] are called the components of the
vector.
2 A vector is sometimes said to be an ordered pair of real numbers. That is
[3, 2] ̸= [2, 3] (6)

 
a
3 Vectors can be represented either as row vector [a, b, c] of a column vector b 
c
Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 11 / 38
 Introduction To Vectors Introduction

Some 2D Properties
Given u = [u 1 , u 2 ] and v = [v 1 , v 2 ] then
1 Addition
u + v = [u 1 + v 1 , u 2 + v 2 ] (7)

2 Subtraction
u − v = [u 1 − v 1 , u 2 − v 2 ] (8)

3 Scalar multiplication
ku = [ku 1 , ku 2 ] (9)

4 Magnitude / Length / Norm q

∥u∥ = ||u|| = u 12 + u 22 (10)

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 12 / 38

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction

Standard Basis Vectors

Let ⃗i = [1, 0] and ⃗j = [0, 1] , the i , j are called standard basis vectors in R2 .

Each vector have length 1 and point in the directions of the positive x, and y−axes
respectively.

Similarly, in the three-dimensional plane, the vectors ⃗i = [1, 0, 0], ⃗j = [0, 1, 0] and ⃗
k = [0, 0, 1]
are also called the standard basis vectors.

Again they have length 1 and point in the directions of the positive x, y, and z−axes.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 13 / 38

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction

Standard Basis Vectors

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 14 / 38

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction

Unit Vector

Definition
1 A vector of magnitude 1 is called a unit vector.
In the Cartesian coordinate system, i and j are
reserved for the unit vector along the positive x -
axis and y -axis respectively.
2 The Cartesian coordinate system is therefore
defined by three reference points (O, I , J ) such
−→
that the origin O has coordinates (0, 0), i = OI and
−→ −−→
j = O J , and any vector w = OM can be expressed
as w = w 1 i + w 2 j. w 1 and w 2 are the coordinates of
w.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 15 / 38

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction

Example
−→
Given the points E = (2, 7) and F = (3, −1), then the vector E F is given as
−→ −−→ −−→
E F = OF − OE (11)
= [(3, −1) − (2, 7)] (12)
= [1, −8] (13)

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 16 / 38

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction

Example
Calculate the magnitude of vector a = λ1 a1 − λ2 a2 − λ3 a3 in case a1 = [2, −3], a2 = [−3, 0], a3 =
[−1, −1] and λ1 = 2, λ2 = −1, λ3 = 3.

a = λ1 a1 − λ2 a2 − λ3 a3 (14)
= 2[2, −3] − [−1][−3, 0] − 3[−1, −1] (15)
= [4, −6] + [−3, 0] + [3, 3] (16)
= [4, −3] (17)

Thus
p p
|a| = 43 + [−3]2 = 25 = 5 (18)

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 17 / 38

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction

Example
A car is pulled by four men. The components of the four forces are F1 = [20, 25], F2 =
[15, 5], F3 = [25, −5] and F4 = [30, −15]. Find the resultant force R.

The resultant force

F = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 (19)
= [20, 25] + [15, 5] + [25, −5] + [30, −15] (20)
= [90, 10] (21)

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 18 / 38

 Introduction To Vectors Vectors in Rn

Definition
1 If v 1 , v 2 , . . . , v n are n real numbers:
2 v = [v 1 , v 2 ] is a two dimension vector. It belongs to R2 .
3 v = [v 1 , v 2 , v 3 ] is a three dimension vector. It belongs to R3 .
4 v = [v 1 , v 2 , . . . , v n ] is an n dimension vector. It belongs to Rn . We may use e1 , e2 , . . . en to
denote the unit vectors of the coordinate system.

1 i = [1, 0, 0], j = [0, 1, 0] and k = [0, 0, 1] are three dimension vectors; i, j, k ∈ R3 .u = [3, −1, 5] =
3i − j + 5k is a vector in R3 .
2 v = [3, −1, 5, 0, 4] = 3e1 − e2 + 5e3 + 4e5 is a five dimension vector; v ∈ R5 .
3 The coordinate system is defined by e1 = [1, 0, 0, 0, 0], e2 = [0, 1, 0, 0, 0], e3 = [0, 0, 1, 0, 0],
e4 = [0, 0, 0, 1, 0], and e5 = [0, 0, 0, 0, 1].

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 19 / 38

 Introduction To Vectors Vectors in Rn

u = [u 1 , u 2 , . . . , u n ], and v = [v 1 , v 2 , . . . , v n ] then
1 Addition
u + v = [u 1 + v 1 , u 2 + v 2 , . . . , u n + v n ] (22)

2 Subtraction
u − v = [u 1 − v 1 , u 2 − v 2 , . . . , u n − v n ] (23)

3 Scalar multiplication
ku = [ku 1 , ku 2 , . . . , ku n ] (24)

4 Magnitude q
∥u∥ = u 12 + u 22 + . . . + u n
2 (25)

5 Unit vector in the direction of u

u1 u2 un
µ ¶
u
eu = = , ,..., (26)
∥u∥ ∥u∥ ∥u∥ ∥u∥

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 20 / 38

 Introduction To Vectors Vectors in Rn

Example
If a = [4, 0, 3] and b = [−2, 1, 5], find ∥a − b∥ and the unit vector e in the direction of a.

a −⃗
⃗ b = [4, 0, 3] − [−2, 1, 5] (27)
= [6, −1, −2] (28)
and p
a −⃗
p
|⃗ b| = 62 + [−1]2 + [−2]2 = 41 (29)
The unit in the direction of a is
1
e= p [4, 0, 3] (30)
4 + 02 + 32
2
1
= [4, 0, 3] (31)
·5 ¸
4 3
= , 0, (32)
5 5

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 21 / 38

 Introduction To Vectors Vectors in Rn

Properties of vectors
For any vectors u, v, w ∈ Rn and any scalars k, k ′ ∈ R,
1
Closure u + v ∈ Rn
2
Additive inverse u + [−u] = 0
3
Commutative u + v = v + u
4
Additive identity u + 0 = u
5
Multiplicative identity 1u = u
6
Associative [u + v] + w = u + [v + w]
7
Scalar Multiplication k[u + v] = ku + kv
8
Scalar Multiplication [k + k ′ ]u = ku + k ′ u
Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 22 / 38
 Introduction To Vectors Vectors in Rn

Definition (Linear Combination)

A vector v is a linear combination of vectors v1 , v2 , · · · , v n if there are scalars k1 , k2 , · · · , kn
such that
v = k 1 v1 + k 2 v2 + · · · + k n vn (33)
The scalars k1 , k2 , · · · , kn are called the coefficients of the linear combination.

Example
2 1 2 5

      

The vectors −2 is a linear combination of  0  , −3 and −4Since

−1 −1 1 0

1 2 5 2
       

3 0 + 2 −3 − −4 = −2
       (34)
−1 1 0 −1

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 23 / 38

 Introduction To Vectors Vectors in Rn

Exercise
1 If ⃗i , ⃗j ,⃗ j ·⃗
k ∈ R3 , then ⃗ k=
2 If ⃗i , ⃗j ,⃗
k ∈ R2 , then −⃗
j ·⃗
i=
3 If ⃗i , ⃗j ,⃗
k ∈ R3 , then the modulus of −⃗
k +⃗
j = is ?
4 Find a unit vector that has the same direction as
a. u = 8i − j + k
b. v = [−2, 1, 2].

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 24 / 38

 Vector Products Dot Product

Dot Product
For u and v in Rn ,
1 If
u = [u 1 , u 2 , . . . , u n ], and v = [v 1 , v 2 , . . . , v n ]
then
〈u, v〉 = u · v = u 1 v 1 + u 2 v 2 + . . . + u n v n (35)
is the dot product of the two vectors.
2 The dot product is also called inner or scalar product.

Example
[1, 2, 3]·[−1, 0, 1] = 1(−1) + 2(0) + 3(1) = 2.

Example
[i + 2j − 3k] · [2j − k] = 0 + 4 + 3 = 7.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 26 / 38

 Vector Products Dot Product

Example
In R3 , i = [1, 0, 0], j = [0, 1, 0] and k = [0, 0, 1] so that

· i j k
i 1 0 0
j 0 1 0
k 0 0 1

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 27 / 38

 Vector Products Dot Product

Properties
For any vectors u, v, w ∈ Rn and any scalar k ∈ R :
1
u·v ∈ R
2
0 · u = 0.
3
u·v = v·u
4
u · u = ∥u∥2 ≥ 0 and u · u = 0 iff u = 0.
5
[ku]·v = k[u · v]
6
u·[v + w] = u · v + u · w.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 28 / 38

 Vector Products Dot Product

Angles

The dot product can also be used to calculate the angle between a pair of vectors. In R 2
or R 3 , the angle between the nonzero vectors u and v will refer to the angle θ determined
by these vectors that satisfies 0 ≤ θ ≤ 180.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 29 / 38

 Vector Products Dot Product

Definition
For nonzero vectors u and v in R n
u·v
cos θ = (36)
||u|| ||v||

This implies that

u · v = ||u|| ||v|| cos θ (37)

0 ≤ θ ≤ π is the internal angle.

Orthogonal vectors
Two nonzero vectors u and v are said to be orthogonal or perpendicular if

u·v = 0 (38)

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 30 / 38

 Vector Products Dot Product

Example
Let u = i − 2j + 3k, v = i − k and w = 2i + 7j + 4k be three vectors of R3 . Show that u and w are
orthogonal but u and v are not. Find the angle θ between the direction of u and v.

u · v = [1, −2, 3] · [1, 0, −1] (39)

= 1 + 0 − 3 = −2 Not orthogonal (40)

u · w = [1, −2, 3] · [2, 7, 4] (41)

= 2 − 14 + 12 = 0 orthogonal (42)

u·v −2 −1
cos θ = =p p =p (43)
||u|| ||v|| 14 × 2 7
θ = 112.2078 (44)
Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 31 / 38
 Vector Products Dot Product

Example
Find k so that u = [1, k, −3, 1] and v = [1, k, k, 1] are orthogonal.

For orthogonal

u·v = 0 (45)
[1, k, −3, 1] · [1, k, k, 1] = 0 (46)
2
1 + k − 3k + 1 = 0 (47)
k 2 − 3k + 2 = 0 (48)
[k − 2][k − 1] = 0 (49)

Hence k = 2 or k = 1

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 32 / 38

 Vector Products Dot Product

Theorem
For any two vectors a and b
1 Schwartz’s inequality:

∥a · b∥ ≤ ∥a∥∥b∥ (50)

2 Triangle inequality:

∥a + b∥ ≤ ∥a∥ + ∥b∥ (51)

Definition
The distance between a and b is
d (a, b) = ∥a − b∥ (52)

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 33 / 38

 Vector Products Dot Product

Theorem (Pythagoras)
For all vectors u and v in R n ,
∥u + v∥2 = ∥u∥2 + ∥v∥2 (53)
if and only if u and v are orthogonal.

Note

∥u + v∥2 = ∥u∥2 + ∥v∥2 + 2u · v (54)

For orthogonal u · v = 0

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 34 / 38

 Vector Products Dot Product

Projection of v onto u
Consider two nonzero vectors uand v. Let p be the vector obtained by dropping a perpendicular
from the head of v onto u and let θ be the angle between u and v

Scaler Projection
The scalar projection of a vector v onto a
nonzero vector u is defined and denoted
by the scalar
u·v
comp u v = (55)
∥u∥

Vector Projection
The [vector] projection of v onto u is
u·v u u
pr o j u v = = comp u v (56)
∥u∥ ∥u∥ ∥u∥
Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 35 / 38
 Vector Products Dot Product

Example
Find the projection of v onto u if u = [2, 1] and v = [−1, 3]

u · v = −2 + 3 = 1 (57)

p p
||u|| · ||u|| = 5( 5) = 5 (58)

u·v u 1
pr o j u v = = u (59)
∥u∥ ∥u∥ 5
1
= [2, 1] (60)
·5 ¸
2 1
= , (61)
5 5

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 36 / 38

 Vector Products Dot Product

Exercise
1 For what values of b will make ⃗
u = [b, 3, ] and ⃗
v = [2, 6] orthogonal?
2 For what values of b will make ⃗u = [b, 3, −3, 1, 4] and ⃗
v = [b, b, 6, 1, 9] orthogonal?
3 Find the vector projection of v onto u
1 u = [−1, 1], v = [−2, 4]
2 u = [3/5, −4/5], v = [1, 2]
3 u = [1/2, −1/4, / − 1/2], v = [2, 2, / − 2]

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 37 / 38

 END OF LECTURE
THANK YOU

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Vectors 38 / 38

Introduction To Vectors
Vector Products

VECTORS

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu

March 23, 2022

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 1/37

 Introduction To Vectors
Vector Products

Outline

1 Introduction To Vectors
Introduction
Vectors in Rn

2 Vector Products
Dot Product

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 2/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Outline of Presentation

1 Introduction To Vectors
Introduction
Vectors in Rn

2 Vector Products
Dot Product

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 3/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Introduction To Vectors
Definition (Vector)
A vector is an object that has both a magnitude and a direction.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 4/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Introduction To Vectors
Definition (Vector)
A vector is an object that has both a magnitude and a direction.

1 An example of a vector quantity is velocity. This is speed, in a particular direction. An

example of velocity might be 60 mph due north.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 4/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Introduction To Vectors
Definition (Vector)
A vector is an object that has both a magnitude and a direction.

1 An example of a vector quantity is velocity. This is speed, in a particular direction. An

example of velocity might be 60 mph due north.
2 A quantity with magnitude alone, but no direction, is not a vector. It is called a scalar
instead. One example of a scalar is distance.
Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 4/37
 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Geometric representation

Definition (Geometric representation)

−−→
A vector v is represented by a directed line segment denoted by AB.
A −→
v = AB
B

1 A is the initial point/origin/tail and B is the terminal point/endpoint/tip.

2 The length of the segment is the magnitude of v and is denoted by |v| .
3 A and B are any points in space.

−−→
Vectors are represented with arrows on top (~v or OP ) or as boldface v.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 5/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Definition
Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and direction.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 6/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Definition
Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and direction.

Example
D

B u

u
C u

−→ −−→
AB = u = DC

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 6/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Addition of Vectors

Theorem (Parallelogram law)

Vector u + v is the diagonal of the parallelogram formed by u and v.

Addition Laws
B
u
A u+v D

v
C
(a) Parallelogram law of vector addition: The
tail of u and v coincide.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 7/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Addition of Vectors

Theorem (Parallelogram law)

Vector u + v is the diagonal of the parallelogram formed by u and v.

Addition Laws
B
u B
A u+v D u v
A u+v
D
v
(b) Triangle law of vector addition: The tip
C
of u coincides with the tail of v. (Also called
(a) Parallelogram law of vector addition: The head to tail rule)
tail of u and v coincide.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 7/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Addition
If the two vectors do not have a common point, we can always coincide them by shifting one of the
vectors.
By observing that
−−→ −−→ −−→
AB + BD = AD (1)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 8/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Addition
If the two vectors do not have a common point, we can always coincide them by shifting one of the
vectors.
By observing that
−−→ −−→ −−→
AB + BD = AD (1)

Zero Vector
−−→ −−→ −→ →
−
1 AB + BA = AA. This is the zero vector. It has zero magnitude and is denoted by 0 or 0 . Its

origin is equal to its endpoint.

−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
2 For any vector w, w + 0 = w [if we let w = M N and 0 = N N then w + 0 = M N + N N =
−−→
M N = w.]

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 8/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Addition
If the two vectors do not have a common point, we can always coincide them by shifting one of the
vectors.
By observing that
−−→ −−→ −−→
AB + BD = AD (1)

Zero Vector
−−→ −−→ −→ →
−
1 AB + BA = AA. This is the zero vector. It has zero magnitude and is denoted by 0 or 0 . Its

origin is equal to its endpoint.

−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
2 For any vector w, w + 0 = w [if we let w = M N and 0 = N N then w + 0 = M N + N N =
−−→
M N = w.]

Negative vector
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −→ −−→
BA and AB have the same magnitude but opposite directions and satisfy AB + BA = AA = ~0. BA
−−→ −−→ −−→
is the negative of AB i.e. BA = −AB.
Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 8/37
 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→

1 In general, we have k AB. For instance AB
| + AB{z+ · · · + AB} = k AB if k ∈ Z. The
k
coefficient k is a scalar and the product between a scalar and a vector is called scalar
multiplication.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 9/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→

1 In general, we have k AB. For instance AB
| + AB{z+ · · · + AB} = k AB if k ∈ Z. The
k
coefficient k is a scalar and the product between a scalar and a vector is called scalar
multiplication.
2 w and kw are said to be parallel; they have the same direction if k > 0 and opposite
direction if k < 0.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 9/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Position Vectors

Definition (Position Vectors)

While vectors can exist anywhere in space, a point is always defined relative to the origin, O.
Vectors defined from the origin are called Position Vectors

−−→ −→ −−→
AB = AO + OB (2)
= [−~a] + ~b (3)
= ~b − ~a (4)
−−→ −→
= OB − OA (5)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 10/37

Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

It is natural to represent position vectors using

coordinates. For example, in A = (3, 2) and we write
−→
the vector ~a = OA = [3, 2] using square brackets.
Similarly, ~b = [−1, 3] and ~c = [2, −1]

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 11/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

It is natural to represent position vectors using

coordinates. For example, in A = (3, 2) and we write
−→
the vector ~a = OA = [3, 2] using square brackets.
Similarly, ~b = [−1, 3] and ~c = [2, −1]

1 The individual coordinates [3 and 2 in the case of ~a] are called the components of the
vector.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 11/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

It is natural to represent position vectors using

coordinates. For example, in A = (3, 2) and we write
−→
the vector ~a = OA = [3, 2] using square brackets.
Similarly, ~b = [−1, 3] and ~c = [2, −1]

1 The individual coordinates [3 and 2 in the case of ~a] are called the components of the
vector.
2 A vector is sometimes said to be an ordered pair of real numbers. That is
[3, 2] 6= [2, 3] (6)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 11/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

It is natural to represent position vectors using

coordinates. For example, in A = (3, 2) and we write
−→
the vector ~a = OA = [3, 2] using square brackets.
Similarly, ~b = [−1, 3] and ~c = [2, −1]

1 The individual coordinates [3 and 2 in the case of ~a] are called the components of the
vector.
2 A vector is sometimes said to be an ordered pair of real numbers. That is
[3, 2] 6= [2, 3] (6)
 
a
3 Vectors can be represented either as row vector [a, b, c] of a column vector  b 
c
Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 11/37
 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Some 2D Properties
Given u = [u1 , u2 ] and v = [v1 , v2 ] then
1 Addition

u + v = [u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 ] (7)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 12/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Some 2D Properties
Given u = [u1 , u2 ] and v = [v1 , v2 ] then
1 Addition

u + v = [u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 ] (7)

2 Subtraction
u − v = [u1 − v1 , u2 − v2 ] (8)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 12/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Some 2D Properties
Given u = [u1 , u2 ] and v = [v1 , v2 ] then
1 Addition

u + v = [u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 ] (7)

2 Subtraction
u − v = [u1 − v1 , u2 − v2 ] (8)

3 Scalar multiplication
ku = [ku1 , ku2 ] (9)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 12/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Some 2D Properties
Given u = [u1 , u2 ] and v = [v1 , v2 ] then
1 Addition

u + v = [u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 ] (7)

2 Subtraction
u − v = [u1 − v1 , u2 − v2 ] (8)

3 Scalar multiplication
ku = [ku1 , ku2 ] (9)

4 Magnitude / Length / Norm

q
|u| = ||u|| = u21 + u22 (10)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 12/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Standard Basis Vectors

Let ~i = [1, 0] and ~j = [0, 1] , the i, j are called standard basis vectors in R2 .

Each vector have length 1 and point in the directions of the positive x, and y−axes respectively.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 13/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Standard Basis Vectors

Let ~i = [1, 0] and ~j = [0, 1] , the i, j are called standard basis vectors in R2 .

Each vector have length 1 and point in the directions of the positive x, and y−axes respectively.

Similarly, in the three-dimensional plane, the vectors ~i = [1, 0, 0], ~j = [0, 1, 0] and ~k = [0, 0, 1]
are also called the standard basis vectors.

Again they have length 1 and point in the directions of the positive x, y, and z−axes.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 13/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Standard Basis Vectors

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 14/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Unit Vector

Definition
1 A vector of magnitude 1 is called a unit vector. In

the Cartesian coordinate system, i and j are reserved

for the unit vector along the positive x-axis and y-
axis respectively.
2 The Cartesian coordinate system is therefore defined
by three reference points (O, I, J) such that the
−→ −→
origin O has coordinates (0, 0), i = OI and j = OJ,
−−→
and any vector w = OM can be expressed as
w = w1 i + w2 j. w1 and w2 are the coordinates of
w.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 15/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Example
−−→
Given the points E = (2, 7) and F = (3, −1), then the vector EF is given as
−−→ −−→ −−→
EF = OF − OE (11)
= [(3, −1) − (2, 7)] (12)
= [1, −8] (13)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 16/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Example
Calculate the magnitude of vector a = λ1 a1 − λ2 a2 − λ3 a3 in case a1 = [2, −3], a2 =
[−3, 0], a3 = [−1, −1] and λ1 = 2, λ2 = −1, λ3 = 3.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 17/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Example
Calculate the magnitude of vector a = λ1 a1 − λ2 a2 − λ3 a3 in case a1 = [2, −3], a2 =
[−3, 0], a3 = [−1, −1] and λ1 = 2, λ2 = −1, λ3 = 3.

a = λ1 a1 − λ2 a2 − λ3 a3 (14)
= 2[2, −3] − [−1][−3, 0] − 3[−1, −1] (15)
= [4, −6] + [−3, 0] + [3, 3] (16)
= [4, −3] (17)

Thus

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 17/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Example
Calculate the magnitude of vector a = λ1 a1 − λ2 a2 − λ3 a3 in case a1 = [2, −3], a2 =
[−3, 0], a3 = [−1, −1] and λ1 = 2, λ2 = −1, λ3 = 3.

a = λ1 a1 − λ2 a2 − λ3 a3 (14)
= 2[2, −3] − [−1][−3, 0] − 3[−1, −1] (15)
= [4, −6] + [−3, 0] + [3, 3] (16)
= [4, −3] (17)

Thus
p √
|a| = 43 + [−3]2 = 25 = 5 (18)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 17/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Example
A car is pulled by four men. The components of the four forces are F1 = [20, 25], F2 =
[15, 5], F3 = [25, −5] and F4 = [30, −15]. Find the resultant force R.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 18/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Example
A car is pulled by four men. The components of the four forces are F1 = [20, 25], F2 =
[15, 5], F3 = [25, −5] and F4 = [30, −15]. Find the resultant force R.

The resultant force

F = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 (19)
= [20, 25] + [15, 5] + [25, −5] + [30, −15] (20)
= [90, 10] (21)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 18/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Definition
1 If v , v , . . . , v
1 2 n are n real numbers:
2 v = [v1 , v2 ] is a two dimension vector. It belongs to R2 .
3 v = [v1 , v2 , v3 ] is a three dimension vector. It belongs to R3 .
4 v = [v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ] is an n dimension vector. It belongs to Rn . We may use e1 , e2 , . . . en
to denote the unit vectors of the coordinate system.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 19/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Definition
1 If v , v , . . . , v
1 2 n are n real numbers:
2 v = [v1 , v2 ] is a two dimension vector. It belongs to R2 .
3 v = [v1 , v2 , v3 ] is a three dimension vector. It belongs to R3 .
4 v = [v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ] is an n dimension vector. It belongs to Rn . We may use e1 , e2 , . . . en
to denote the unit vectors of the coordinate system.

1 i = [1, 0, 0], j = [0, 1, 0] and k = [0, 0, 1] are three dimension vectors; i, j, k ∈ R3 .u =

[3, −1, 5] = 3i − j + 5k is a vector in R3 .

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 19/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Definition
1 If v , v , . . . , v
1 2 n are n real numbers:
2 v = [v1 , v2 ] is a two dimension vector. It belongs to R2 .
3 v = [v1 , v2 , v3 ] is a three dimension vector. It belongs to R3 .
4 v = [v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ] is an n dimension vector. It belongs to Rn . We may use e1 , e2 , . . . en
to denote the unit vectors of the coordinate system.

1 i = [1, 0, 0], j = [0, 1, 0] and k = [0, 0, 1] are three dimension vectors; i, j, k ∈ R3 .u =

[3, −1, 5] = 3i − j + 5k is a vector in R3 .
2 v = [3, −1, 5, 0, 4] = 3e1 − e2 + 5e3 + 4e5 is a five dimension vector; v ∈ R5 .

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 19/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Definition
1 If v , v , . . . , v
1 2 n are n real numbers:
2 v = [v1 , v2 ] is a two dimension vector. It belongs to R2 .
3 v = [v1 , v2 , v3 ] is a three dimension vector. It belongs to R3 .
4 v = [v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ] is an n dimension vector. It belongs to Rn . We may use e1 , e2 , . . . en
to denote the unit vectors of the coordinate system.

1 i = [1, 0, 0], j = [0, 1, 0] and k = [0, 0, 1] are three dimension vectors; i, j, k ∈ R3 .u =

[3, −1, 5] = 3i − j + 5k is a vector in R3 .
2 v = [3, −1, 5, 0, 4] = 3e1 − e2 + 5e3 + 4e5 is a five dimension vector; v ∈ R5 .
3 The coordinate system is defined by e1 = [1, 0, 0, 0, 0], e2 = [0, 1, 0, 0, 0], e3 =
[0, 0, 1, 0, 0], e4 = [0, 0, 0, 1, 0], and e5 = [0, 0, 0, 0, 1].

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 19/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

u = [u1 , u2 , . . . , un ], and v = [v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ] then

1 Addition
u + v = [u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 , . . . , un + vn ] (22)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 20/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

u = [u1 , u2 , . . . , un ], and v = [v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ] then

1 Addition
u + v = [u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 , . . . , un + vn ] (22)

2 Subtraction
u − v = [u1 − v1 , u2 − v2 , . . . , un − vn ] (23)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 20/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

u = [u1 , u2 , . . . , un ], and v = [v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ] then

1 Addition
u + v = [u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 , . . . , un + vn ] (22)

2 Subtraction
u − v = [u1 − v1 , u2 − v2 , . . . , un − vn ] (23)

3 Scalar multiplication
ku = [ku1 , ku2 , . . . , kun ] (24)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 20/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

u = [u1 , u2 , . . . , un ], and v = [v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ] then

1 Addition
u + v = [u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 , . . . , un + vn ] (22)

2 Subtraction
u − v = [u1 − v1 , u2 − v2 , . . . , un − vn ] (23)

3 Scalar multiplication
ku = [ku1 , ku2 , . . . , kun ] (24)

4 Magnitude q
|u| = u21 + u22 + . . . + u2n (25)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 20/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

u = [u1 , u2 , . . . , un ], and v = [v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ] then

1 Addition
u + v = [u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 , . . . , un + vn ] (22)

2 Subtraction
u − v = [u1 − v1 , u2 − v2 , . . . , un − vn ] (23)

3 Scalar multiplication
ku = [ku1 , ku2 , . . . , kun ] (24)

4 Magnitude q
|u| = u21 + u22 + . . . + u2n (25)

5 Unit vector in the direction of u

 
u u1 u2 un
eu = = , ,..., (26)
|u| |u| |u| |u|

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 20/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Example
If a = [4, 0, 3] and b = [−2, 1, 5], find |a − b| and the unit vector e in the direction of a.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 21/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Example
If a = [4, 0, 3] and b = [−2, 1, 5], find |a − b| and the unit vector e in the direction of a.

~a − ~b = [4, 0, 3] − [−2, 1, 5] (27)

= [6, −1, −2] (28)
and √
|~a − ~b| =
p
62 + [−1]2 + [−2]2 = 41 (29)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 21/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Example
If a = [4, 0, 3] and b = [−2, 1, 5], find |a − b| and the unit vector e in the direction of a.

~a − ~b = [4, 0, 3] − [−2, 1, 5] (27)

= [6, −1, −2] (28)
and √
|~a − ~b| =
p
62 + [−1]2 + [−2]2 = 41 (29)
The unit in the direction of a is
1
e= √ [4, 0, 3] (30)
42 + 02 + 32
1
= [4, 0, 3] (31)
5 
4 3
= , 0, (32)
5 5

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 21/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Properties of vectors

For any vectors u, v, w ∈ Rn and any scalars k, k 0 ∈ R,

1 Closure u + v ∈ Rn

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 22/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Properties of vectors

For any vectors u, v, w ∈ Rn and any scalars k, k 0 ∈ R,

1 Closure u + v ∈ Rn
2 Additive inverse u + [−u] = 0

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 22/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Properties of vectors

For any vectors u, v, w ∈ Rn and any scalars k, k 0 ∈ R,

1 Closure u + v ∈ Rn
2 Additive inverse u + [−u] = 0
3 Commutative u + v = v + u

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 22/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Properties of vectors

For any vectors u, v, w ∈ Rn and any scalars k, k 0 ∈ R,

1 Closure u + v ∈ Rn
2 Additive inverse u + [−u] = 0
3 Commutative u + v = v + u
4 Additive identity u + 0 = u

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 22/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Properties of vectors

For any vectors u, v, w ∈ Rn and any scalars k, k 0 ∈ R,

1 Closure u + v ∈ Rn
2 Additive inverse u + [−u] = 0
3 Commutative u + v = v + u
4 Additive identity u + 0 = u
5 Multiplicative identity 1u = u

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 22/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Properties of vectors

For any vectors u, v, w ∈ Rn and any scalars k, k 0 ∈ R,

1 Closure u + v ∈ Rn
2 Additive inverse u + [−u] = 0
3 Commutative u + v = v + u
4 Additive identity u + 0 = u
5 Multiplicative identity 1u = u
6 Associative [u + v] + w = u + [v + w]

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 22/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Properties of vectors

For any vectors u, v, w ∈ Rn and any scalars k, k 0 ∈ R,

1 Closure u + v ∈ Rn
2 Additive inverse u + [−u] = 0
3 Commutative u + v = v + u
4 Additive identity u + 0 = u
5 Multiplicative identity 1u = u
6 Associative [u + v] + w = u + [v + w]
7 Scalar Multiplication k[u + v] = ku + kv

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 22/37

 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Properties of vectors

For any vectors u, v, w ∈ Rn and any scalars k, k 0 ∈ R,

1 Closure u + v ∈ Rn
2 Additive inverse u + [−u] = 0
3 Commutative u + v = v + u
4 Additive identity u + 0 = u
5 Multiplicative identity 1u = u
6 Associative [u + v] + w = u + [v + w]
7 Scalar Multiplication k[u + v] = ku + kv
8 Scalar Multiplication [k + k 0 ]u = ku + k 0 u
Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 22/37
 Introduction To Vectors Introduction
Vector Products Vectors in Rn

Exercise
1 Let M = (m , m ) and N = (n , n ) be two points in the Cartesian coordinate system
1 2 1 2
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −→ −→
(O, I, J). Express u = M N , v = M O − 2ON , w = M N + 2N M + ON − OI + 3IJ in
−→ −→
terms of OI and OJ.
2 Find a unit vector that has the same direction as

a. u = 8i − j + k
b. v = [−2, 1, 2].
√ √
3 Show that u = 2e1 − 4e2 + e3 − 2e4 and v = −4e1 + 8e2 − 2e3 + 8e4 are parallel
vectors.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 23/37

 Introduction To Vectors
Dot Product
Vector Products

Outline of Presentation

1 Introduction To Vectors
Introduction
Vectors in Rn

2 Vector Products
Dot Product

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 24/37

 Introduction To Vectors
Dot Product
Vector Products

Dot Product
For u and v in Rn ,
1 If
u = [u1 , u2 , . . . , un ], and v = [v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ]
then
hu, vi = u · v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + . . . + un vn (33)
is the dot product of the two vectors.
2 The dot product is also called inner or scalar product.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 25/37

 Introduction To Vectors
Dot Product
Vector Products

Dot Product
For u and v in Rn ,
1 If
u = [u1 , u2 , . . . , un ], and v = [v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ]
then
hu, vi = u · v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + . . . + un vn (33)
is the dot product of the two vectors.
2 The dot product is also called inner or scalar product.

Example
[1, 2, 3]·[−1, 0, 1] = 1(−1) + 2(0) + 3(1) = 2.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 25/37

 Introduction To Vectors
Dot Product
Vector Products

Dot Product
For u and v in Rn ,
1 If
u = [u1 , u2 , . . . , un ], and v = [v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ]
then
hu, vi = u · v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + . . . + un vn (33)
is the dot product of the two vectors.
2 The dot product is also called inner or scalar product.

Example
[1, 2, 3]·[−1, 0, 1] = 1(−1) + 2(0) + 3(1) = 2.

Example
[i + 2j − 3k] · [2j − k] = 0 + 4 + 3 = 7.
Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 25/37
 Introduction To Vectors
Dot Product
Vector Products

Example
In R3 , i = [1, 0, 0], j = [0, 1, 0] and k = [0, 0, 1] so that

· i j k
i 1 0 0
j 0 1 0
k 0 0 1

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 26/37

 Introduction To Vectors
Dot Product
Vector Products

Properties
For any vectors u, v, w ∈ Rn and any scalar k ∈ R :
1 u·v ∈R

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 27/37

 Introduction To Vectors
Dot Product
Vector Products

Properties
For any vectors u, v, w ∈ Rn and any scalar k ∈ R :
1 u·v ∈R
2 0 · u = 0.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 27/37

 Introduction To Vectors
Dot Product
Vector Products

Properties
For any vectors u, v, w ∈ Rn and any scalar k ∈ R :
1 u·v ∈R
2 0 · u = 0.
3 u·v =v·u

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 27/37

 Introduction To Vectors
Dot Product
Vector Products

Properties
For any vectors u, v, w ∈ Rn and any scalar k ∈ R :
1 u·v ∈R
2 0 · u = 0.
3 u·v =v·u
4 u · u = |u|2 ≥ 0 and u · u = 0 iff u = 0.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 27/37

 Introduction To Vectors
Dot Product
Vector Products

Properties
For any vectors u, v, w ∈ Rn and any scalar k ∈ R :
1 u·v ∈R
2 0 · u = 0.
3 u·v =v·u
4 u · u = |u|2 ≥ 0 and u · u = 0 iff u = 0.
5 [ku]·v = k[u · v]

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 27/37

 Introduction To Vectors
Dot Product
Vector Products

Properties
For any vectors u, v, w ∈ Rn and any scalar k ∈ R :
1 u·v ∈R
2 0 · u = 0.
3 u·v =v·u
4 u · u = |u|2 ≥ 0 and u · u = 0 iff u = 0.
5 [ku]·v = k[u · v]
6 u·[v + w] = u · v + u · w.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 27/37

 Introduction To Vectors
Dot Product
Vector Products

Angles

The dot product can also be used to calculate the angle between a pair of vectors. In R2 or R3 ,
the angle between the nonzero vectors u and v will refer to the angle θ determined by these
vectors that satisfies 0 ≤ θ ≤ 180.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 28/37

Introduction To Vectors
Dot Product
Vector Products

Definition
For nonzero vectors u and v in Rn
u·v
cos θ = (34)
||u|| ||v||

This implies that

u · v = ||u|| ||v|| cos θ (35)

0 ≤ θ ≤ π is the internal angle.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 29/37

 Introduction To Vectors
Dot Product
Vector Products

Definition
For nonzero vectors u and v in Rn
u·v
cos θ = (34)
||u|| ||v||

This implies that

u · v = ||u|| ||v|| cos θ (35)

0 ≤ θ ≤ π is the internal angle.

Orthogonal vectors
Two nonzero vectors u and v are said to be orthogonal or perpendicular if

u·v =0 (36)
Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 29/37
 Introduction To Vectors
Dot Product
Vector Products

Example
Let u = i − 2j + 3k, v = i − k and w = 2i + 7j + 4k be three vectors of R3 . Show that u and
w are orthogonal but u and v are not. Find the angle θ between the direction of u and v.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 30/37

 Introduction To Vectors
Dot Product
Vector Products

Example
Let u = i − 2j + 3k, v = i − k and w = 2i + 7j + 4k be three vectors of R3 . Show that u and
w are orthogonal but u and v are not. Find the angle θ between the direction of u and v.

u · v = [1, −2, 3] · [1, 0, −1] (37)

= 1 + 0 − 3 = −2 Not orthogonal (38)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 30/37

 Introduction To Vectors
Dot Product
Vector Products

Example
Let u = i − 2j + 3k, v = i − k and w = 2i + 7j + 4k be three vectors of R3 . Show that u and
w are orthogonal but u and v are not. Find the angle θ between the direction of u and v.

u · v = [1, −2, 3] · [1, 0, −1] (37)

= 1 + 0 − 3 = −2 Not orthogonal (38)

u · w = [1, −2, 3] · [2, 7, 4] (39)

= 2 − 14 + 12 = 0 orthogonal (40)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 30/37

 Introduction To Vectors
Dot Product
Vector Products

Example
Let u = i − 2j + 3k, v = i − k and w = 2i + 7j + 4k be three vectors of R3 . Show that u and
w are orthogonal but u and v are not. Find the angle θ between the direction of u and v.

u · v = [1, −2, 3] · [1, 0, −1] (37)

= 1 + 0 − 3 = −2 Not orthogonal (38)

u · w = [1, −2, 3] · [2, 7, 4] (39)

= 2 − 14 + 12 = 0 orthogonal (40)

u·v −2 −1
cos θ = =√ √ =√ (41)
||u|| ||v|| 14 × 2 7
θ = 112.2078 (42)
Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 30/37
 Introduction To Vectors
Dot Product
Vector Products

Example
Find k so that u = [1, k, −3, 1] and v = [1, k, k, 1] are orthogonal.

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 31/37

 Introduction To Vectors
Dot Product
Vector Products

Example
Find k so that u = [1, k, −3, 1] and v = [1, k, k, 1] are orthogonal.

For orthogonal

u·v =0 (43)
[1, k, −3, 1] · [1, k, k, 1] = 0 (44)
2
1 + k − 3k + 1 = 0 (45)
k 2 − 3k + 2 = 0 (46)
[k − 2][k − 1] = 0 (47)

Hence k = 2 or k = 1

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 31/37

Introduction To Vectors
Dot Product
Vector Products

Theorem
For any two vectors a and b
1 Schwartz’s inequality:

|a · b| ≤ |a| |b| (48)

2 Triangle inequality:

|a + b| ≤ |a| + |b| (49)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 32/37

 Introduction To Vectors
Dot Product
Vector Products

Theorem
For any two vectors a and b
1 Schwartz’s inequality:

|a · b| ≤ |a| |b| (48)

2 Triangle inequality:

|a + b| ≤ |a| + |b| (49)

Definition
The distance between a and b is
d(a, b) = |a − b| (50)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 32/37

 Introduction To Vectors
Dot Product
Vector Products

Theorem (Pythagoras)
For all vectors u and v in Rn ,
|u + v|2 = |u|2 + |v|2 (51)
if and only if u and v are orthogonal.

Note

|u + v|2 = |u|2 + |v|2 + 2u · v (52)

For orthogonal u · v = 0

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 33/37

 Introduction To Vectors
Dot Product
Vector Products

Projection of v onto u
Consider two nonzero vectors uand v. Let p be the vector obtained by dropping a perpendicular from
the head of v onto u and let θ be the angle between u and v

Scaler Projection
The scalar projection of a vector v onto a
nonzero vector u is defined and denoted by
the scalar
u·v
compu v = (53)
|u|

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 34/37

 Introduction To Vectors
Dot Product
Vector Products

Projection of v onto u
Consider two nonzero vectors uand v. Let p be the vector obtained by dropping a perpendicular from
the head of v onto u and let θ be the angle between u and v

Scaler Projection
The scalar projection of a vector v onto a
nonzero vector u is defined and denoted by
the scalar
u·v
compu v = (53)
|u|

Vector Projection
The [vector] projection of v onto u is
u·v u u
proju v = = compu v (54)
|u| |u| |u|
Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 34/37
 Introduction To Vectors
Dot Product
Vector Products

Example
Find the projection of v onto u if u = [2, 1] and v = [−1, 3]

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 35/37

 Introduction To Vectors
Dot Product
Vector Products

Example
Find the projection of v onto u if u = [2, 1] and v = [−1, 3]

u · v = −2 + 3 = 1 (55)
√ √
||u|| · ||u|| = 5( 5) = 5 (56)

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 35/37

 Introduction To Vectors
Dot Product
Vector Products

Example
Find the projection of v onto u if u = [2, 1] and v = [−1, 3]

u · v = −2 + 3 = 1 (55)
√ √
||u|| · ||u|| = 5( 5) = 5 (56)

u·v u 1
proju v = = u (57)
|u| |u| 5
1
= [2, 1] (58)
5 
2 1
= , (59)
5 5
Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 35/37
 Introduction To Vectors
Dot Product
Vector Products

Exercise
Find the vector projection of v onto u
1 u = [−1, 1], v = [−2, 4]
2 u = [3/5, −4/5], v = [1, 2]
3 u = [1/2, −1/4, / − 1/2], v = [2, 2, / − 2]

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 36/37

Introduction To Vectors
Vector Products

END OF LECTURE
THANK YOU

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu 37/37

 DETERMINANTS

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu

Department of Mathematics
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
Google Scholar: https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ZJfCMyQAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao
ResearchGate ID: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gabriel_Fosu2

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 1 / 36

Lecture Outline

1 Developing the Determinant of a Matrix

Introduction
Determinant of n × n Matrix
Cofactors, Adjoint, and Inverse of a Matrix

2 Some Properties of Determinant

3 Cramer’s Rule

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 2 / 36

 Developing the Determinant of a Matrix Introduction

Introduction

Definition
The determinant is a scalar value that is a function of the entries of a square matrix. It
allows characterizing some properties of the matrix.

The determinant of a matrix A is denoted det(A), det A , or |A|.

For example, in terms of linear algebra, determinants can be used to

1 characterize nonsingular matrices,
2 Used to express solutions of nonsingular systems Ax = b
3 Used to express vector cross products.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 4 / 36

 Developing the Determinant of a Matrix Determinant of n × n Matrix

Determinant of Matrix

Theorem
Let Mi j denote the determinant of the (n −1)×(n −1) submatrix of A formed by deleting the
i t h row and j t h column of A . Assume that the determinant function has been defined for
matrices of size (n − 1) × (n − 1). Then the determinant of the n × n matrix A is defined by
what we call the first-row Laplace expansion:
n
(−1)1+ j a 1 j M 1 j
X
|A| = (1)
j =1

= a 11 M 11 − a 12 M 12 + · · · + (−1)1+n M 1n (2)

The values Mi j are termed minors.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 5 / 36

 Developing the Determinant of a Matrix Determinant of n × n Matrix

Determinant of 2 × 2 Matrix
1 The determinant of the general 2 × 2 matrix
· ¸
a 11 a 12
A=
a 21 a 22

is
|A| = a 11 (a 22 ) − a 12 (a 21 )
2 The minors are a22 and a21 .

Example
· ¸
11 2
The determinant of Z = is
3 −1

|Z | = 11(−1) − 2(3) = −17 (3)

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 6 / 36

 Developing the Determinant of a Matrix Determinant of n × n Matrix

Determinant of 3 × 3 Matrix

Let
a 11 a 12 a 13
 

A = a 21 a 22 a 23 
a 31 a 32 a 33
then the determinant is defined as
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯a 22 a 23 ¯¯ ¯a 21 a 23 ¯¯ ¯a 21 a 22 ¯¯
|A| = a 11 ¯¯ − a 12 ¯
¯ + a 13 ¯
¯ (4)
a 32 a 33 ¯ a 31 a 33 ¯ a 31 a 32 ¯
= a 11 [a 22 (a 33 ) − a 23 a 32 ] − a 12 [a 21 (a 33 ) − a 23 (a 31 )] +
a 13 [a 21 (a 32 ) − a 22 (a 31 )] (5)

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 7 / 36

 Developing the Determinant of a Matrix Determinant of n × n Matrix

Example
1 2 −1
 

Compute the determinant of the 3 × 3 matrix C = 0 4 1 

3 5 −9

¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯4 1 ¯
¯ − 2 ¯0 1 ¯ + (−1) ¯0 4¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
|C | = 1 ¯¯ (6)
5 −9 ¯ ¯3 −9 ¯ ¯3 5¯
= 1[4(−9) − 1(5)] − 2[0(−9) − 1(3)] − 1[0(5) − 3(4)] (7)
= 1(−41) − 2(−3) − 1(−12) (8)
= −23 (9)

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 8 / 36

 Developing the Determinant of a Matrix Determinant of n × n Matrix

The evaluation of an n × n matrix was presented in terms of the first-row expansion.

Actually, we can expand the determinant along any row or column
1 The i t h row expansion is
n
(−1)i + j a i j M i j
X
|A| = (10)
j =1

2 The j t h column expansion is

n
(−1)i + j a i j M i j
X
|A| = (11)
i =1

3 The expression (−1)i + j obeys the chessboard pattern of signs:

 
+ − + ···
− + − ··· 
 
+ − + ··· 
 

.. .. .. ..

. . . .
Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 9 / 36
 Developing the Determinant of a Matrix Cofactors, Adjoint, and Inverse of a Matrix

Cofactors, Adjoint and Inverse of Matrices

Definition (Cofactor)
The (i , j ) cofactor of A , denoted by C i j is defined by

C i j = (−1)i + j M i j (12)

Definition (Adjoint)
If A = [ai j ] is an n × n matrix, the adjoint of A, denoted by ad j A , is the transpose of the
matrix of cofactors.

Definition (Inverse)
The inverse of a matrix is given by the relation
1
A −1 = ad j A
det A
Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 10 / 36
 Developing the Determinant of a Matrix Cofactors, Adjoint, and Inverse of a Matrix

Example
1 2 3
 

Find the inverse of A = 4 5 6

8 8 9

1 The determinant is
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯5 6¯
¯ − 2 ¯4 6¯ + 3 ¯4 5¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
|A| = 1 ¯¯ = −3 + 24 − 24 = −3 (13)
8 9 ¯ ¯ 8 9 ¯ ¯8 8¯

2 The cofactor matrix is

 ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ 
¯5 6¯¯ ¯4 6¯ ¯4 5¯
¯
 ¯8 −¯¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
9¯ 8 9¯ ¯8 8¯ 
−3 12 −8
 ¯  
 ¯2 ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
3¯¯ ¯¯1 3¯¯ ¯1 2 ¯
¯ =  6 −15 8 
− ¯ − ¯¯
 ¯ 
 8 9¯ ¯8 9¯ 8 8 ¯
 ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯  −3 6 −3
 ¯2 3¯¯ ¯1 3¯ ¯1 2¯ 
¯
¯5 − ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
6¯ ¯4 6¯ ¯4 5¯
Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 11 / 36
 Developing the Determinant of a Matrix Cofactors, Adjoint, and Inverse of a Matrix

1 The adjoint is given by

6
 
−3 −3
ad j A =  12 −15 6 
−8 8 −3

2 Inverse
6
 
−3 −3
1
A −1 = −  12 −15 6  (14)
3
−8 8 −3
1 1
 
−2
=  −4 5 −2 (15)
8/3 −8/3 1

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 12 / 36

 Some Properties of Determinant

Definition
The product of a matrix A and its adjoint is a diagonal matrix whose diagonal entries are det(A).
   
1 2 3 −3 6 −3
For a matrix A = 4 5 6 it adjoint is ad j A =  12 −15 6  then
8 8 9 −8 8 −3
  
1 2 3 −3 6 −3
A × ad j A = 4 5 6  12 −15 6  (16)
8 8 9 −8 8 −3
 
−3 0 0
=  0 −3 0  (17)
0 0 −3

Note
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯5 6¯¯ ¯4 6¯¯ ¯4 5¯¯
|A| = 1 ¯¯ − 2 ¯¯ + 3 ¯¯ = −3 + 24 − 24 = −3 (18)
8 9¯ 8 9¯ 8 8¯

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 14 / 36

 Some Properties of Determinant

Properties of Determinant
Definition
The determinant of a lower triangular matrix
 
a 11 0 ··· 0
 a 21 a 22 ··· 0 
 
 . .. .. 
 . ..
 . . . . 

a n1 a n2 ··· a nn

is the product of the diagonal elements

a 11 × a 22 × a 33 × · · · × a nn

The same result applies to the determinant of an upper triangular matrix and a diagonal
Matrix

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 15 / 36

 Some Properties of Determinant

Example
1 2 −1
 

Compute the determinant of the 3 × 3 matrix C = 0 1 2 

0 0 −9

Expanding by the second column, we have

|C | = 1[1(−9) − 0(2)] + 2[0(−9) − 0(2)] − 1[1(0) − 0(0)] (19)

= −9 + 0 + 0 (20)
= −9 (21)

or
|C | = a 11 × a 22 × a 33 = 1 × 1 × −9 = −9 (22)

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 16 / 36

 Some Properties of Determinant

Properties of Determinant
Definition
A matrix and its transpose have equal determinants; that is

|A| = |A T |

If
1 2 −1
 

C = 0 1 2 
0 0 −9
then
1 0 0
 

CT =  2 1 0  (23)
−1 2 −9
Thus
|C T | = a 11 × a 22 × a 33 = 1 × 1 × −9 = −9 (24)
Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 17 / 36
 Some Properties of Determinant

Properties of Determinant
Definition
If a row or column of a matrix is zero, then the value of the determinant is 0.

Example
1 2 −1
 

Compute the determinant of the 3 × 3 matrix C = 0 0 0 

3 5 −9

Expanding by the second column, we have

|C | = −0[2(−9) − 1(5)] + 0[1(−9) − 1(3)] − 0[1(5) − 3(2)] (25)

= 0+0+0 (26)
=0 (27)

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 18 / 36

 Some Properties of Determinant

Properties of Determinants
Definition
For an n × n matrix A

det(c A) = c n det(A); where c is any scalar (28)

   
1 0 0 0 10 0 0 0
0 1 0 0  0 10 0 0
If A =   and c = 10 then c A =   and such
   
0 0 1 0 0 0 10 0 
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 10

det(c A) = 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 104 (29)

and
c n det(A) = 104 (1 × 1 × 1 × 1) = 104 (30)

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 19 / 36

 Some Properties of Determinant

Properties of Determinants

Definition
The determinants of
det(AB ) = (det A)(det B ) (31)
     
1 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 10 0 0 0
0 1 0 0  0 10 0 0  0 10 0 0
If A =   and B =   then AB =   Thus
     
0 0 1 0 0 0 10 0  0 0 10 0 
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 10

det(AB ) = 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 104 (32)

and
det(A) det(B ) = (1 × 1 × 1 × 1)(10 × 10 × 10 × 10) = 104 (33)

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 20 / 36

 Some Properties of Determinant

Properties of Determinants
A determinant is a linear function of each row separately.
If two rows are added, with all other rows remaining the same, the determinants are added.

¯ ¯
¯2
3 4 ¯¯
¯
−2 −3¯¯ = 2
¯−1
¯ (34)
¯−4
−3 −4¯
¯ ¯
¯5
6 7 ¯¯
¯
−2 −3¯¯ = 8
¯−1
¯ (35)
¯−4
−3 −4¯
¯ ¯ 
¯2 + 5 3 + 6 4 + 7 ¯ 7 9 11

¯ ¯
¯ −1
¯ −2 −3 ¯¯ = −1 −2 −3 = 10 (36)
¯ −4 −3 −4 ¯ −4 −3 −4

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 21 / 36

 Some Properties of Determinant

Properties of Determinants

Scalar Multiplication
If a row of A is multiplied by a scalar t , then the determinant of the modified matrix is t det A .

¯ ¯
¯1 4 0 ¯
¯ ¯
¯2 5 1 ¯ = 4
¯ ¯ (37)
¯1 0 0 ¯

Then multiplying row 2 by 7, we have

¯ ¯
¯1 4 0¯¯
¯
¯14 35 7¯ = 28 = 4(7)
¯ ¯ (38)
¯1 0 0¯

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 22 / 36

 Some Properties of Determinant

Properties of Determinants

Row Swap
If two rows of a matrix are exchanged, the determinant changes sign.

¯ ¯
¯1 0 0 ¯
¯ ¯
¯2 5 1¯ = −4
¯ ¯ (39)
¯1 4 0 ¯

Interchanging rows 2 and 3

¯ ¯
¯1 0 0 ¯
¯ ¯
¯1 4 0 ¯ = 4
¯ ¯ (40)
¯2 5 1 ¯

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 23 / 36

 Some Properties of Determinant

Properties of Determinants
Row Arithmetic
If a multiple of a row is subtracted from another row, the value of the determinant remains
unchanged.

¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯1 0 0¯ ¯1 0 0¯¯
¯ ¯ −→ ¯
¯ N R = R − 8R ¯ 1
¯1 4 0¯ ¯ 4 0¯¯ = 4 (41)
3 3 2¯
¯
¯2 5 1¯ −6 −27 1¯

Equal Rows
When two rows of a matrix are equal, the determinant is zero.

¯ ¯
¯1 0 1 ¯
¯ ¯
¯2 1 8 ¯ = 0
¯ ¯ (42)
¯1 0 1 ¯
Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 24 / 36
 Some Properties of Determinant

Theorem
1 A matrix A is nonsingular if and only if det A ̸= 0
2 A is singular if and only if det A = 0
3 The homogeneous system Ax = 0 has a nontrivial solution if and only if det A = 0.

Example
Find numbers a for which the following homogeneous system has a nontrivial solution and
solve the system for these values of a :

x − 2y + 3z = 0,
ax + 3y + 2z = 0,
6x + y + az = 0

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 25 / 36

 Some Properties of Determinant

1 3
 
−2
A coefficient matrix say D = a 3 2
6 1 a
Then

|D| = (3a − 2) + 2(a 2 − 12) + 3(a − 18) (43)

2
= 2a + 6a − 80 (44)

This
|D| = 0 =⇒ 2a 2 + 6a − 80 = 0 =⇒ a = −8 or a = 5
These values of a are the only values for which the given homogeneous system has a
nontrivial solution.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 26 / 36

 Some Properties of Determinant

1 3 1 −2 3
   
−2
1 When a = −8 we obtain D = a 3 2  = −8 3 2
6 1 a 6 1 −8
2 ERO will lead to the upper triangular (that is the augmented matrix)

1 0 −1 0
 
0 1 −2 0 (45)
0 0 0 0

3 Solving this system gives the nontrivial solution

x = z and y = 2z

[x, y, z] = [z, 2z, z] = z[1, 2, 1]

Exercise
The case of a = 5 is left as an exercise.
Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 27 / 36
 Cramer’s Rule

Cramer’s Rule

Definition (Cramer’s Rule)

Let A be an n ×n invertible matrix, and let b be a column vector with n components. Let A i
be the matrix
 obtained by replacing the i t h column of A with b .
x1
x 
If x =  2  is the unique solution to the linear system Ax = b , then
 
· · ·
xn

det(A i )
xi = ; i = 1, 2, · · · , n (46)
det(A)

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 29 / 36

 Cramer’s Rule

Example
Use Cramer’s rule to solve the linear system.
2x + 3y = 2 (47)
−5x + 7y = 3 (48)

The determinant of the coefficient¯ matrix¯ is given by

¯ 2 3¯
¯−5 7¯ = 14 − (−15) = 29
¯ ¯ (49)
and since the determinant is not zero,¯ the system
¯ has a unique solution given by
¯2 3 ¯
¯ ¯
¯3 7 ¯ 14 − 9 5
x= = = (50)
29 29 29
¯ ¯
¯ 2 2¯
¯ ¯
¯−5 3¯ 6 − (−10) 16
y= = = (51)
29 29 29
Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 30 / 36
 Cramer’s Rule

Example
Solve the linear system

2x + 3y − z = 2 (52)
3x − 2y + z = −1 (53)
−5x − 4y + 2z = 3 (54)
(55)

The determinant of the coefficient matrix is given by

¯ ¯
¯2 3 −1¯¯
¯
¯ 3 −2 1 ¯ = −11
¯ ¯ (56)
¯−5 −4 2 ¯

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 31 / 36

 Cramer’s Rule

By Cramer’s rule the solution to the system is

¯ ¯
¯2 3 −1¯¯
1 ¯ 5
x = − ¯¯−1 −2 1 ¯¯ = − (57)
11 ¯ 11
3 −4 2 ¯
¯ ¯
¯2 2 −1¯¯
1 ¯¯ 36
y = − ¯ 3 −1 1 ¯¯ = − (58)
11 ¯ 11
−5 3 2¯
¯ ¯
¯2 3 2 ¯¯
1 ¯¯ 76
z = − ¯ 3 −2 −1¯¯ = − (59)
11 ¯ 11
−5 −4 3 ¯

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 32 / 36

 Cramer’s Rule

Alternative Method for Solving Determinant

Another method for calculating the determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix A is follows
1 Copy the first two columns of A to the right of the matrix
2 Take the products of the elements on the six diagonals shown below.
3 Attach plus signs to the products from the downward-sloping diagonals
4 Attach minus signs to the products from the upward-sloping diagonals.

|A| = a 11 a 22 a 33 + a 12 a 23 a 31 + a 13 a 21 a 32 − a 31 a 22 a 13 − a 32 a 23 a 11 − a 33 a 21 a 12
Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 33 / 36
 Cramer’s Rule

Example
5 −3 2
 

Calculate the determinant of the matrix A = 1 0 2

2 −1 3

We adjoin to A its first two columns and compute the six indicated products:

Adding the three products at the bottom and subtracting the three products at the top
gives
det(A) = 0 + (−12) + (−2) − 0 − (−10) − (−9) = 5 (60)
Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 34 / 36
 Cramer’s Rule

Exercises
 
1 −1 0 0
1 0 −2
 
−3 −3 −1 −1
1 Given the matrix A = 3 1 4  and B =   Compute
 
−1 −1 −3 2 
5 2 −3
−1 −2 2 1
a. The determinant
b. The cofactor matrix
c. The inverse
2 Show that ¯ ¯
¯1 1 1 1¯¯
¯
¯r 1 1 1¯¯
¯ = (1 − r )3
¯
¯r r 1 1¯
¯
¯ ¯
¯r r r 1¯

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 35 / 36

 END OF LECTURE
THANK YOU

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Determinants 36 / 36

 SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu

Department of Mathematics
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
Google Scholar: https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ZJfCMyQAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao

ResearchGate ID: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gabriel_Fosu2

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 1 / 41

Lecture Outline

Introduction

1 Gaussian Elimination

2 Gauss-Jordan Elimination Method

3 Inverse Approach
Computing Inverse

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 2 / 41

 Introduction

Introduction to linear systems

This lecture introduces the basics of solving linear equations using some elimination methods.
A system of n linear equations in n unknowns x 1 , x 2 , · · · , x n is a family of equations

a 11 x 1 + a 12 x 2 + · · · + a 1n x n = b 1 (1)
a 21 x 1 + a 22 x 2 + · · · + a 2n x n = b 2 (2)
.. .
. = ..
a n1 x 1 + a n2 x 2 + · · · + a nn x n = b n (3)

We wish to determine if such a system has a solution, that is to find out if there exist numbers
x 1 , x 2 , · · · , x n that satisfy each of the equations simultaneously.
We say that the system is consistent if it has a solution. Otherwise, the system is called
inconsistent.
More generally, the above is called a homogeneous system of linear equations when b1 = b2 =
· · · = bn = 0

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 3 / 41

 Introduction

Geometrically, solving a system of linear equations in two (or three) unknowns is equivalent to
determining whether or not a family of lines (or planes) has a common point of intersection.

(a) Consistent with independent solutions (b) Inconsistent (c) Consistent with dependent solution.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 4 / 41

 Introduction

Example
Solve the system

2x + 3y = 6
x−y =2

By the elimination or substitution method, the solution to the system is

x = 12/5, y = 2/5 (4)

This approach would be tedious and virtually unworkable for a large number of equations. We will
develop a means of solving systems by using the matrix form of the equation.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 5 / 41

 Introduction

Solving Square Linear Systems

1 Given the system
a 11 x 1 + a 12 x 2 + · · · + a 1n x n = b 1 (5)
a 21 x 1 + a 22 x 2 + · · · + a 2n x n = b 2 (6)
.. .
. = ..
a n1 x 1 + a n2 x 2 + · · · + a nn x n = b n (7)

2 This can be recast in matrices as

a 11 a 12 ··· a 1n x1 b1
    
 a 21 a 22 ··· a 2n   x2   b2 
 . .. ..   . = .  (8)
    
 .. ..
. . .   ..   .. 
a n1 a n2 ··· a nn xn bn

3 Which is of the general from

Ax = b (9)
Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 6 / 41
 Introduction

The matrix A is appended by b to form what we call the Augmented Matrix. This is denoted by

a 11 a 12 a 13 · · · a 1n b1
 
 a 21 a 22 a 23 · · · a 2n b2 
A|b =  . .. .. ..  (10)
 
 .. ..
. . . . 
a n1 a n2 a n3 · · · a nn bn

The matrix is really just a compact way of writing the system of equations.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 7 / 41

 Introduction

Elementary row operations

Three main types of elementary row operations can be performed on matrices:
1 Interchanging two rows: R i ↔ R j interchanges rows i and j (Partial Pivoting).
2 Multiplying a row by a nonzero scalar: R i → t Ri multiplies row i by the nonzero scalar t .
3 Adding a multiple of one row to another row: R j → R j + t R i add t times row i to row j .

Note
The above operations are implemented on the augmented matrix during elimination approach, and
will not change the solution to the system.

Note that performing these operations on the matrix is equivalent to performing the same operations
directly on the equations.

Definition (Row equivalence)

Matrix A is row-equivalent to matrix B if B is obtained from A by a sequence of elementary row
operations.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 8 / 41

 Gaussian Elimination

Gaussian Elimination
Gaussian elimination performs row operations on the augmented matrix until the portion
corresponding to the coefficient matrix is reduced to upper-triangular form.

Definition (Upper-Triangular Matrix)

An n × n matrix A whose entries are of the form
(
ai j i≤j
Ui j =
0 i>j

is called an upper triangular matrix. Specifically:

a 11 a 12 ··· a 1n
 
 0 a 22 ··· a 2n 
U = . .. .. 
 
 .. ..
. . . 
0 0 ··· a nn

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 10 / 41

 Gaussian Elimination

The method starts with

a 11 a 12 a 13 · · · a 1n b1
 
 a 21 a 22 a 23 · · · a 2n b2 
A|b =  . .. .. ..  (11)
 
 .. ..
. . . . 
a n1 a n2 a n3 · · · a nn bn
then using row elimination produces a matrix in upper triangular form

c 11 c 12 c 13 · · · c 1n d1
 
 0 c 22 c 23 · · · c 2n d2 
 . .. .. ..  (12)
 
 .. ..
. . . . 
0 0 0 · · · c nn dn
which is easy to solve using back substitution.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 11 / 41

 Gaussian Elimination

Gaussian Elimination Procedure

1
Begin at element a11 . If a11 = 0, exchange rows so a11 ̸= 0.

2
Now make all the elements below a11 zero using elementary row operations
(ERO)

3
Now perform the same process of elimination using a22 as the pivot.

4
Repeat this process until the matrix is in upper-triangular form.

5
Then execute back substitution to compute the solution.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 12 / 41

 Gaussian Elimination

Example
Solve the following system of equations using the Gaussian elimination method

x1 + x2 + x3 = 1
4x 1 + 3x 2 − x 3 = 6
3x 1 + 5x 2 + 3x 3 = 4

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 13 / 41

 Gaussian Elimination

Solution
This problem is first recast into matrix form as
    
1 1 1 x1 1
4 3 −1 x 2  = 6 (13)
3 5 3 x3 4

The augmented matrix is deduced from (13) as

 
1 1 1 1
 4 3 −1 6  (14)
3 5 3 4
Now, let reduce (14) to an upper triangular matrix using elementary row operations.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 14 / 41

 Gaussian Elimination

Iteration 1
The first pivot point is 1 in the first column (first term).
 
1 1 1 1
 4 3 −1 6  (15)
3 5 3 4
We are to reduce the values beneath 1, that is 4 and 3 to zeros using elementary row operations.
The following manipulations are used here.
N R 2 = R 2 − 4R 1 , =⇒ 4 → 0
N R 3 = R 3 − 3R 1 , =⇒ 3 → 0
Note that these computations affect the entire row.
Note
NR is used to denote New Row, such that N R 2 is read ‘new row 2’.
R is used to denote Row, such that R 1 is read ‘row 1’.

Therefore the new matrix is  

1 1 1 1
 0 −1 −5 2  (16)
0 2 0 1
Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 15 / 41
 Gaussian Elimination

Iteration 2
The second pivot point is 1 in the second column (diagonal value).

1 1 1 1
 
 0 −1 −5 2  (17)
0 2 0 1
We are to reduce the value beneath 1, that is 2 to zero using elementary row operations. The
following manipulations are used here.
N R 3 = R 3 + 2R 2 , =⇒ 2 → 0
Therefore the new matrix is  
1 1 1 1
 0 −1 −5 2  (18)
0 0 −10 5

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 16 / 41

 Gaussian Elimination

Now we have an upper triangular matrix. So the solution could be finally obtained using back
substitution. That is substitution and solving from the last row. We have

−10x 3 = 5 =⇒ x 3 = −0.5

−x 2 − 5x 3 = 2, but x 3 = −0.5
−x 2 − 5(−0.5) = 2
x 2 = 0.5

x1 + x2 + x3 = 1
x 1 + 0.5 − 0.5 = 1
x1 = 1

These are the solutions to the given problem.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 17 / 41

 Gaussian Elimination

Dimension
Suppose a system of n linear equations in n unknowns has augmented matrix C and that C is row-
equivalent to a matrix D in upper-triangular form. Then C and D have dimension n × (n + 1).

Inconsistent System
If we perform elementary row operations on the augmented matrix of the system and get a matrix
with one of its rows equal to
[0 0 0 · · · 0 b], where b ̸= 0 (19)
or a row of the form
[0 0 0 · · · 0] (20)
then there may be no solution or infinitely many solutions.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 18 / 41

 Gaussian Elimination

Homogeneous Systems

An n × n system of homogeneous linear equations

a 11 x 1 + a 12 x 2 + · · · + a 1n x n = 0
a 21 x 1 + a 22 x 2 + · · · + a 2n x n = 0
.. .
. = ..
a n1 x 1 + a n2 x 2 + · · · + a nn x n = 0

is always consistent since x 1 = 0, · · · , x n = 0 is a solution. This solution is called the trivial solution,
and any other solution is called a nontrivial solution.

If the homogeneous system Ax = 0 has only the trivial solution, then A is nonsingular; that is A −1
exists.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 19 / 41

 Gaussian Elimination

Definition (Elementary Matrix)

An elementary matrix is any matrix that can be obtained from the identity matrix by performing a
single elementary row operation.

The elementary matrix formed by interchanging the first and third rows of the 3 × 3 identity matrix I ,
is  
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 20 / 41

 Gauss-Jordan Elimination Method

Gauss-Jordan Elimination Method

1 This method is based on the idea of reducing the given system of equation

Ax = b

to a diagonal matrix of the form

Dx = z
D is the diagonal matrix, and z is the new column vector on the right hand side.
2 All solution techniques of the Gaussian elimination method do apply here. While a given
problem is reduced to an upper triangular matrix in the case of Gaussian elimination, it is
reduced to a diagonal matrix in the case of Gauss-Jordan elimination.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 22 / 41

 Gauss-Jordan Elimination Method

Example
Solve the following system of equations using the Gauss-Jordan elimination method

x1 + x2 + x3 = 1
4x 1 + 3x 2 − x 3 = 6
3x 1 + 5x 2 + 3x 3 = 4

This problem is first recast into matrix form as

    
1 1 1 x1 1
4 3 −1 x 2  = 6 (21)
3 5 3 x3 4

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 23 / 41

 Gauss-Jordan Elimination Method

The augmented matrix is deduced from (41) as

 
1 1 1 1
 4 3 −1 6  (22)
3 5 3 4
Note that we are to reduce value above and beneath the leading diagonals to zeros.
Now, let reduce (22) to an upper triangular matrix using elementary row operations.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 24 / 41

 Gauss-Jordan Elimination Method

Iteration 1

The first pivot point is 1 in the first column (first term).

 
1 1 1 1
 4 3 −1 6  (23)
3 5 3 4

We are to reduce the values beneath 1, that is 4 and 3 to zeros using elementary row operations.
The following manipulations are used here.
N R 2 = R 2 − 4R 1 , =⇒ 4 → 0
N R 3 = R 3 − 3R 1 , =⇒ 3 → 0
Therefore the new matrix is  
1 1 1 1
 0 −1 −5 2  (24)
0 2 0 1

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 25 / 41

 Gauss-Jordan Elimination Method

Iteration 2

The second pivot point is 1 in the second column (diagonal value).

1 1 1 1
 
 0 −1 −5 2  (25)
0 2 0 1
We are to reduce the value beneath 1, that is 2 to zero using elementary row operations. The
following manipulations are used here.
N R 3 = R 3 + 2R 2 , =⇒ 2 → 0
Therefore the new matrix is  
1 1 1 1
 0 −1 −5 2  (26)
0 0 −10 5

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 26 / 41

 Gauss-Jordan Elimination Method

Iteration 3

Since we need a diagonal matrix, we will start manipulating the other non-diagonal matrix to zero
starting from the leading diagonal of the last column.

1 1 1 1
 
 0 −1 −5 2  (27)
0 0 −10 5
We are to reduce the values above -10, that is -5 and 1 to zeros elementary row operations. The
following manipulations are used here.
N R 2 = 2R 2 − R 3 , =⇒ −5 → 0
N R 1 = 10R 1 + R 3 , =⇒ 1 → 0
The new matrix is

10 10 0 15
 
 0 −2 0 −1  (28)
0 0 −10 5

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 27 / 41

 Gauss-Jordan Elimination Method

Iteration 4

The next pivot point is -2 in the second column (diagonal value).

 
10 10 0 15
 0 −2 0 −1  (29)
 
0 0 −10 5
We are to reduce the value above −2, that is 10 to zero using elementary row operations. The
following manipulations are used here.
N R 1 = R 1 − 5R 2 , =⇒ 10 → 0
The new matrix

10 0 0 10
 
 0 −2 0 −1  (30)
0 0 −10 5

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 28 / 41

 Gauss-Jordan Elimination Method

Since we have reduced the system to a diagonal matrix, the values of x can be obtained using
direct substitution. That is

10x 1 = 10 =⇒ x 1 = 1
−2x 2 = −1 =⇒ x 2 = 0.5
−10x 3 = 5 =⇒ x 3 = −0.5

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 29 / 41

 Inverse Approach Computing Inverse

Computing Inverse
Begin by setting an augmented matrix of the form A|I . For 3 × 3 matrix we have
 
a 11 a 12 a 13 1 0 0
A|I =  a 21 a 22 a 23 0 1 0  (31)
a 31 a 32 a 33 0 0 1

Then perform ERO on the coefficient matrix to obtain a diagonal matrix. All the while performing
the row operations on the augmented matrix A|I . When the Gauss-Jordan procedure is completed,
we obtain
[A|I ] −→ [I |A −1 ] (32)

Note
Partial pivoting can also be done using the augmented matrix [A|I ]. However, we cannot first
interchange the rows of A and then find the inverse. Then, we would be finding the inverse of a
different matrix.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 31 / 41

 Inverse Approach Computing Inverse

Example
 
1 1 1
Find the inverse of the matrix A = 4 3 −1
3 5 3

We perform the following elementary row transformations and do the eliminations

Iteration 1

   
1 1 1 1 0 0 −→ 1 1 1 1 0 0
 4 3 −1 0 1 0  N R 2 = R 2 − 4R 1  0 −1 −5 −4 1 0  (33)
3 5 3 0 0 1 N R 3 = R 3 − 3R 1 0 2 0 −3 0 1

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 32 / 41

 Inverse Approach Computing Inverse

Iteration 2

   
1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
−→
 0 −1 −5 −4 1 0   0 1 5 4 −1 0  (34)
N R 2 = −R 2
0 2 0 −3 0 1 0 2 0 −3 0 1

Iteration 3

   
1 1 1 1 0 0 −→ 1 0 −4 −3 1 0
 0 1 5 4 −1 0  N R1 = R1 − R2  0 1 5 4 −1 0  (35)
0 2 0 −3 0 1 N R 3 = R 3 − 2R 2 0 0 −10 −11 2 1

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 33 / 41

 Inverse Approach Computing Inverse

Iteration 4

 
1 0 −4 −3 1 0
 0 −→
1 5 4 −1 0 
N R 3 = R 3 /(−10)
0 0 −10 −11 2 1
 
1 0 −4 −3 1 0
 0 1 5 4 −1 0 
0 0 1 11/10 −2/10 −1/10

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 34 / 41

 Inverse Approach Computing Inverse

Iteration 5

 
1 0 −4 −3 1 0 −→
 0 1 5 4 −1 0  N R 1 = R 1 + 4R 3
0 0 1 11/10 −2/10 −1/10 N R 2 = R 2 − 5R 3
 
1 0 0 14/10 2/10 −4/10
 0 1 0 −15/10 0 5/10 
0 0 1 11/10 −2/10 −1/10

Therefore, the inverse of the given matrix is given by

 
7/5 1/5 −2/5
 −3/2 0 1/2 
11/10 −1/5 −1/10

Solve the same problem by employing partial pivoting.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 35 / 41
 Inverse Approach Computing Inverse

Solving A System of Linear Equation Equation using the Inverse

Approach
1 Given the system

a 11 x 1 + a 12 x 2 + · · · + a 1n x n = b 1 (36)
a 21 x 1 + a 22 x 2 + · · · + a 2n x n = b 2 (37)
.. .
. = ..
a n1 x 1 + a n2 x 2 + · · · + a nn x n = b n (38)

2 Which is of the general from

Ax = b (39)
3 Pre-multiply both sides by A −1
x = A −1 b (40)
−1
Note that A A =I

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 36 / 41

 Inverse Approach Computing Inverse

Example
Solve the following system of equations using the inverse approach

x1 + x2 + x3 = 1
4x 1 + 3x 2 − x 3 = 6
3x 1 + 5x 2 + 3x 3 = 4

This problem is first recast into matrix form as

    
1 1 1 x1 1
4 3 −1 x 2  = 6 (41)
3 5 3 x3 4

Then we are to find

x = A −1 b (42)

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 37 / 41

 Inverse Approach Computing Inverse

Using A −1 as obtained from above we have

    
x1 7/5 1/5 −2/5 1
x 2  =  −3/2 0 1/2  6 (43)
x3 11/10 −1/5 −1/10 4

7 8 10
x1 = + − =1 (44)
5 5 5
3 4 1
x2 = − + 0 + = (45)
2 2 2
11 6 4 1
x3 = − − =− (46)
10 5 10 2

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 38 / 41

 Inverse Approach Computing Inverse

Exercise 1

1 Solve the homogeneous system

−3x 1 + x 2 + x 3 + x 4 = 0
x 1 − 3x 2 + x 3 + x 4 = 0
x 1 + x 2 − 3x 3 + x 4 = 0
x 1 + x 2 + x 3 − 3x 4 = 0

2 For which rational numbers λ does the homogeneous system have a nontrivial solution?

x + (λ − 3)y = 0
(λ − 3)x + y = 0

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 39 / 41

 Inverse Approach Computing Inverse

Exercise 2
Solving the following system of equations using
1 Gaussian elimination method without pivoting
2 Gaussian elimination method with partial pivoting
3 Gaussian elimination method with complete pivoting
4 Gauss-Jordan elimination method.
5 Inverse Approach

10x + 4y − 2z = 20 2a + b + c + d = 2
3x + 12y − z = 28 4a + 2c + d = 3
x + 4y + 7z = 2 3a + 2b + 2c = −1
a + 3b + 2c + 6d = 2

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 40 / 41

 END OF LECTURE
THANK YOU

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) System of Linear Equations 41 / 41

 EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS

Dr. Gabriel Obed Fosu

Department of Mathematics
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
Google Scholar: https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ZJfCMyQAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao
ResearchGate ID: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gabriel_Fosu2

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 1 / 45

Lecture Outline

1 Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

Definition
The Case of Repeated Roots

2 Diagonalization
Some Properties
Power of Matrices

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 2 / 45

 Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Definition

Introduction

Computing eigenvalues and eigenvectors is one of the most important problems in

numerical linear algebra.
1 Let A be an n × n matrix. For a large number of problems in engineering and science,
it is necessary to find vector v such that Av is a multiple of λ of v
2 In other words,
Av = λv
Av is parallel to v , and λ either stretches or shrinks v .
3 The value λ is an eigenvalue
4 v is an eigenvector associated with λ.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 4 / 45

 Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Definition

Definition
1 If A is an n × n matrix, in order to find eigenvalue λ and an associated eigenvector v ,
it must be the case that Av = λv , and this is equivalent to the homogeneous system

(A − λI )v = 0 (1)

2 From (the homogeneous system Ax = 0 has a nontrivial solution if and only if det A = 0)
we deduce that
d et (A − λI ) = 0 (2)
in order that this system to have a nonzero solution.
3 The determinant of A − λI is a polynomial of degree n , so Equation (2) is a problem of
finding roots of the polynomial

p(λ) = d et (A − λI ) (3)

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 5 / 45

 Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Definition

Definition

1 The polynomial
p(λ) = d et (A − λI ) (4)
is called the characteristic polynomial of A
2 The equation
p(λ) = 0 (5)
is termed the characteristic equation.
3 If λ is a root of p , it is termed an eigenvalue of A ,
4 If v is a nonzero column vector satisfying Av = λv , it is an eigenvector of A .
We say that v is an eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue λ.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 6 / 45

 Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Definition

Example
1 Let
· ¸ · ¸
−0.4707 0.7481 0.2898
A= , ⃗
v=
1.7481 1.4707 0.9571

2 Then · ¸
0.5796
A⃗
v=
1.9142
3 Moreover · ¸
0.5796
A⃗
v= v
= 2⃗ (6)
1.9142
Thus ⃗
v is an eigenvector of A corresponding to
eigenvalue 2.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 7 / 45

 Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Definition

Summary Steps To Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

Given an n × n matrix A
1 Find the characteristic polynomial

p(λ) = d et (A − λI ) (7)

2 Compute the n roots of

p(λ) = 0 (8)
These are the eigenvalues λ1 , λ2 , · · · , λn of A .
3 For each distinct λi , find an eigenvector x i such that Ax i = λi x by solving

(A − λI )v = 0 (9)

If λi is a multiple root, there may be only one associated eigenvector. If not, compute the
distinct eigenvectors.
Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 8 / 45
 Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Definition

Definition
A polynomial
p(λ) = a n λn + a n−1 λn−1 + · · · + a 2 λ2 + a 1 λ + a 0
of degree n has exactly n roots; either being, real distinct roots, real repeated roots, or
complex roots. Any complex roots occur in conjugate pairs.

Definition
Vectors v1 , v2 , · · · , vn in R n are said to be linearly dependent if there exist scalars k1 , k2 , · · · , kn
not all zero, such that
k 1 v1 + k 2 v2 + · · · + k n vn = 0 (10)
The vectors v1 , v2 , · · · , vn are called linearly independent if they are not linearly dependent.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 9 / 45

 Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Definition

Example
Find the eigenvalues and all the eigenvectors
· of the
¸ matrix
2 1
A=
1 2

First find the characteristic polynomial µ· ¸ · ¸¶

2 1 1 0
p(λ) = det(A − λI ) = det −λ (11)
1 2 0 1
λ 0
µ· ¸ · ¸¶
2 1
= det − (12)
1 2 0 λ
2−λ
µ· ¸¶
1
= det (13)
1 2−λ
= (2 − λ)2 − 1 (14)
2
= λ − 4λ + 3 (15)

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 10 / 45

 Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Definition

1 Next, compute the n roots of p(λ) = 0. That is

λ2 − 4λ + 3 = 0 (16)
(λ − 1)(λ − 3) = 0 (17)

Thus the eigenvalues are

λ = 1 or λ = 3

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 11 / 45

 Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Definition

1 To find the eigenvector when λ = 1, we solve

(A − λI )⃗
v =0 (18)
Let ⃗
v = [x, y]T
2 Thus we solve the homogeneous system
2−λ
· ¸· ¸ · ¸
1 x 0
= (19)
1 2−λ y 0
· ¸· ¸ · ¸
2−1 1 x 0
= (20)
1 2−1 y 0
· ¸· ¸ · ¸
1 1 x 0
= (21)
1 1 y 0

3 Solving (21) using Gaussian elimination, the system reduce to

· ¸· ¸ · ¸
1 1 x 0
= (22)
0 0 y 0

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 12 / 45

 Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Definition

1 This implies that

x + y = 0 =⇒ x = −y

2 Let y ∈ R but y ̸= 0 then the eigenvectors corresponding to λ = 1 are the vectors of the
form · ¸ · ¸ · ¸
x −y −1
= =y
y y 1

3 Choose y = 1 to obtain a specific eigenvector

· ¸
−1
(23)
1

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 13 / 45

 Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Definition

1 To find the eigenvector when λ = 3, we solve

(A − λI )⃗
v =0 (24)
Let ⃗
v = [x, y]T
2 Thus we solve the homogeneous system
2−λ
· ¸· ¸ · ¸
1 x 0
= (25)
1 2−λ y 0
· ¸· ¸ · ¸
2−3 1 x 0
= (26)
1 2−3 y 0
· ¸· ¸ · ¸
−1 1 x 0
= (27)
1 −1 y 0

3 Solving (27) using Gaussian elimination, the system reduce to

· ¸· ¸ · ¸
−1 1 x 0
= (28)
0 0 y 0

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 14 / 45

 Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Definition

1 This implies that

−x + y = 0 =⇒ x = y

2 Let y ∈ R but y ̸= 0 then the eigenvectors corresponding to λ = 3 are the vectors of the
form · ¸ · ¸ · ¸
x y 1
= =y
y y 1
3 Choose y = 1 to obtain a specific eigenvector
· ¸
1
(29)
1

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 15 / 45

 Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Definition

Example
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the following matrix

4 8 3
 

A = 0 −1 0
0 −2 2

1 The characteristic polynomial is

4−λ 8 3
 

det(A − λI ) = det  0 −1 − λ 0  (30)

0 −2 2−λ
= (−1 − λ)(4 − λ)(2 − λ) (31)

That is expanding by the second row.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 16 / 45

 Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Definition

1 Now p(λ) = 0
(−1 − λ)(4 − λ)(2 − λ) = 0 (32)
The roots of the characteristic polynomial are

λ1 = 4, λ2 = −1, λ3 = 2

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 17 / 45

 Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Definition

λ=4

1 Now the eigenvector when λ = 4. We solve the homogeneous system (A − λI )⃗

v =0

4−λ 8 3 x 0
    
 0 −1 − λ 0   y  = 0
 (33)
0 −2 2−λ z 0
4−4 8 3 x 0
    
 0 −1 − 4 0   y  = 0
 (34)
0 −2 2−4 z 0
0 8 3 x 0
    
0 −5 0   y  = 0 (35)
0 −2 −2 z 0

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 18 / 45

 Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Definition

1 Solving using Gaussian elimination, reduces the system to

0 8 3 x 0
    
0 −5 0   y  = 0 (36)
0 0 −2 z 0

2 Thus
y = 0, z =0

3 The first row specifies that

(0)x + 8(0) + 3(0) = 0 (37)
The component x is not constrained. Any value of x will work. So we choose x = 1 to
obtain the eigenvector
x 1
   
 y  = 0 (38)
z 0

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 19 / 45

 Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Definition

λ = −1

1 We solve the homogeneous system (A − λI )⃗

v =0

4−λ 8 3 x 0
    
 0 −1 − λ 0   y = 0
  (39)
0 −2 2−λ z 0
4+1 8 3 x 0
    
 0 −1 + 1 0   y = 0
  (40)
0 −2 2+1 z 0
5 8 3 x 0
    
0 0 0  y  = 0 (41)
0 −2 3 z 0

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 20 / 45

 Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Definition

1 Solving using Gaussian elimination (interchange row 2 and 3), reduces the system to

5 8 3 x 0
    
0 −2 3  y  = 0 (42)
0 0 0 z 0

2 Thus
3z 8(3z/2) + 3z
y= , x =− = −3z
2 5
3 This gives a general eigenvector

x
       
−3z −3 −3
 y  = 3z/2 = z 3/2 = 3/2 (43)
z z 1 1

Note that z chosen as z = 1

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 21 / 45

 Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Definition

λ=2

1 We solve the homogeneous system (A − λI )⃗

v =0

4−λ 8 3 x 0
    
 0 −1 − λ 0   y = 0
  (44)
0 −2 2−λ z 0
4−2 8 3 x 0
    
 0 −1 − 2 0   y = 0
  (45)
0 −2 2−2 z 0
2 8 3 x 0
    
0 −3 0  y  = 0 (46)
0 −2 0 z 0

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 22 / 45

 Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Definition

1 Solving using Gaussian elimination reduces the system to

2 8 3 x 0
    
0 −3 0  y  = 0 (47)
0 0 0 z 0
2 Thus y = 0, x = −3z/2
3 This gives a general eigenvector
x
     
−3z/2 −3/2
y  =  0  = z  0  (48)
z z 1
4 If we choose z = 1, then the eigenvector is
x
   
−3/2
y  =  0  (49)
z 1

Note Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 23 / 45

 Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors The Case of Repeated Roots

Example
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the following matrix

6 12 19
 

A = −9 −20 −33

4 9 15

1 The characteristic polynomial is

6−λ 12 19
 

det(A − λI ) = det  −9 −20 − λ −33  (50)

4 9 15 − λ
= (λ + 1)(λ − 1)2 (51)

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 24 / 45

 Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors The Case of Repeated Roots

1 The roots of the characteristic polynomial are

λ1 = 1, λ2 = −1

λ = 1 is a multiple root.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 25 / 45

 Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors The Case of Repeated Roots

λ=1
1 We solve the homogeneous system

6−λ 12 19 x 0
    
 −9 −20 − λ −33   y  = 0 (52)
4 9 15 − λ z 0
5 12 19 x 0
    
−9 −21 −33  y  = 0 (53)
4 9 14 z 0

2 Solving using Gaussian elimination reduces the system to

5 12 19 x 0
    
0 3/5 6/5  y  = 0 (54)
0 0 0 z 0

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 26 / 45

 Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors The Case of Repeated Roots

1 Thus
x = z, y = −2z
x 1
   
 y  = −2 (55)
z 1
2 There is only one linearly independent eigenvector associated with λ = 1
3 The eigenvector when λ = −1 is left as an exercise.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 27 / 45

 Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors The Case of Repeated Roots

Note
There are cases where an eigenvalue of multiplicity k does produce k linearly independent
eigenvectors.

Symmetric Matrix
Whenever an n × n real matrix is symmetric, it has n linearly independent eigenvectors,
even if its characteristic equation has roots of multiplicity 2 or more.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 28 / 45

 Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors The Case of Repeated Roots

Example
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the following matrix

1 1 1
 

A = 1 1 1
1 1 1

1 The characteristic polynomial is

1−λ 1 1
 

det(A − λI ) = det  1 1−λ 1  (56)

1 1 1−λ
= (λ − 3)λ2 (57)

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 29 / 45

 Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors The Case of Repeated Roots

1 The roots of the characteristic polynomial are

λ1 = 0, λ2 = 3

λ = 0 is an eigenvalue of multiplicity 2.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 30 / 45

 Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors The Case of Repeated Roots

λ=0
1 We solve the homogeneous system

1−λ 1 1 x 0
    
 1 1−λ 1   y = 0
  (58)
1 1 1−λ z 0
1 1 1 x 0
    
1 1 1 y = 0
    (59)
1 1 1 z 0

2 Solving using Gaussian elimination reduces the system to

1 1 1 x 0
    
0 0 0  y  = 0 (60)
0 0 0 z 0

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 31 / 45

 Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors The Case of Repeated Roots

1 Thus x = −y − z
2 When we choose z = 0, then we have
x
     
−y −1
y  =  y  = y  1  (61)
z 0 0
3 Similarly, when we choose y = 0
x
     
−z −1
y  =  0  = z  0  (62)
z z 1
4 Thus we have two linearly independent eigenvectors
   
−1 −1
1 and 0
0 1
5 The eigenvector when λ = 3 is left as an exercise.
Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 32 / 45
 Finding Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors The Case of Repeated Roots

Some Properties of Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

Singular
An n × n matrix A is singular if and only if it has a 0 eigenvalue.

Eigenspace
The eigenvectors corresponding to λ form a subspace called an eigenspace.

Determinant
If A is an n × n matrix, then
n
λi
Y
det A =
i =1

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 33 / 45

 Diagonalization

Diagonalization

Definition (Diagonalization)
Diagonalization involves how we can use the eigenvectors of a matrix A to transform A into
a diagonal matrix of eigenvalues.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 35 / 45

 Diagonalization

Diagonalization
The procedure for diagonalizing a matrix A can be done with the following steps:
1 Form the characteristic polynomial p(λ) = det(A − λI ) of A .
2 Find the roots of p ; the eigenvalues and its corresponding eigenvectors.
3 Form the matrix
v 1 , v⃗2 , · · · v n−1
X = [⃗ ⃗ , v⃗n ]

whose columns are eigenvectors of A corresponding to eigenvalues

λ1 , λ2 , · · · , λn−1 , λn .
4 Then,
D = X −1 AX (63)
where D is the diagonal matrix with λ1 , λ2 , · · · , λn−1 , λn on its diagonal. Then the matrix
A and D are called similar matrices.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 36 / 45

 Diagonalization

Definition (Similar Matrices)

The matrix B is similar to matrix A if there exists a nonsingular matrix X such that

B = X −1 AX

Thus, two similar matrices have the same eigenvalues.

Example
Show that the following matrix can be diagonalize

4 8 3
 

A = 0 −1 0
0 −2 2

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 37 / 45

 Diagonalization

From the previous example, we obtained the eigenvalues

λ1 = 4, λ2 = −1, λ3 = 2 (64)

These have the corresponding eigenvectors

1
     
−3 −3/2
v 1 = 0 v 2 = 3/2 , v3 =  0  (65)
0 1 1

The matrix of eigenvectors is given as

1 −3 −3/2
 

v 1 , v⃗2 , v⃗3 ] = 0 3/2

X = [⃗ 0  (66)
0 1 1

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 38 / 45

 Diagonalization

1 Then we can find D = X −1 AX

2 Clearly
1 1 3/2
 

X −1 = 0 2/3 0  (67)
0 −2/3 1
Then
1 1 3/2 4 8 3 4 4 6
    

X −1 A = 0 2/3 0  0 −1 0 = 0 −2/3 0 (68)

0 −2/3 1 0 −2 2 0 −4/3 2
and
4 4 6 1 −3 −3/2 4 0 0
    

D = X −1 AX = 0 −2/3 0 0 3/2 0  = 0 −1 0 (69)

0 −4/3 2 0 1 1 0 0 2

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 39 / 45

 Diagonalization

Note
1 If an n × n matrix A has distinct eigenvalues, then it can be diagonalized.
2 Again if the matrix have n linearly independent eigenvectors, it can be diagonalized.
3 If there are complex roots, the matrix cannot be diagonalized in R n×n .

Example
The matrix
6 12 19
 

A = −9 −20 −33

4 9 15
cannot be diagonalized, because we found that there is only one linearly independent
eigenvector associated with λ = 1.

Dr. Gabby (KNUST-Maths) Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 40 / 45

 Diagonalization Some Properties

If A is a real symmetric matrix, then any two eigenvectors corresponding to distinct eigenvalues are
orthogonal.

Example
3 1 −1
 

Let A be the symmetric matrix A =  1 3 −1, solving the eigenvalues are

−1 −1 5
λ1 = 2, λ2 = 3, λ3 = 6 (70)
The corresponding eigenvectors are
1 1
     
−1
−1 , 1 , −1 (71)
0 1 2

These three eigenvectors are mutually orthogonal, and are linearly independent.

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 Diagonalization Some Properties

The matrix of eigenvectors is given as

1 1 1
 

X = −1 1 −1 (72)

0 1 2

Thus
2 0 0
 

X −1 AX = D = 0 3 0 (73)
0 0 6
D is the diagonal matrix with the eigenvalues of A on the diagonal.

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 Diagonalization Power of Matrices

Power of Matrices

If a matrix A can be diagonalized, then is simple to compute A n . That is

1

If D = X −1 AX , =⇒ A = X D X −1 (74)
then
A 2 = (X D X −1 )(X D X −1 ) = (X D)I (D X −1 ) = X D 2 X −1 (75)
again
A 3 = A 2 A = (X D 2 X −1 )(X D X −1 ) = X D 3 X −1 (76)
This can be generalized as
A n = X D n X −1 (77)

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 Diagonalization Power of Matrices

Exercises
1 Find the eigenvalues and associated eigenvectors for the matrix

1 2 1

6 −1 0
−1 −2 −1
· ¸ · ¸
1 4 −1 7
2 Let A = and B = . Verify that AB and B A have the same eigenvalues.
2 3 1 −4
3 Diagonalize

1/2 1/2 0


A = 1/4 1/4 1/2

1/4 1/4 1/2

0 1

−1
4 Obtain an orthogonal matrix out of the following symmetric matrix A =  1 0 1
−1 1 0

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 END OF LECTURE
THANK YOU

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