1

RESERVOIR
ENGINEERING
Essentials
Edited by Dr. Nayef Alyafei

Special thanks:
Abdul Rahman Hatib
Romeo Indico
 CONVERSION OF UNITS 3

Length Area
1 ft = 0.3048 m = 12 in 1 ft2 = 0.092903 m2 = 144 in2
1 m = 3.281 ft = 39.37 in = 100 cm 1 m2 = 10.7649 ft2 = 10000 cm2

Mass Force
1 lbm = 0.45359 kg 1 lbf = 4.44822 N = 32.2 lbm.ft/s2
1 kg = 2.2046 lbm = 1000 g 1 N = 0.2248 lbf = 1 kg.m/s2

Interfacial Tension Permeability

1 N/m = 1000 mN/m = 1000 dyne/cm 1 D = 1000 mD = 9.869233 x 10-13 m2

Volume Temperature
1 ft3 = 0.02831 m3 = 28.3168 L = 0.178 bbl = 0.178 RB ˚C = (˚F – 32) / 1.8
1 m3 = 35.29 ft3 = 1000 L ˚F = 1.8˚C + 32
˚R = ˚F + 460
Pressure
1 atm = 101.3 kPa = 1.013 bar = 14.696 lbf/in2 (psia)
1 psia = 6.89 kPa = atm/14.696
1 Pa = 1 N/m2 = 1 kg/m.s2 = 10-5 bar = 1.450 x 10-4 lbf/in2 = 10 dyne/cm2
psia = psig +14.7

Density
1 g/cc = 1000 kg/m3 = 62.427 lb/ft3 = 8.345 lb/gal = 0.03361 lb/in3

Viscosity

Contents
Conversion of units 3
1 cP = 0.01 poise = 0.01 g/cm.s = 0.001 kg/m.s = 0.001 n.s/m2 = 0.001 Pa.s
= 0.01 dyne.s/cm2 = 6.72 x 10-4 lbm/ft.s = 2.09 x 10-5 lbf.s/ft2

Reservoir characterization 4 Metric Prefixes

Gas material balance 8 Prefix Symbol Multiplication Factor

giga G 109
Oil material balance 9
mega M 106
Immiscible displacement 11
kilo k 103
Buckley-Leverett theory 12
centi c 10-2
Waterflooding 13
milli m 10-3
Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) 15
micro µ 10-6

nano n 10-9

Oilfield Prefixes

Prefix Symbol Multiplication Factor

Thousand M 103

Million MM 106

Billion MMM or B 109

Trillion T 1012
RESERVOIR CHARACTERIZATION 4 5

What is a Reservoir?
Seismic and
In simple terms, a reservoir can be defined as the formation rock
geological data Wireline Logging
where hydrocarbons have accumulated after migrating from the Laboratory on areal extent Routine Core Analysis
From wireline logging, three main properties can be obtained: (RCAL)
source rock. Hydrocarbons are trapped in place by geological Tests Field Tests
lithology (rock type), porosity, and fluid saturation as functions of
structures and surrounding impermeable rock allowing for its
depth.
extraction. How much a reservoir can store and produce are Porosity Grain Density Permeability Fluid Saturation

dependent on the properties of the formation rock such as porosity, RCAL Reservoir Porosity
(Porosity) pore volume tools In the first track of the example log below, we have the gamma-ray
permeability, fluid saturation, and more.
tool response that can identify whether there is shale or reservoir
rock. The high gamma-ray response indicates the presence of shale
In addition to the aforementioned properties, identifying the type of Special Core Analysis
while the low response indicates reservoir rock. Therefore, we can (SCAL)
fluid present within the reservoir is also crucial. Development of a field
Electrical Water and indicate the location of the reservoir layer.
can vary depending on whether oil, gas, or both is present within the Resistivity
properties and hydrocarbon
tools
reservoir since the behavior of each fluid can differ which can affect capillary pressure saturations Electrical
Properties
Wettability
Capillary
Pressure
Relative
Permeability
depletion strategies, prediction techniques, and estimation techniques.
NPHI
Absolute and 0.45 -0.15
Fluid flow
relative
characteristics Well tests Gamma Ray Depth, Resistivity RHOB Fluid Sampling and Analysis
permeabilities,
PVT data
0 gAPI 150 ft 0.2 .m 20 1.90 g/cc 2.90 Understanding the fluids present in the reservoir is very important
Well
6,000
when characterizing a reservoir. Fluid sampling and analysis can
Shale identify the fluids present and their properties such as density,
Impermeable Rock

Oil Gas Reservoir viscosity, phase behavior, formation volume factor, solution gas oil
Water Engineering ratio, etc. More specifically, studying the changes of these properties
Models Gas
as a function of pressure, volume, and temperature (PVT) presents
6,100
Hydrocarbon
the thermodynamic behavior of the reservoir. The reservoir fluid
undergoes a journey from the reservoir at high temperature and
Oil
Sand pressure to drastically different conditions at the surface where they
Oil recovery
Reservoir Characterization predictions
are produced and refined to ultimately ambient conditions where
In order to maximize the production stage, we must first have
6,200 hydrocarbons are sold (the gas might require special storage and
Brine Brine
a better understanding of the studied reservoir. Moreover, transport conditions). Understanding how the properties change
understanding the different stages of production is the responsibility as a function of pressure and temperature can give us better
of reservoir engineers and they are supposed to: understanding and estimation of available hydrocarbons, recovery,
The tools used in reservoir characterization can be classified into five Shale
and flow calculations.
different tools: 6,300
1. Understand different reservoir characterization tools and be able
to integrate them.
Geologic and Seismic Surveys Applications
After having a rough idea on the characteristics of the reservoir based
The geologic and seismic tests can help us in determining the Moving on to the second track, we have the resistivity log. Electrical
2. Be able to estimate the hydrocarbon initially in place with its on the obtained properties, reservoir engineers can now apply the
location and size of hydrocarbon reservoirs which can help us in resistivity is a physical property representing the reciprocal of
associated uncertainty. optimal recovery techniques most appropriate to the reservoir at
quantifying the oil-in-place. Seismic surveys involve generating electrical conductivity and is a function of the medium. Formation hand. However, before deciding on which recovery technique to use,
sound waves from various sources (explosives, air gun, etc.) and water is more conductive to electricity when compared to
3. Understand physical processes in the reservoir, such as material estimation of hydrocarbon volume present within the reservoir must
impinging these waves on subsurface structures. The reflected hydrocarbon which means it is less resistive to electricity. Also, gas
balance and fluid flow in porous media. first take place in order to determine if the reservoir is economic.
waves are measured and recorded by several sensors. The wave is more resistive to electricity than oil. This indicates that the high This helps in deciding whether to further develop the field or to find
travel time is different depending upon the formation or the fluid resistivity region in the track most probably has hydrocarbons.
4. Be able to build a reservoir model in a numerical simulator and another potentially economic reservoir.
type. Seismic waves can be converted into time pictures that can be
predict oil recovery.
compiled to visualize the reservoir structure. The third track is the porosity track and there are three different
Reservoir characterization is understanding the reservoir’s tools that can measure porosity (neutron, density, and sonic logs). In
properties in terms of rock and fluid properties. These properties Well Test Analysis this track, only neutron and density (bulk density) logs are displayed.
are integrated into a reservoir model to predict oil recovery. The In well test analysis, we can obtain several data. However, the Neutron logs are associated with the hydrogen atom count. Gas
following is a flowchart explaining the different tools used in main properties for our analysis are the areal extent and the shows low neutron log response as gas has lower hydrogen atom
reservoir characterization and the properties that can be obtained average permeability of the reservoir. The areal extent can be count compared to oil. It also shows lower density log response as
from each tool. complementary to the data obtained from the geologic and seismic gas is lighter than oil. The density log increases when entering the oil
surveys. The combination of these tools can help us in reducing the zone as the density of oil is higher. Combining the tracks can give a
uncertainty of our calculations. The average permeability, on the better picture of the reservoir.
other hand, can tell us more about the fluid flow in the reservoir.
Core Analysis
Core analysis is performed on core samples extracted from the
reservoir. These core samples undergo different tests to better
understand the nature of the reservoir. The performed tests can
be subdivided into routine core analysis (RCAL) and special core
analysis (SCAL).

RCAL is used to give basic rock properties such as porosity, grain

density, permeability, and fluid saturation. SCAL, on the other
hand, is used to give more representative analysis of the reservoir
condition. Both RCAL and SCAL are important to understand and
characterize the reservoir.
 RELATIVE PERMEABILITY (kr)
CAPILLARY PRESSURE (Pc)
6 7
Basics of
POROSITY ( ф )
WETTABILITY Drainage
Graph
Reservoir Measuring Porosity
RCAL Effective Porosity Laboratory Measurements
kr
kro 100% Sw
krw
Engineering Logs Total Porosity Direct
Contact angle
TRANSITION ZONE
Sw
Engineering Classification Swir
Amott index OWC
Effective Indirect FWL Sw Imbibition
Swir 1
DATA COLLECTION Ineffective Residual Saturation kr
kro
Geological Capillary Pressure krw
Relative Permeability Interpretation
Wireline Logging Intergranular
Types Sw
Lithology [Gamma Ray] Intragranular Pc Frequency 1-Sor
Shale [High Gamma Ray] Laboratory Measurements Water-Wet < 90°
Reservoir [Low Gamma Ray] Oil-Wet > 90° Wettability
Fluid Displacement
Porosity Mixed-Wet
Gas Expansion Intermediate ≈ 90°
kr
Sonic kro
Density Sw rp krw
Neutron Homogeneous-Sandstone Unimodal-Sandstone
ROCK COMPRESSIBILITY Heterogeneous-Carbonate Bimodal-Carbonates Sw
Fluid Saturation [Resistivity logs]
Types Water-wet
Core Analysis θ Permeability
Bulk Compressibility, cb
Routine Core Analysis [RCAL] h kA > kB
Pore/Formation Compressibility, cp/f kr
Porosity kro krw
Grain/Matrix Density Matrix Compressibility, cm B
Fluid Saturation A
Laboratory Measurements Sw
Permeability
Sw
Special Core Analysis [SCAL] Oil-Wet
Electrical Properties
Wettability
Capillary Pressure ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
Relative Permeability
FLUID PROPERTIES
PVT Data FLUID SATURATION
Types PVT
Oil Formation Volume Factor Bo [bbl/STB]
Types Rw Ro Rt Pressure Volume Temperature
Viscosity µ [cP]
P
Density [lb/ft3] Water Saturation, Sw ф =100% ф =20% ф =20% Gas Formation Volume factor Oil Formation Volume Factor
Gas Oil Ratio Rs [SCF/STB] Oil Saturation, So Sw =100% Sw =100% Sw =20%
Bg Bo
Compressibility cf [psia-1] Gas Saturation, Sg
Oil Composition T Formation Resistivity
Laboratory Measurements Factor Index
Gas Formation Volume Factor Bg [ft3/SCF]
Solvent Extraction (Dean-Stark) P P
Resistivity/Conductivity
Pb Pb
TYPES OF RECOVERY + Does not Destroy the sample ROCK Total Formation Volume Factor Solution Gas Oil Ratio
- Slow GAS
Primary Recovery - Extracts one fluid OIL Bt Rs
WATER
Natural Flow P
Graphs
Artificial Lift *Methanol for water Log - Log
*Toluene for oil F Ir
Secondary Recovery P P
Pb Pb
Waterflooding ф Sw Oil Compressibility Oil Viscosity
Pressure Maintenance Retort Distillation Formation Factor Resistivity Index co µo
Tertiary Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery)
Archie’s Equation
Thermal + Accurate
+ Fast 
Chemical + Extracts two fluids aRw
Sw = n m P P
Miscible - Destroys the sample φ Rt Pb Pb
GAS MATERIAL BALANCE 8
OIL MATERIAL BALANCE 9

Material balance analysis is a method used to determine the

The gas material balance discussed earlier was strictly for gas Expansion of Gas Cap Gas
Simplified Gas Material Balance reservoirs when only gas and water are produced. However, even Difference in the initial and current reservoir volume of gas cap gas.
amount of fluids in place in the reservoir by accounting for The equation originated from the gas material balance may be simplified that equation is a simplified version of the general material balance  
production and pressure data wherein the sum of the pore by assuming the following: Bg
equation which also considers oil production and gas dissolved in oil, mN Boi −1
volume occupied by remaining fluids at pressure P is equal to
shown below. Bgi
the initial pore volume occupied by fluids at initial pressure Pi. • Negligible compressibility
• Negligible water influx where
Np [Bo + (Rp − Rs )Bg ]
For dry gas reservoirs, this translates to the underground 
withdrawal (volume out) being equal to the sum of expansion This reduces the gas material balance into the form of:
(Bo − Boi ) + (Rsi − Rs )Bg
= N Boi
of gas due to decrease in pressure, reduction in hydrocarbon Boi mN Boi = GBgi
pore volume (HCPV) due to water expansion and pore volume     
Gp Bg = G(Bgi − Bg ) Bg cw Swir + cf
reduction and also considering any aquifer influx. These terms +m − 1 + (1 + m) ∆P Reduction in HCPV
together make up the gas material balance: Since there is no water influx, there is also no cumulative water Bgi 1 − Swir
Same as in gas material balance, only that the presence of oil within
production which results in omitting the Wp term. And remember that: + (We − Wp Bw ) the pore spaces is also considered.
 
zT where (1 + m)N Boi cw Swir + cf
GBgi Bg = 0.0282 ∆P
Gp Bg + Wp Bw = G(Bg − Bgi ) + (Swir cw + cf )∆P + We P Np= Cumulative oil production [STB] 1 − Swir 1 − Swir
1 − Swir
Rp= Cumulative GOR [SCF/STB]
After substitution and rearranging, this lets us write the equation in the Bo = Oil formation volume factor [bbl/STB]
where form of: Boi = Initial oil formation volume factor [bbl/STB]
G = Gas initially in place [SCF] Rs = Solution GOR [SCF/STB]
Aquifer Influx
P Pi Pi Water influx originating from nearby aquifers.
Gp= Cumulative gas production [SCF] = Gp + Rsi = Initial solution GOR [SCF/STB]
Bg = Gas formation volume factor [ft3/SCF] z zi G zi
N = Initial oil in place [STB]
Bgi = Initial Gas formation volume factor [ft3/SCF] m = Initial reservoir volume of gas cap gas divided by initial reservoir We
This is a linear equation which allows us to estimate the gas in place with
Wp = Cumulative water production [STB] volume of oil,
We = Cumulative water influx [bbl]
limited production data. Note
GBgi This general material balance can be reduced to the gas material
Bw = Water formation volume factor [bbl/STB] m=
Swir= Irreducible water saturation [-]
N Boi balance when the terms N and Np are equal to zero since there
cw = Water isothermal compressibility [psia-1]
Pi /zi Production data is no oil production. Also, assuming that there is no water influx,
The equation can be divided into parts which makes up the general negligible compressibility, and the reservoir is undersaturated
cf = Pore/formation isothermal compressibility [psia-1]
material balance equation. (above the bubble point pressure), the equation can be reduced
∆P = Change in reservoir pressure [psia] P/z
[psia]
to:
Underground withdrawal
Underground Withdrawal
As opposed to gas reservoirs, oil production and initially dissolved gas Np Bo = N (Bo − Boi )
This is the cumulative production of gas and water at reservoir G
coming out of solution should also be considered in oil reservoirs as
conditions (volume out). Other terms in the material balance 0
0 Gp [MMSCF] part of the total produced fluid in the surface.
equation must add up to this volume.

Gp B g + W p B w The linear equation is only valid when the assumptions stated are met, Straight Line Material Balance
N p B o + Gp B g + W p B w − N p Rs B g
which is sometimes not the case. This results in a change in the behavior Based on the divided parts of the general material balance
Gas Expansion of the graph which can be interpreted based on the trend. equation, each of these can be represented by a single variable
where
As gas is subjected to lower pressure, its natural tendency is to which forms the Havlena-Odeh general material balance equation
expand. Abnormally Pressured Reservoirs which is an equation that can be linear under certain conditions.
When the pressure gradient within the reservoir exceeds the expected Gp = Np Rp
G(Bg − Bgi )
value, the reservoir is abnormally pressured. The trend of the graph F = N (Eo + mEg + Ec ) + We
decreases in reality which leads to an overestimation of G when the same
HCPV Reduction Expansion of Oil and Liberated Gas
plot is made.
Connate water and the formation rock also have compressibility Along with the expansion of originally dissolved gas, the expansion of where
to some degree. This term considers the effect of the reduction Production data oil due to change in reservoir pressure is also considered. F = Underground withdrawal,
in HCPV due to water expansion and pore volume reduction.
F = Np [Bo + (Rp − Rs )Bg ] + Wp Bw
GBgi N (Bo − Boi ) + N (Rsi − Rs )Bg
(Swir cw + cf )∆P P/z
1 − Swir
Eo = Expansion of oil and liberated gas,
Aquifer Influx
Water influx originating from nearby aquifers.
G Eo = (Bo − Boi ) + (Rsi − Rs )Bg
P

We Water-drive Gas Reservoir

When aquifer influx is present within the reservoir and is assumed to Eg = Gas cap gas expansion,
Gas in Place – Volumetric Method
be one of the main driving forces, the trend results in a higher G instead  
The gas initially in place (G), can also be calculated using the Bg
since more gas is being pushed out of the reservoir. The increase Eg = Boi −1
volumetric method, using the following equation: Bgi
in production is dependent on how strong the water drive is. This is
displayed in the figure below.
Ahϕ(1 − Swir ) Ec = HCPV reduction,
G=
Bgi
 
cw Swir + cf
where Ec = (1 + m)Boi
A = Area of the reservoir [ft2] Active Water Drive 1 − Swir
P/z
h = Reservoir thickness [ft] Partial Water Drive

ϕ = Porosity [-]
Weak Water Drive

GP
 10
IMMISCIBLE DISPLACEMENT 11

Case 1 – Saturated-Oil Reservoir Fluids within the subsurface interact differently with other Diffusive Flow
Case 3 – Gas Cap Drive Reservoir
fluids and the formation rock. This is due to the difference This model states that water saturation is the same at any
Reservoir with no gas cap (m = 0), negligible water influx (We=0), Reservoir with negligible water influx (We=0) and negligible
in intermolecular forces between each of them. Immiscible point on the vertical plane (with respect to thickness). It
and negligible compressibility (cf,w = 0). compressibility (cf,w =0).
displacement refers to the “pushing” of a fluid by another is only used in reservoirs subjected under high injection
fluid without them mixing together as opposed to miscible rates so that the effects of capillary and gravity forces are
F = N Eo F = N (Eo + mEg )
displacement. negligible.
A plot of F versus Eo yields a straight line with slope N. Dividing both sides by Eo, yields:
Cohesion 1
F Eg
= N + mN Molecules in the liquid state experience strong intermolecular 1 - Sor
Eo Eo forces. Between like molecules, these forces are referred to
as cohesion which holds together molecules in a droplet of
A plot of F/Eo versus Eg/Eo yields a straight line with slope mN and
water for example. Water
intercept of N. injection Sw
Swir
F
Slope = N Adhesion
If the forces are between unlike molecules, they are referred 0
to as adhesion instead. Adhesive forces between water and
glass forms a meniscus in a capillary tube which contribute to
F capillary action.
Eo Slope = mN Primary Recovery
Hydrocarbon extraction is driven by the natural energy present within
Eo the reservoir which involves the different drives mentioned (e.g., water

N Fluid-Rock Interactions drive, gas cap drive, …, etc.). The recovery factor is defined as:
Case 2 – Water Drive Reservoir Fluid-rock interactions that affect flow within the reservoir
Reservoir with no gas cap (m=0) and negligible compressibility
are dependent upon the following properties that are
(cf,w =0). Eg Np
interrelated: wettability, interfacial tension, and capillary RF =
Eo N
pressure.
F = N Eo + We The recovery factor in this stage ranges from 10 to 15%.
Immiscible displacement may occur under either by vertical
Dividing both sides by Eo, yields: Drive Indices equilibrium or diffusive flow.
A drive index is a fraction of a particular drive mechanism that makes
F We
=N+ up the underground withdrawal. Dividing the right-hand side of the
Eo Eo
general material balance equation by the underground withdrawal Secondary Recovery
Vertical Equilibrium In order to increase recovery, additional energy is introduced
A plot of F/Eo versus We/Eo yields a straight line with unit slope and term results in these drive indices which are divided into three ignoring
Under this model, the fluids in the reservoir are distributed
the compressibility term: into the reservoir such as water or gas injection. This increases
intercept of N. in line with capillary-gravity equilibrium. This means that
the recovery efficiency up to 30 to 40%. The recovery can be
the gravitational forces are equal to the capillary forces in
1. Depletion Drive Index predicted by either reservoir simulation or by using first-order
the system. Also, viscous forces are negligible. However, this
2. Segregation (Gas Cap) Drive Index estimates. While reservoir simulation can more accurately predict
model can only be applied under low injection rates.
3. Water Drive Index the recovery factor, first-order estimates offer a simpler and faster
method which is used in verifying numerical models. Moreover,
F The sum of these terms must equal 1 which represents underground it also helps in quality checking and identifying factors that may
Eo withdrawal. This concept helps in identifying which drive mechanism be affecting recovery. One of the most commonly used first-order
is dominant on a particular reservoir by utilizing the general material estimate is the Buckley-Leverett theory.
balance equation.
N
Waterflooding
Oil in Place – Volumetric Method
We The process of injecting water into the reservoir which increases
The oil initially in place (N), can also be calculated using the volumetric
Eo production rate by improving areal sweep efficiency and pressure
method, using the following equation:
maintenance. This is one of the most commonly used improved
Ahϕ(1 − Swir ) oil recovery method as water is readily available in the surface.
N=
Boi
BUCKLEY-LEVERETT THEORY 12
WATERFLOODING 13

During a waterflood or water injection, oil and water Waterflooding Patterns Mobility
interactions may vary depending on the dominant forces Placement of the injector wells around the production wells depends It is defined as the ratio of the effective permeability to the viscosity of
present within the system. For instance, if gravitational forces on the waterflooding pattern used. Some of these patterns can be seen a given fluid.
dominate, water will run under the oil. However, if viscous fw*
below:
forces dominate instead the flow would be piston-like. Buckley- kkr
Leverett integrated the two concepts into what is referred to as fw [-] λ=
fractional flow. µ
where
The main objective of the fractional flow model is to determine k = Absolute permeability [mD]
the water saturation distribution within the reservoir as a kr = Relative permeability [-]
function of distance from the injector well and estimate the μ = Fluid viscosity [cP]
Swir Sw [-] Swf Direct Staggered
oil rate and recovery. This model is done under the following line drive line drive

assumptions:
Then the two values obtained are used to correct the dfw/dSw vs. Sw plot
Mobility Ratio
• Incompressible oil and water as shown.
It is the ratio between the mobilities of the displacing and displaced
fluid (water and oil in most cases).
• Homogeneous reservoir 1-Sor Three-spot Two-spot

• Negligible capillary pressure (viscous flow)

Swf
Shock front krw µo
M=
kro µw
• Negligible gravitational forces Sw [-]
where
• 1D flow krw = Water relative permeability [-]
Swir
Regular Skewed
kro = Oil relative permeability [-]
four-spot four-spot μw = Water viscosity [cP]
In order to apply this model, steps are needed to be followed: μo = Oil viscosity [cP]
dfw/dSw [-]
1. Fractional flow can be calculated by taking the ratio of water
This ratio affects the efficiency of the waterflooding wherein more oil
and total flowrate. After derivations, fractional flow of water 4. After which, the corrected dfw/dSw vs. Sw plot is plotted.
would be recovered at a lower mobility ratio.
for horizontal reservoir with negligible capillary pressure is
expressed as:
1-Sor
Regular Mobility Water
five-spot WOR = 0.5 WOR = 2
Ratio = 1.43 Breakthrough
1
fw = kro µw Oil
1+ krw µo Sw [-] Areal
70.5% 82.2%
Water Sweep
Invaded Efficiency
Area 65%

After which, plot this against the corresponding water

Swir
saturation to create a graph similar to the one below: Mobility Water
WOR = 0.6 WOR = 4.7
Ratio = 0.4 Breakthrough

1
dfw/dSw [-] Areal
Sweep 87.4% 95.6%
Regular Inverted Efficiency
seven-spot seven-spot 82.5%
5. Based on the newly acquired plot, the saturation profile (Sw vs. x) can
be determined which lets us calculate the breakthrough time (tbt) which
fw [-] is when the shock front reaches the production well (xD = 1) and water Production well Injection well WOR = Water-oil ratio
production starts to take place.

qt tdfw
x=
0 Sw [-] 1 ϕAdSw Regular Inverted
nine-spot nine-spot

2. Calculate the dimensionless velocity using the central

difference for each step: x qt tdfw
xD = =
L ϕALdSw
dfw fw (xi+1 ) − fw (xi−1 )
vD = =
dSw Sw (xi+1 ) − Sw (xi−1 )
ϕAL
tbt =  dfw 
3. Find the vDshock and the corresponding Swf. To do this, we will qt dSw shock
use the acquired fw vs. Sw plot. Draw a tangent line from (Swir,0)
Peripheral flood
until the line touches the curve. The slope of this line is vDshock
where
and the saturation point touching the tangent line is at Swf. A = Area [ft2]
x = Distance [ft]
qt = Total flowrate [bbl/d] xD = Dimensionless distance [-]
t = Time [d] L = Length [ft]
Injection well
ϕ = Porosity [-] tbt = Breakthrough time [d]
Production well
Pattern boundary
 14
ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY (EOR) 15

Hydrocarbon Injection (Miscible)

Recovery Efficiencies Volumetric Sweep Efficiency (EV) These are the methods that involve an external source of energy to In some cases, light hydrocarbons are injected back into the
Recovery efficiency or recovery factor (defined earlier) is the This is the ratio of the volumes of oil contacted by the displacing agent produce oil that cannot be produced economically by conventional reservoir to achieve the same objective as in CO2 injection:
fraction of the initial hydrocarbon in place that is actually and the reservoir volumes of oil originally in place. This term can also means. This means injecting more expensive and sophisticated fluids. viscosity reduction.
produced in the surface. Secondary and tertiary recoveries are be written as the product of the areal efficiency (EA) and the vertical These are divided into 3 main categories:
applied in order to increase the recovery efficiency, thereby also efficiency (Ev). Limitations: required pressure ranges determines the minimum
increasing the cumulative production. Oil recovery efficiency 1. Thermal methods depth for injection, expensive since large amounts are required.
(RF) has another equation and is expressed as the product 2. Chemical methods
Vertical Sweep Efficiency (Ev) 3. Miscible methods
between the microscopic displacement efficiency (ED) and the
This refers to the efficiency in the vertical plane, which is affected by
volumetric sweep efficiency (EV). Nitrogen/Flue Gas Flooding (Miscible)
the heterogeneity of the reservoir, gravity, mobility ratio, capillary
forces, and the injected volume. In particular, due to the difference
Steamflooding (Thermal) Large quantities of nitrogen are injected into the reservoir which
This consists of injecting steam into the reservoir to increase can result in miscibility depending on the oil composition. Nitrogen
in permeabilities in a heterogenous reservoir, the movement of the
the temperature of the oil, reducing its viscosity which makes injection is relatively cheaper than other miscible methods.
RF = ED EV flooding varies for each layer as seen in the figure below.
it easier to be displaced. Patterns used are similar to that of
waterflooding. Limitations: miscibility can only be achieved with light oils at high
Swept zone Unswept zone pressures (deep reservoirs are preferred).
Displacement Efficiency (ED)
Limitations: oil saturations must be high, pay zones must be
This is the ratio of reservoir volumes of oil mobilized by
thick (>20ft) to minimize heat loss, reservoirs should be shallow
the displacing agent (e.g., gas and water) and the reservoir Screening Criteria
(~3500ft), not normally done in carbonate reservoirs.
volumes contacted by the same agent. Technical rule-of-thumb screening criteria are available to aid
ability for EOR. Basically, the screening criteria will guide you to
1 choose the optimum EOR method based on the depth, viscosity,
Surfactant/Polymer Flooding (Chemical)
ki hi This involves the injection of a slug that contains water,
and permeability of the reservoir. These criteria are applied to a
prospect, stringent economic analysis, generally through repeated
surfactants, and electrolyte, followed by polymer-thickened
reservoir simulations.
water. Surfactants reduce the interfacial tension between oil
and water, improving displacement sweep efficiency. Polymer-
thickened water results in a lower mobility ratio which improves
kr kro volumetric sweep efficiency.
Oil viscosity, cP, at reservoir conditions
EOR method
0.1 1.0 10 100 1000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000
krw Limitations: applicable to relatively homogenous formations,
Hydrocarbon
complex and expensive, interactions between surfactant and miscible

polymer, degradation of chemicals under reservoir conditions Nitrogen and

flue gas
0
Swir 1-Sor
Areal Sweep Efficiency (EA) CO2 miscible

This is the ratio of the area contacted by the displacing agent over the Surfactant /
Polymer
0 Sw 1 total area of the reservoir. This is directly affected by the waterflooding
Recoverable oil (1 - Swir - Sor)
Polymer Flooding (Chemical) Polymer
pattern used, areal permeability variations, and some geological
This involves injecting water augmented with water soluble
Available oil (1- Swir) features such as fractures. Steamdrive
polymers to increase its viscosity, improving volumetric sweep
efficiency. Polymers used can vary and are dependent on
Permeability, mD
reservoir and fluid properties. EOR method
10 100 1000 10,000
1 − Swir − Sor
ED = Limitations: high oil viscosities require higher polymer
Hydrocarbon
miscible
Not critical if uniform
1 − Swir Areal concentration (more expensive), preferably applied at early Nitrogen and
Not critical if uniform
flue gas
Sweep stages of waterflooding
CO2 miscible High enough for good injection rates

t2
Surfactant /
Polymer

Polymer

CO2 Injection (Miscible) Steamdrive

t1 This involves injecting large quantities of carbon dioxide in the

Depth, ft
reservoir to form a miscible flood. Light to intermediate oil EOR method
2000 4000 6000 8000 10,000
components are extracted. If the pressure is high enough, this
Hydrocarbon
Deep enough for required pressure
develops miscibility with oil allowing it to be displaced from the miscible

reservoir by reducing its viscosity (oil swelling). Nitrogen and

flue gas
Deep enough for required pressure

This then lets us write the oil recovery efficiency as: CO2 miscible Deep enough for optimum pressure
Limitations: low viscosity of CO2 results in poor mobility control,
Surfactant /
availability of CO2, corrosion, large amounts of CO2 required Polymer
Limited by temperature

Polymer Limited by temperature

RF = ED EA Ev Steamdrive Normal range

Crudes up to 20 API

Lighter crudes, 30 API

Good Possible Fair Difficult Not feasible