Unit -1

Hardware

The basics of a computer hardware in ELEMENTS OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND

ENGINEERING are the physical components of a computer that are responsible for
performing the input, processing, output, and storage functions of

Software in ELEMENTS OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING is a

collection of instructions that tells the computer what to do. It is the opposite of
hardware, which is the physical components of the computer. Software can be divided
into two main categories: system software and application software.

System software is the software that controls the basic operations of the computer. It
includes the operating system, which is the software that manages the hardware and
software resources of the computer, and the device drivers, which are the software that
allows the computer to communicate with its peripheral devices.

System software in computer scienceOpens in a new window

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Application software is the software that is used to perform specific tasks. Examples of
application software include word processors, spreadsheets, web browsers, and games.

Application software in computer scienceOpens in a new window

www.learncomputerscienceonline.com

The following are some examples of how software is used in ELEMENTS OF

COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING:

Operating systems are used to control the basic operations of the computer, such as
loading programs, managing memory, and controlling input and output devices.

Device drivers are used to allow the computer to communicate with its peripheral
devices, such as printers, scanners, and hard drives.
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Word processors are used to create and edit documents.

Spreadsheets are used to store and manipulate numerical data.

Web browsers are used to access and view websites.

Games are used for entertainment and recreation.

Software is an essential part of any computer system. It allows the computer to perform
its tasks and to be used for a variety of purposes.

Here are some other examples of software:

Database software: This software is used to store and manage large amounts of data.

Programming languages: These languages are used to create computer programs.

Compilers and interpreters: These programs are used to translate computer programs
from a high-level language to a low-level language that the computer can understand.

Utilities: These programs are used to perform tasks such as formatting disks, backing
up data, and defragmenting hard drives.

Software is constantly evolving and new software is being developed all the time. This is
because the needs of computer users are constantly changing. As new technologies
emerge, new software is developed to take advantage of these technologies. the
computer. The five major components of a computer hardware are:

 Central processing unit (CPU): The CPU is the brain of the computer and is responsible
for carrying out the instructions of the computer program. It is made up of millions of
transistors that work together to perform calculations and logical operations.
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 Motherboard: The motherboard is the main circuit board of the computer and it connects
all of the other components of the computer together. It also contains the BIOS, which is
a small program that helps the computer to start up.

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 Random access memory (RAM): RAM is the temporary memory of the computer and it
is used to store data and instructions that are currently being used by the CPU. RAM is
volatile, which means that it loses its contents when the power is turned off.

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 Storage device: The storage device is used to store data and programs permanently.
There are many different types of storage devices, including hard drives, solid-state
drives, and optical discs.

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 Input/output (I/O) devices: I/O devices are used to input data into the computer and to
output data from the computer. Examples of I/O devices include keyboards, mice,
monitors, printers, and scanners.

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These are the basic components of a computer hardware. The specific components that
are included in a computer will vary depending on the type of computer and its intended
use.

In addition to the five major components, there are a number of other hardware
components that may be found in a computer, such as the power supply, cooling fans,
and expansion cards.

The following are some examples of how the basic components of a computer hardware
are used:

 The CPU is used to calculate the results of a mathematical equation.

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 The motherboard is used to connect the CPU, RAM, and other components of the
computer together.
 RAM is used to store the data that is currently being used by the CPU.
 The storage device is used to store data permanently.
 The I/O devices are used to input data into the computer and to output data from the
computer.

The basic components of a computer hardware work together to allow the computer to
perform its functions. The CPU, motherboard, RAM, storage device, and I/O devices are
all essential for the computer to operate.
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Software

Software in ELEMENTS OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING is a

collection of instructions that tells the computer what to do. It is the opposite of
hardware, which is the physical components of the computer. Software can be divided
into two main categories: system software and application software.

 System software is the software that controls the basic operations of the computer. It
includes the operating system, which is the software that manages the hardware and
software resources of the computer, and the device drivers, which are the software that
allows the computer to communicate with its peripheral devices.

Opens in a new window

www.learncomputerscienceonline.com

 Application software is the software that is used to perform specific tasks. Examples of
application software include word processors, spreadsheets, web browsers, and games.

Opens in a new window

www.learncomputerscienceonline.com
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The following are some examples of how software is used in ELEMENTS OF

COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING:

 Operating systems are used to control the basic operations of the computer, such as
loading programs, managing memory, and controlling input and output devices.
 Device drivers are used to allow the computer to communicate with its peripheral
devices, such as printers, scanners, and hard drives.
 Word processors are used to create and edit documents.
 Spreadsheets are used to store and manipulate numerical data.
 Web browsers are used to access and view websites.
 Games are used for entertainment and recreation.

Software is an essential part of any computer system. It allows the computer to perform
its tasks and to be used for a variety of purposes.

Here are some other examples of software:

 Database software: This software is used to store and manage large amounts of data.
 Programming languages: These languages are used to create computer programs.
 Compilers and interpreters: These programs are used to translate computer programs
from a high-level language to a low-level language that the computer can understand.
 Utilities: These programs are used to perform tasks such as formatting disks, backing
up data, and defragmenting hard drives.

Software is constantly evolving and new software is being developed all the time. This is
because the needs of computer users are constantly changing. As new technologies
emerge, new software is developed to take advantage of these technologies.
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Generations of computers

here are the five generations of computers with their key characteristics and examples:

 First generation (1940s-1950s): Vacuum tubes were used as the main electronic
components. These computers were very large, expensive, and consumed a lot of
power. They were also prone to errors. The first generation computers included the
ENIAC, EDVAC, and UNIVAC I.

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UNIVAC I computer first generation

 Second generation (1950s-1960s): Transistors replaced vacuum tubes, making

computers smaller, faster, and more reliable. Magnetic cores were used for memory.
Programming languages such as FORTRAN and COBOL were developed during this
generation. The second generation computers included the IBM 1401, IBM 7090, and
UNIVAC 1107.
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UNIVAC 1107 computer second generation

 Third generation (1960s-1970s): Integrated circuits (ICs) were used, which made
computers even smaller and more powerful. Magnetic disks were used for storage.
Operating systems such as UNIX and MS-DOS were developed during this generation.
The third generation computers included the IBM 360, CDC 6600, and UNIVAC 1100.

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UNIVAC 1100 computer third generation

 Fourth generation (1970s-present): Microprocessors were used, which made computers

even smaller and more affordable. Personal computers (PCs) were introduced during
this generation. Programming languages such as C and C++ were developed during
this generation. The fourth generation computers included the Apple II, IBM PC, and
Macintosh.
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Macintosh computer fourth generation

 Fifth generation (present-day): Artificial intelligence (AI) and parallel processing are
being used in fifth generation computers. These computers are still under development,
but they are expected to be much more powerful and intelligent than previous
generations of computers.

The fifth generation computers are still in the research and development phase, but they
are expected to have features such as:

 Natural language processing: The ability to understand and respond to human

language.
 Machine learning: The ability to learn and improve over time without being explicitly
programmed.
 Parallel processing: The ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time.
 Quantum computing: The ability to perform calculations using quantum mechanics.

These features will make fifth generation computers much more powerful and versatile
than previous generations. They will be able to perform tasks that are currently
impossible for computers, such as understanding human language and making creative
decisions.


Hardware - functional units
 The functional units of a computer are the parts of the computer that perform the basic
operations of the computer. They are:

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 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): The ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations on
data. For example, it can add, subtract, multiply, and divide numbers. It can also
compare numbers and perform logical operations such as AND, OR, and NOT.
 Control Unit (CU): The CU controls the operation of the computer. It reads instructions
from memory and tells the other parts of the computer what to do.
 Memory Unit (MU): The MU stores data and instructions. It is where the computer keeps
the data that it is currently working on.
 Input Unit (IU): The IU is responsible for inputting data into the computer. This can be
done through a keyboard, mouse, scanner, or other input device.
 Output Unit (OU): The OU is responsible for outputting data from the computer. This
can be done through a monitor, printer, or other output device.

These are the five main functional units of a computer. There are other functional units
that may be found in some computers, such as the graphics processing unit (GPU) and
the sound card.

The functional units of a computer work together to allow the computer to perform its
functions. The ALU performs the calculations, the CU controls the operation of the
computer, the MU stores the data and instructions, the IU inputs data into the computer,
and the OU outputs data from the computer.

The functional units of a computer are essential for the computer to operate. Without
these functional units, the computer would not be able to perform any tasks.

Here is a diagram of the functional units of a computer:

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Functional units of a computer

The ALU is the heart of the computer. It is responsible for performing all of the
calculations that the computer needs to do. The CU is the brain of the computer. It
controls the operation of all of the other functional units. The MU is the memory of the
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computer. It stores all of the data and instructions that the computer needs to access.
The IU is the input unit of the computer. It is responsible for inputting data into the
computer. The OU is the output unit of the computer. It is responsible for outputting data
from the computer.

The functional units of a computer are interconnected by a system of buses. The buses
carry data and instructions between the different functional units. The buses are also
responsible for connecting the computer to external devices, such as a keyboard,
mouse, or monitor.

The functional units of a computer are constantly working together to allow the
computer to perform its tasks. When you type a letter on the keyboard, the IU sends the
letter to the ALU, which then performs the calculation to display the letter on the
monitor. When you click on a button in a software application, the CU sends a signal to
the IU, which then sends the signal to the ALU, which then performs the calculation to
perform the action that you have requested.

The functional units of a computer are essential for the computer to operate. Without
these functional units, the computer would not be able to perform any tasks.

Components of CPU

The central processing unit (CPU) is the brain of the computer. It is responsible for
carrying out the instructions of the computer program. The CPU is made up of several
components, including:

 Arithmetic logic unit (ALU): The ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations on data.
For example, it can add, subtract, multiply, and divide numbers. It can also compare
numbers and perform logical operations such as AND, OR, and NOT.
 Control unit (CU): The CU controls the operation of the CPU. It reads instructions from
memory and tells the other parts of the CPU what to do.
 Registers: Registers are small, fast memory areas that the CPU uses to store data and
instructions.
 Cache: Cache is a small, fast memory area that the CPU uses to store frequently
accessed data and instructions.
 Clock: The clock is a timing signal that synchronizes the operation of the CPU.

The ALU, CU, registers, and cache are all located on the CPU chip. The clock is usually
a separate component that is connected to the CPU.
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The ALU and CU are the two most important components of the CPU. The ALU
performs the calculations, and the CU controls the operation of the CPU. The registers
and cache are used to store data and instructions that are needed by the ALU and CU.
The clock is used to synchronize the operation of the CPU.

The CPU is a complex and sophisticated component that is essential for the operation
of the computer. It is responsible for carrying out the instructions of the computer
program, which is what allows the computer to perform its tasks.

Here are some other components of the CPU:

 Pipeline: The pipeline is a system that allows the CPU to execute instructions more
quickly. It works by breaking down instructions into smaller steps and then executing
these steps one at a time.
 Multiple cores: Some CPUs have multiple cores. This means that they can execute
multiple instructions at the same time.
 Hyperthreading: Hyperthreading is a technology that allows a CPU with multiple cores
to execute even more instructions at the same time. It does this by dividing each core
into two logical cores.

The number of cores and the clock speed of the CPU are two of the most important
factors that determine the performance of the CPU. The more cores and the faster the
clock speed, the faster the CPU will be able to execute instructions.

The CPU is a constantly evolving component. As technology advances, new CPU

designs are being developed that are more powerful and efficient. This is leading to
faster and more powerful computers.

Memory – hierarchy

Memory hierarchy is a way of organizing different types of memory in a computer

system so that the most frequently accessed data and instructions are stored in the
fastest memory. This helps to improve the performance of the computer by reducing the
amount of time it takes to access the data and instructions that are needed.

The different levels of the memory hierarchy are:

 Registers: Registers are the fastest type of memory in a computer system. They are
located inside the CPU and are used to store data and instructions that are being used
by the CPU.
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 Cache: Cache is a type of memory that is located close to the CPU. It is much faster
than main memory, but it is also smaller. Cache is used to store frequently accessed
data and instructions so that the CPU does not have to access main memory as often.
 Main memory: Main memory is the largest type of memory in a computer system. It is
slower than cache, but it is much larger. Main memory is used to store all of the data
and instructions that are not currently being used by the CPU.
 Secondary memory: Secondary memory is the slowest type of memory in a computer
system. It is used to store data and instructions that are not currently being used by the
CPU. Secondary memory can be a hard drive, a solid-state drive, or a tape drive.

The memory hierarchy is arranged in a way that the fastest type of memory is closest to
the CPU and the slowest type of memory is farthest away from the CPU. This is
because the CPU can access the data and instructions in the fastest type of memory
the fastest.

When the CPU needs to access data or instructions, it first checks the registers. If the
data or instructions are not in the registers, the CPU then checks the cache. If the data
or instructions are not in the cache, the CPU then checks the main memory. If the data
or instructions are not in the main memory, the CPU then checks the secondary
memory.

The memory hierarchy is a very important part of computer system design. It helps to
improve the performance of the computer by reducing the amount of time it takes to
access the data and instructions that are needed.

Here are some of the benefits of using a memory hierarchy:

 It can improve the performance of the computer by reducing the amount of time it takes
to access the data and instructions that are needed.
 It can reduce the power consumption of the computer by storing less data in the slower
memory.
 It can improve the reliability of the computer by storing the most important data in the
fastest memory.

The memory hierarchy is a complex and sophisticated system that is essential for the
operation of modern computers. It helps to improve the performance, power
consumption, and reliability of computers.

TYPES OF MEMORY
here are the different types of memory in computer science:
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 Sensory memory: This is the first type of memory that stores information that is received
through the senses. It is very short-lived, lasting only a few seconds. Sensory memory
is responsible for storing information such as the sound of a dog barking or the sight of
a red apple.

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Sensory memory computer science

 Working memory: This is a type of short-term memory that stores information that is
currently being used. It is also known as short-term memory or primary memory.
Working memory is responsible for storing information such as the numbers in a phone
number or the steps in a recipe.

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Working memory computer science

 Long-term memory: This is the type of memory that stores information for a long period
of time. It is also known as secondary memory. Long-term memory is responsible for
storing information such as your childhood memories or the names of your friends.
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Long-term memory computer science

There are two main types of long-term memory: * Explicit memory: This is the type of
long-term memory that stores information that you are aware of. It is also known as
declarative memory. Explicit memory includes things like your name, your address, and
the names of your friends. * Implicit memory: This is the type of long-term memory that
stores information that you are not aware of. It is also known as non-declarative
memory. Implicit memory includes things like how to ride a bike or how to tie your
shoes.

The different types of memory work together to allow us to store and retrieve
information. Sensory memory stores information for a very short period of time, but it
allows us to focus on the information that is important. Working memory stores
information that we are currently using, and it allows us to think and solve problems.
Long-term memory stores information for a long period of time, and it allows us to
remember things from the past.

The amount of information that can be stored in each type of memory is limited.
Sensory memory can only store a small amount of information, working memory can
only store a few items of information, and long-term memory can store a vast amount of
information.

The different types of memory are also fragile. Sensory memory can be easily lost,
working memory can be lost if we are not paying attention, and long-term memory can
be lost due to aging or injury.

Despite their limitations, the different types of memory are essential for our ability to
think, learn, and remember.

INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES

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here are some of the most common input and output devices:

Input devices are used to enter data and instructions into the computer. Some common
input devices include:

 Keyboard: The keyboard is the most common input device. It is used to type text and
enter numbers.

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Keyboard input device computer

 Mouse: The mouse is used to point and click on objects on the screen. It can also be
used to scroll through documents and web pages.

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Mouse input device computer

 Scanner: The scanner is used to scan images and text into the computer.
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Scanner input device computer

 Webcam: The webcam is used to capture video and audio. It can be used for video
calls, video conferencing, and live streaming.

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Webcam input device computer

 Touchscreen: The touchscreen is a display that can be touched with fingers or a stylus.
It is used to interact with the computer by touching the screen.

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Touchscreen input device computer

Output devices are used to display data and information from the computer. Some
common output devices include:

 Monitor: The monitor is the most common output device. It is used to display text,
images, and videos.

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Monitor output device computer

 Printer: The printer is used to print text and images on paper.

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Printer output device computer

 Speakers: The speakers are used to play audio.

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Speakers output device computer

 Headset: The headset is used to listen to audio and make phone calls.

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Headset output device computer

 Projector: The projector is used to display images and videos on a larger screen.

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Projector output device computer

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There are many other input and output devices available, each with its own purpose.
The specific input and output devices that are used will depend on the needs of the user
and the application.

SOFTWARE – SYSTEMS SOFTWARE

here are some examples of system software:

 Operating system (OS): The operating system is the most important system software. It
is responsible for managing the computer's resources, such as the CPU, memory, and
storage. It also provides a platform for running other software.

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Operating system (OS) software

 Device drivers: Device drivers are software that allows the computer to communicate
with its peripheral devices, such as the keyboard, mouse, and printer.

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Device drivers software

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 Firmware: Firmware is a type of software that is stored on a computer's hardware. It is

used to control the basic operations of the computer, such as the boot process and the
way that the hardware interacts with the operating system.

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Firmware software

 Utilities: Utilities are software programs that are used to perform tasks such as
formatting disks, defragmenting hard drives, and backing up data.

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Utilities software

 Compilers and interpreters: Compilers and interpreters are software programs that are
used to translate computer programs from a high-level language to a low-level language
that the computer can understand.
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Compilers and interpreters software

System software is essential for the operation of the computer. It provides the
foundation for running other software and for managing the computer's resources.

Here are some of the key functions of system software:

 Resource management: System software manages the computer's resources, such as

the CPU, memory, and storage. This includes allocating resources to programs,
ensuring that resources are used efficiently, and preventing programs from interfering
with each other.
 Device control: System software controls the computer's peripheral devices, such as the
keyboard, mouse, and printer. This includes translating the commands from the
programs into signals that the devices can understand.
 Hardware abstraction: System software provides a layer of abstraction between the
programs and the hardware. This means that programs do not need to know the details
of how the hardware works. This makes it easier to write programs and to port programs
to different hardware platforms.
 Error detection and recovery: System software detects and recovers from errors. This
includes detecting errors in the hardware, software, and data. It also includes recovering
from errors by restarting the computer or by restoring the data from a backup.
 Security: System software provides security features to protect the computer from
unauthorized access and malicious software. This includes features such as user
authentication, access control, and virus protection.

System software is a complex and essential part of any computer system. It provides
the foundation for running other software and for managing the computer's resources.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
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here are some examples of application software:

 Word processors: Word processors are used to create and edit documents. Some
popular word processors include Microsoft Word, Google Docs, and LibreOffice Writer.

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Word processors software

 Spreadsheets: Spreadsheets are used to store and manipulate numerical data. Some
popular spreadsheets include Microsoft Excel, Google Sheets, and LibreOffice Calc.

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Spreadsheets software

 Database management systems: Database management systems are used to store and
manage large amounts of data. Some popular database management systems include
Microsoft SQL Server, MySQL, and Oracle.
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Database management systems software

 Presentation software: Presentation software is used to create and deliver

presentations. Some popular presentation software include Microsoft PowerPoint,
Google Slides, and LibreOffice Impress.

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Presentation software

 Graphics software: Graphics software is used to create and edit images. Some popular
graphics software include Adobe Photoshop, GIMP, and Inkscape.

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Graphics software

 Web browsers: Web browsers are used to access and view websites. Some popular
web browsers include Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, and Safari.

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Web browsers software

 Email clients: Email clients are used to send and receive emails. Some popular email
clients include Microsoft Outlook, Gmail, and Yahoo Mail.

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Email clients software

 Media players: Media players are used to play audio and video files. Some popular
media players include VLC Media Player, Windows Media Player, and iTunes.
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Media players software

 Games: Games are software that are designed for entertainment. There are many
different types of games available, such as action games, adventure games, and puzzle
games.

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Games software

Application software is designed to help users perform specific tasks. It is the software
that users interact with directly.

Application software is typically divided into two categories:

 General-purpose software: General-purpose software can be used for a variety of tasks.

Some examples of general-purpose software include word processors, spreadsheets,
and presentation software.
 Specialized software: Specialized software is designed for a specific task. Some
examples of specialized software include database management systems, graphics
software, and web browsers.
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Application software is constantly evolving as new technologies are developed. New

applications are being developed all the time to meet the needs of users.

PACKAGES, FRAMEWORKS, IDES

here are some of the differences between packages, frameworks, and IDEs:

Packages are a collection of related software modules. They are typically used to
organize code and make it easier to reuse. Packages can be created by individual
developers or by organizations.

Frameworks are a more complex type of software than packages. They provide a
structure for developing software applications. Frameworks typically include pre-written
code, libraries, and tools. This can help developers to save time and effort when
developing applications.

IDEs are integrated development environments. They are software applications that
provide tools for writing, debugging, and testing software. IDEs typically include a code
editor, a debugger, and a compiler. This can help developers to be more productive
when developing software.

Here is a table that summarizes the key differences between packages, frameworks,
and IDEs:

Feature Packages Frameworks IDEs

Provide Write,
Organize structure for debug, and
Purpose
code developing test
applications software

Complexity Simple Complex Complex

Pre-written Code editor,

Software
Components code, libraries, debugger,
modules
tools compiler

Benefits Save time Save time and Save time

and effort, effort, provide and effort,
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easy to structure for be more

reuse code development productive

The best choice of software for a particular project will depend on the specific needs of
the project. For example, if the project is small and simple, then a package may be
sufficient. However, if the project is large and complex, then a framework may be a
better choice. And if the project requires a lot of code writing and debugging, then an
IDE may be the best choice.
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