PART I.

THE REAL NUMBERS

This material assumes that you are already familiar with the real number system and the represen-
tation of the real numbers as points on the real line.

I.1. THE NATURAL NUMBERS AND INDUCTION

Let N denote the set of natural numbers (positive integers).

Axiom: If S is a nonempty subset of N, then S has a least element. That is, there is an
element m ∈ S such that m ≤ n for all n ∈ S.

Note: A set which has the property that each non-empty subset has a least element is said to be
well-ordered. Thus, the axiom tells us that the natural numbers are well-ordered.

Mathematical Induction. Let S be a subset of N. If S has the following properties:

1. 1 ∈ S, and

2. k ∈ S implies k + 1 ∈ S,

then S = N.

Proof: Suppose S 6= N. Let T = N − S. Then T 6= ∅. Let m be the least element in T . Then

m−1∈ / T . Therefore, m − 1 ∈ S which implies that (m − 1) + 1 = m ∈ S, a contradiction.

Corollary: Let S be a subset of N such that

1. m ∈ S.

2. If k ≥ m ∈ S, then k + 1 ∈ S.

Then, S = {n ∈ N : n ≥ m}.

Example Prove that 1 + 2 + 22 + 23 + · · · + 2n−1 = 2n − 1 for all n ∈ N.

SOLUTION Let S be the set of integers for which the statement is true.

Since 20 = 1 = 21 − 1, 1 ∈ S.

Assume that the positive integer k ∈ S. Then

20 + 21 + · · · + 2k−1 + 2k = 20 + 21 + · · · + 2k−1 + 2k = 2k − 1 + 2k = 2 · 2k − 1 = 2k+1 − 1.

Thus, k + 1 ∈ S.

1
 We have shown that 1 ∈ S and that k ∈ S implies k + 1 ∈ S. It follows that S contains all the
positive integers.

Exercises 1.1

n(n + 1)
1. Prove that 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n = for all n ∈ N.
2
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
2. Prove that 12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n2 = for all n ∈ N.
6
3. Let r be a real number r 6= 1. Prove that

1 − rn+1
1 + r + r2 + r3 + · · · + rn = .
1−r
for all n ∈ N

4. Prove that 1 + 2n ≤ 3n for all n ∈ N.

1 1 1 1 √
5. Prove that √ + √ + √ + · · · + √ ≥ n for all n ∈ N.
1 2 3 n
    
1 1 1 n+1
6. Prove that 1 − 2 1− 2 ··· 1− 2 = for all n ≥ 2.
2 3 n 2n
7. True or False: If S is a non-empty subset of N, then there exists an element m ∈ S such
that m ≥ k for all k ∈ S.

I.2. ORDERED FIELDS

Let R denote the set of real numbers. The set R, together with the operations of addition (+)
and multiplication (·), satisfies the following axioms:

Addition:

A1. For all x, y ∈ R, x + y ∈ R (addition is a closed operation).

A2. For all x, y ∈ R, x + y = y + x (addition is commutative)

A3. For all x, y, z ∈ R, x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z (addition is associative).

A4. There is a unique number 0 such that x + 0 = 0 + x for all x ∈ R. (0 is the additive identity.)

A5. For each x ∈ R, there is a unique number −x ∈ R such that x + (−x) = 0. (−x is the
additive inverse of x.)

Multiplication:

M1. For all x, y ∈ R, x · y ∈ R (multiplication is a closed operation).

2
M2. For all x, y ∈ R, x · y = y · x (multiplication is commutative)

M3. For all x, y, z ∈ R, x · (y · z) = (x · y)· (multiplication is associative).

M4. There is a unique number 1 such that x · 1 = 1 · x for all x ∈ R. (1 is the multiplicative
identity.)

M5. For each x ∈ R, x 6= 0, there is a unique number 1/x = x−1 ∈ R such that x · (1/x) = 1.
(1/x is the multiplicative inverse of x.)

Distributive Law:

D. For all x, y, z ∈ R, x · (y + z) = x · y + x · z.

A non-empty set S together with two operations, “addition” and “multiplication” which sat-
isfies A1-A5, M1-M5, and D is called a field. The set of real numbers with ordinary addition and
multiplication is an example of a field. The set of rational numbers Q, together with ordinary
addition and multiplication, is also a field, a sub-field of R. The set of complex numbers C is
another example of a field.

Order:

There is a subset P of R that has the following properties:

a If x, y ∈ P , then x + y ∈ P .

b If x, y ∈ P , then x · y ∈ P .

c For each x ∈ R exactly one of the following holds: x ∈ P, x = 0, −x ∈ P .

The set P is the set of positive numbers.

Let x, y ∈ R. Then x < y (read “x is less than y”) if y − x ∈ P . x < y is equivalent to

y > x (read “y is greater than x”). P = {x ∈ R : x > 0}. x ≤ y means either x < y or x = y;
y ≥ x means either y > x or y = x.

The relation “ < ” has the following properties:

O1. For all x, y ∈ R, exactly one of the following holds: x < y, x = y, x > y. (Trichotomy
Law)

O2. For all x, y, z ∈ R, if x < y and y < z, then x < z.

O3. For all x, y, z ∈ R, if x < y, then x + z < y + z.

O4. For all x, y, z ∈ R, if x < y and z > 0, then x · z < y · z.

{R, +, ·, <} is an ordered field. Any mathematical system {S, +, ·, <} satisfying these 15 axioms
is an ordered field. In particular, the set of rational numbers Q, together with ordinary addition,
multiplication and “less than”, is an ordered field, a subfield of R.

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THEOREM 1. Let x, y ∈ R. If x ≤ y +  for every positive number , then x ≤ y.

x−y
Proof: Suppose that x > y and choose  = . Then
2
x−y x+y x+x
x< y+ = y+ = < = x,
2 2 2
a contradiction. Therefore, x ≤ y .

Definition 1. Let x ∈ R. The absolute value of x, denoted |x|, is given by

(
x, if x ≥ 0,
|x| =
−x, if x < 0.

The properties of absolute value are: for any x, y ∈ R.

(1) |x| ≥ 0,

(2) |xy| = |x| |y|,

(3) |x + y| ≤ |x| + |y|.

Exercises 1.2

1. True – False. Justify your answer by citing a theorem, giving a proof, or giving a counter-
example.

(a) If x, y, z ∈ R and x < y, then xz < yz.

(b) If x, y ∈ R and x < y +  for every positive number , then x < y.
(c) If x, y ∈ R, then |x − y| ≤ |x| + |y|.
(d) If x, y ∈ R, then | |x| − |y| | ≤ |x| − |y|.

2. Prove: If |x − y| <  for every  > 0, then x = y.

3. Suppose that x1 , x2, . . . , xn are real numbers. Prove that

|x1 + x2 + · · · + xn| ≤ |x1| + |x2| + · · · + |xn|.

I.3. THE COMPLETENESS AXIOM

R and Q are each ordered fields. What distinguishes R from Q is the completeness axiom. As
you know, Q is a proper subset of R; i.e., there are real numbers which are not rational numbers.
Such numbers are called irrational numbers.
√ √
THEOREM 2. 2 is not a rational number. In general, if p is a prime number, then p is
not a rational number.

4
Proof: Suppose 2 = p/q where p, q ∈ N . Without loss of generality, assume that p, q have no
integral factors > 1. Now p2 = 2q2 , so p2 is even. p2 even implies p must be even, so p = 2k
for some k ∈ N . Consequently, q2 = 2k2 and so q is even. Thus p and q have the common factor
2 , a contradiction.

√
Other examples of irrational numbers are m where m is any rational number which is not a
√
perfect square, 3 m where m is any rational number which is not a perfect cube, etc. Also, the
numbers π and e are irrational.

Definition 2. Let S be a subset of R. A number u ∈ R is an upper bound of S if s ≤ u

for all s ∈ S . An element w ∈ R is a lower bound of S if w ≤ s for all s ∈ S . If an upper
bound u for S is an element of S, then u is called the maximum (or largest element) of
S. Similarly, if a lower bound w for S is an element of S, then w is called the minimum (or
smallest element) of S.

Examples: Give some examples to illustrate upper bounds, lower bounds, maximum and minimum
elements.

Definition 3. A set S ⊆ R is said to be bounded above if S has an upper bound; S is bounded

below if it has a lower bound. A subset S of R is bounded if it has both an upper bound and a
lower bound.

Definition 4. Let S ⊆ R be a set that is bounded above. A number u ∈ R is called the supremum
(least upper bound) of S, denoted by sup S, if it satisfies the conditions

1. s ≤ u for all s ∈ S .

2. If v is an upper bound for S , then u ≤ v .

THEOREM 3. Let S ⊆ R be bounded above, and let u = sup S. Then, given any positive number
, there is an element s ∈ S such that u −  < s ≤ u.

Proof: Suppose there exists an  > 0 such that the interval (u − , u] contains no points of S.
Then s ≤ u −  for all s ∈ S, which implies that u −  is an upper bound for S which is less
than u, a contradiction.

Definition 5. : Let S ⊆ R be a set that is bounded below. A number u ∈ R is called the infimum
(greatest lower bound ) of S and is denoted by inf S if it satisfies the conditions

1. u ≤ s for all s ∈ S .

2. If v is a lower bound for S , then v ≤ u .

The Completeness Axiom

Axiom Every nonempty subset S of R that is bounded above has a least upper bound. That is,
if S is bounded above, then sup S exists and is a real number.

5
 The set of real numbers R is a complete, ordered, field. The set of rational numbers Q, although
√
an ordered field, is not complete. For example, the set T = {r ∈ Q : r < 2} is bounded above,
but T does not have a rational least upper bound.

The Archimedean Property

THEOREM 4. (The Archimedean Property) The set N of natural numbers is unbounded above.

Proof: Suppose N is bounded above. Let m = sup N. By Theorem 3 there exists a positive
integer k such that m − 1 < k ≤ m. But then k + 1 is a positive integer and k + 1 > m, a
contradiction.

THEOREM 5. The following are equivalent:

(a) The Archimedean Property.

(b) For each z ∈ R, there exists an n ∈ N such that n > z.

(c) For each x > 0 and for each y ∈ R, there exists an n ∈ N such that nx > y.

(d) For each x > 0, there exists an n ∈ N such that 0 < 1/n < x.

Proof: (a) ⇒ (b). Suppose there exists a real number r such n ≤ r for all n ∈ N. Then N is
bounded above by r, contradicting (a).

(b) ⇒ (c). Let z = y/x. Then, by (b), there exists n ∈ N such that n > y/x which implies
nx > y.

(c) ⇒ (d). By (c) there exists n ∈ N such that n > 1/x which implies 1/n < x. Since
n > 0, 1/n > 0. Thus, 0 < 1/n < x.

(d) ⇒ (a). Suppose N is bounded above. Let m = sup N. Then n ≤ m for all n ∈ N which
implies 1/m ≤ 1/n for all n ∈ N contradicting (d).

THEOREM 6. There exists a real number x such that x2 = 2. In general, if p is a prime

number, then there exists a real number y such that y2 = p.

There is a “technical” proof which could be given here, but this result is an easy consequence of the
Intermediate-Value Theorem in Part III.

The Density of the Rational Numbers and the Irrational Numbers

Lemma: Let y be a positive number. Then there exists an m ∈ N such that m − 1 ≤ y < m.

Proof: Let K = {n ∈ N : n > y}. By Theorem 5 (b), K is not empty. By the well-ordering
axiom, K has a least element m. It follows that m − 1 ≤ y < m.

THEOREM 7. If x and y are real numbers, x < y, then there exists a rational number r
such that x < r < y.

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Proof: Assume first that x > 0. There exists a positive integer n such that n > 1/(y − x), which
implies nx + 1 < ny. By the lemma, there exists a positive integer m such that m − 1 ≤ nx < m.
Therefore, m ≤ nx + 1 < ny. We now have
m
nx < m < ny which implies x < < y.
n
Take r = m/n.

For x ≤ 0, choose a positive integer k such that x + k > 0 and apply the result above to find
a rational number q such that x + k < q < y + k. Then r = q − k satisfies x < r < y.

THEOREM 8. If x and y are real numbers, x < y, then there exists an irrational number z
such that x < z < y.

Exercises 1.3

1. True – False. Justify your answer by citing a theorem, giving a proof, or giving a counter-
example.

(a) If a non-empty subset of R has a infimum, then it is bounded.

(b) Every non-empty bounded subset of R has a maximum and a minimum.
(c) If v is an upper bound for S u < v, then u is not an upper bound for S.
(d) If w = inf S and z < w, then z is a lower bound for S.
(e) Every nonempty subset of N has a minimum.
(f) Every nonempty subset of N has a maximum.

2. True – False. Justify your answer by citing a theorem, giving a proof, or giving a counter-
example.

(a) If x and y are irrational, then xy is irrational.

(b) Between any two distinct rational numbers, there is an irrational number.
(c) Between any two distinct irrational numbers, there is a rational number.
(d) The rational and irrational numbers alternate.

3. Let S ⊆ R be non-empty and bounded above and let u = sup S. Prove that u ∈ S if and
only if u = max S.

4. (a) Let S ⊆ R be non-empty and bounded above and let u = sup S. Prove that u is unique.
(b) Prove that if each of m and n is a maximum of S, then m = n.

5. Let S ⊆ R and suppose that v = inf S. Prove that for any positive number , there is an
element s ∈ S such that v ≤ s < v + .

6. Prove that if x and y are real numbers with x < y, then there are infinitely rational
numbers in the interval [x, y].

7
I.4. TOPOLOGY OF THE REALS

Definition 6. Let S ⊆ R. The set S c = {x ∈ R : x ∈

/ S} is called the complement of S.

Definition 7. Let x ∈ R and let  > 0. An -neighborhood of x (often shortened to

“neighborhood of x”) is the set

N (x, ) = {y ∈ R : |y − x| < }.

The number  is called the radius of N (x, ).

Note that an -neighborhood of a point x is the open interval (x − , x + ) centered at x

with radius .

Definition 8. Let x ∈ R and let  > 0. A deleted -neighborhood of x (often shortened to

“deleted neighborhood of x”) is the set

N ∗ (x, ) = {y ∈ R : 0 < |y − x| < }.

A deleted -neighborhood of x is an -neighborhood of x with the point x removed;

N ∗ (x, ) = (x − , x) ∪ (x, x + ).

Definition 9. Let S ⊆ R. A point x ∈ S is an interior point of S if there exists a neighborhood

N of x such that N ⊆ S. The set of all interior points of S is denoted by int S and is called
the interior of S.

Examples Make up some examples to illustrate “interior point” and “interior of S.”

Definition 10. Let S ⊆ R. A point z ∈ R is a boundary point of S if N ∩ S 6= ∅ and

N ∩ S c 6= ∅ for every neighborhood N of z. The set of all boundary points of S is denoted by
bd S and is called the boundary of S.

Examples Make up some examples to illustrate “boundary point” and “boundary of S.”

Open Sets and Closed Sets

Definition 11. Let S ⊆ R. S is open if every point of S is an interior point. That is, S is
open if and only if S = int S. S is closed if and only if S c is open.

Examples: A neighborhood N of a point x is an open set; an open interval (a, b) is an open

set; R is an open set. A closed interval [a, b] is a closed set.

THEOREM 9. Let S ⊆ R. S is closed if and only if bd S ⊆ S.

Proof: Suppose S is closed. Let x ∈ S c . Since S c is open, there is a neighborhood N of x

such that N ∩ S = ∅. Therefore x is not a boundary point of S. Therefore bd S ⊆ S.

Now suppose bd S ⊆ S. Let x ∈ S c . Then x ∈ / S and x ∈ / bd S. Therefore there is a

c
neighborhood N of x such that N ∩ S = ∅. This implies that S is open and S is closed.

8
THEOREM 10. (a) The union of any collection of open sets is open.

(b) The intersection of any finite collection of open sets is open.

Proof: (a) Let G be a collection of open sets and let x ∈ ∪G∈G G. Then x ∈ G for some G ∈ G.
Since G is open, there is a neighborhood N of x such that N ⊆ G. Since N ⊆ G, N ⊆ ∪G∈G G.
Therefore ∪G∈G G is open.

(b) Let G1, G2, . . . , Gn be a (finite) collection of open sets, and let x ∈ ∩ Gi. Since x ∈ G1 and
G1 is open, there is an 1-neighborhood N1 of x such that N1 ⊆ G1; since x ∈ G2 and G2 is
open, there is an 2-neighborhood N2 of x such that N2 ⊆ G2; . . . ; since x ∈ Gn and Gn is
open, there is an n -neighborhood Nn of x such that Nn ⊆ Gn . Let  = min {1, 2, . . . , n} and
let N = N (x, ). Now, N ⊆ Ni for i = 1, 2, . . . , n which implies N ⊆ Gi for i = 1, 2, . . . , n,
and so N ⊆ ∩ Gi.

Note: The restriction “finite” inTheorem 10(b)

 is necessary. For example, the intersection of the
1 1
(infinite) collection of open sets − , 1 + , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . is the closed interval [0, 1].
n n

COROLLARY (a) The intersection of any collection of closed sets is closed.

(b) The union of any finite collection of closed sets is closed.

The Corollary follows directly from the Theorem by means of De Morgan’s Laws :

Let {Sα}, α ∈ A be a collection of sets. Then

c
1. (∪α∈A Sα ) = ∩α∈A Sαc
c
2. (∩α∈A Sα ) = ∪α∈A Sαc

Accumulation Points

Definition 12. Let S ⊆ R. A point x ∈ R is an accumulation point of S if every deleted

neighborhood N of x contains a point of S. The set of accumulation points of S is denoted by
S 0 . If x ∈ S and x is not an accumulation point of S, then x is an isolated point of S.

Examples Make up some examples to illustrate “accumulation point” and “isolated point.”

Note: An accumulation point of S may or may not be a point of S.

Definition 13. Let S ⊆ R. The closure of S, denoted by S, is the set

S = S ∪ S0 .

THEOREM 11. Let S ⊆ R. Then

(a) S is closed if and only if S contains all its accumulation points.

9
 (b) S is a closed set.

Proof: (a) Suppose S is closed. Let x be an accumulation point of S and suppose x ∈ / S.

Then x ∈ S c , an open set. Therefore, there is a neighborhood N of x such that N ⊆ S c . Now,
N ∩ S = ∅ which implies x is not an accumulation point of S, a contradiction.

Now suppose that S contains all its accumulation points. Let x ∈ S c . Then x ∈
/ S and x is
not an accumulation point of S. Therefore, there is a neighborhood N of x such that N ∩ S = ∅
so N ⊆ S c . This implies that S c is open and S is closed.

(b) Let y be an accumulation point of S and let N be a neighborhood of y. Then N contains

a point x ∈ S, x 6= y. Therefore x is in S or x is an accumulation point of S. Suppose x
is an accumulation point of S. Since N is an open set, there is a neighborhood Nx of x such
that Nx ⊆ N , and since x is an accumulation point of S, Nx contains a point z of S, z 6= x
(we also choose Nx such that z 6= y). Thus, each neighborhood of N of y contains a point of
S. Therefore y is an accumulation point of S so y ∈ S. Since S contains all its accumulation
points, it is closed.

Exercises 1.4

1. True – False. Justify your answer by citing a theorem, giving a proof, or giving a counter-
example.

(a) int S ∩ bd S = ∅.
(b) bd S ⊆ S.
(c) S is closed if and only if S = bd S.
(d) If x ∈ S, then x ∈ int S or x ∈ bd S.
(e) bd S = bd S c .
(f) bd S ⊆ S c .

2. True – False. Justify your answer by citing a theorem, giving a proof, or giving a counter-
example.

(a) A neighborhood is an open set.

(b) The union of any collection of open sets is open.
(c) The union of any collection of closed sets is closed.
(d) The intersection of any collection of open sets is open.
(e) The intersection of any collection of closed sets is closed.
(f) R is neither open nor closed.

3. Classify each set as open, closed, neither, or both.

(a) N
(b) Q
 
1
(c) :n∈N
n

10
 \∞  
1
(d) 0,
n=1
n
(e) {x : x2 > 0}
(f) {x : |x − 2| ≤ 3}

4. Let S be a bounded infinite set and let u = sup S.

/ S, then u ∈ S 0 .
(a) Prove that if u ∈
/ S0 ?
(b) True or false: if u ∈ S, then u ∈

5. Prove that if x is an accumulation point of S, then every neighborhood of x contains

infinitely many points of S.

I.5. COMPACT SETS

S
Definition 14. Let S ⊆ R. A collection G of open sets such that S ⊆ G∈G G is called an open
cover of S. A subcollection F of G which also covers S is called a subcover of S.

Examples Make up some examples to illustrate “open cover” and “subcover.”

Definition 15. A set S ⊆ R is compact if and only if every open cover G of S contains a
finite subcover. That is, S is compact if for every open cover G of S there is a finite collection
Sn
of open sets G1, G2 , . . . Gn in G such that S ⊆ k=1 Gk .

Examples The interval (0, 1] is not compact; the open intervals (1/n, 1 + 1/n), n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
form an open cover with no finite subcover. The interval [0, ∞) is not compact; the open intervals
(−1/n, n), n = 1, 2, 3, . . . form an open cover with no finite subcover.

THEOREM 12. If S ⊆ R is non-empty, closed and bounded, then S has a maximum and a
minimum.

Proof: Since S is bounded, S has a least upper bound m and a greatest lower bound k. Since
m is the least upper bound for S, given any  > 0, m −  is not an upper bound for S. If m ∈
/ S,
then there exists an x ∈ S such that m −  < x < m which implies that m is an accumulation
point of S. Since S is closed, m ∈ S and m = max S. A similar argument holds for k.

THEOREM 13. (Heine-Borel Theorem) A subset S of R is compact if and only if it is closed

and bounded.

Proof: Suppose S is compact. Let G be the collection of open intervals In = (−n, n), n = 1, 2, . . ..
Then G is an open cover of S. Since S is compact, G contains a finite subcover In1 , In2 , . . ., Ink .
Let m = max ni . Then S ⊆ Im , and for all x ∈ S, |x| ≤ m. Therefore S is bounded.

To show that S is closed, we must show that S contains all its accumulation points. Suppose
that p is an accumulation point of S and suppose p ∈ / S. For each positive integer n, let
c
Gn = [p − 1/n, p + 1/n] . Since the complement of a closed interval is an open set, Gn is an open

11
for all n. Since p ∈
/ S, S ⊆ ∪ Gn. That is, the sets Gn, n = 1, 2, 3 . . . form an open cover of S.
Since S is compact, this open cover has a finite subcover, Gn1 , Gn2 , . . . , Gnk . Let m = max ni.
Then the neighborhood N of p of radius 1/m contains no points of S contradicting the
assumption that p is an accumulation point of S.

We omit the proof that S closed and bounded implies that S is compact.

THEOREM 14. (Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem) If S ⊆ R is a bounded infinite set, then S

has at least one accumulation point.

Proof: Let S be a bounded infinite set and suppose that S has no accumulation points. Then S
is closed (vacuously), and S is compact. For each x ∈ S, let Nx be a neighborhood of x such that
S ∩ Nx = {x}. The set of neighborhoods Nx , x ∈ S is an open cover of S. Since S is compact,
this open cover has a finite subcover Nx1 , Nx2 , . . . , Nxk . But S ∩ [Nx1 ∪ Nx2 ∪ . . . ∪ Nxk ] =
{x1, x2, . . . , xk} which implies that S is finite, a contradiction.

Exercises 1.5

1. True – False. Justify your answer by citing a theorem, giving a proof, or giving a counter-
example.

(a) Every finite set is compact.

(b) No infinite set is compact.
(c) If a set is compact, then it has a maximum and a minimum.
(d) If a set has a maximum and a minimum, then it is compact.
(e) If S ⊆ R is compact, then there is at least one point x ∈ R such that x is an
accumulation point of S.
(f) If S ⊆ R is compact and x is an accumulation point of S, then x ∈ S.

2. Show that each of the following subsets S of R is not compact by giving an open cover of
S that has no finite subcover.

(a) S = [0, 1)
(b) S = N
(c) S = {1/n : n ∈ N}

3. Prove that the intersection of any collection of compact sets is compact.

4. Prove that if S ⊆ R is compact and T is a closed subset of S, then T is compact.

12