CH1 Variations in psychological attributes

Individual differences in human functioning

e n

How and why do people differ?

3
1. Variability is a fact of nature,
and individuals are no exception
to this. they very in terms of People differ due to individual differences.
physical characteristics such as For psychologists, individual differences
height, weight, straight, hair, refer to distinctiveness and variations
colour, and so on. They also very among peoples characteristics and
along psychological dimensions. behaviour patterns.
They may be intelligent or direct,
dominant or submissive, creative While many psychologist believe that our
or not so creative, outgoing behaviours are influenced by our personal
withdrawn, etc. The list of traits
variations can be endless.
Some others hold of you that our behaviours
are influenced more by situational factors
known as situationism

* situationism, which states that situation and circumstances

influence one’s behaviour.
For example, a person who is generally aggressive may behave
in a submissive manner in the presence of his top boss.
The situationist perspective views human behaviour
relatively more as a result of influence of external factors.
 A Assessment of psychological attributes A
-

Psychological attributes are involved in very simple phenomena like in time taken to
react to stimulus. i.e. reaction time , and also highly global concepts like happiness.

Assessment:
1. First step in understanding a psychological attribute.
2. Assessment refers to the measurement of psychological attributes of individuals
and their evaluation, often using multiple methods in terms of certain standards of
comparison.
3. Any attribute will be said to exist in a person only if it can be measured using
scientific procedures. For example, when we say Harish is dominant, we Are
referring to the degree of dominance in Harish. This statement is based on our own
assessment of dominance in him.

Assessment

L
-
Formal Informal
Formal assessment is objective, standardised and organised.
On the other hand. Informal assessment varies from case to case and from one assessor to
another and therefore it is open to subjective interpretations.

Psychological assessment uses systematic testing procedures to evaluate abilities, behaviours

and personal qualities of individuals
Some domains of psychological attributes:

Psychological attributes are complex and expressed in terms of dimensions.

They are usually multidimensional. If you want to have a complete assessment of a person you
will need to assess how he or she functions in various domains or areas such as cognitive,
emotional, social etc.

These attributes are categorised on the basis of various test used in psychological literature
that are:
INTELLIGENCE- global capacity to INTEREST- is an individual’s preference for
understand the world, think rationally engaging in one or more specific activities
and use available resources effectively related to others. Assessment of interest of
when faced with challenges. Intelligence students may help in decide what subjects or
tests provide a global measure of courses they can pursue comfortably and with
persons general, cognitive competence, pleasure. Knowledge of interest helps us in
including the ability to profit from making choices that promote life satisfaction
schooling. Generally students having and performance on jobs.
low intelligence are not likely to do well
in school related examinations but their
success in life is not associated only
with their intelligence scores.

APTITUDE- refers to an individuals PERSONALITY: refers to a relatively enduring

underlying potential for acquiring skills. characteristics of a person that make her or
Aptitude test are used to predict what him distinct from others. personality test try
an individual will be able to do it if given to assess and individuals unique
proper environment and training. A characteristics. For example, whether one is
person with high mechanical aptitude dominant or submissive , outgoing or
can profit from appropriate training and withdrawn, moody or emotionally stable.
can do well as an engineer. Similarly, a Personality assessment helps us to explain an
person having high language aptitude individuals behaviour and predict how he or
can be trained to be a good writer. she will behave in future.

VALUES- are enduring believes about an ideal mode of

behaviour. A person having value sets a standard for guiding
his or her actions in life and also judging others. In value
assessment, we try to determine the dominant values of a
person. For example, political, religious, social or economic
Assessment methods:

l. PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS -is an objective and standardised measure

of individuals mental and or behavioural characteristics. Objective
tests have been developed to measure all the dimensions of
psychological attributes. These tests are widely used for purpose of
clinical diagnosis, guidance, personal selection, placement and
training

2. INTERVIEW- involves seeking information from a person on a one

to one basis.
For example, counsellor interacts with a client, salesperson makes
door to door survey regarding the useful Ness of a particular
product.

3. CASE STUDY - is an in-depth study of the individual in the terms

of his or her psychological attributes, psychological history in the
context of his or her psychosocial and physical environment. Case
studies or widely used by clinical psychologists. Case studies are
based on the data generated by different methods such as
interview, observation, questionnaire, psychological tests etc.

4. OBSERVATION- involves employing systematic, organised and

objective procedures to record behavioural phenomena occurring
naturally in real time. The major problems with obser vational
method are the observer has little control over the situation and
reports may suffer from subjective interpretation of the obser ver.

5. SELF REPORT- is a method in which a person provides factual

information about herself or himself and opinions, believes etc
that s/he holds. Such information may be obtained by using an
interview schedule or questionnaire, a psychological test or a
personal diary.
 Intelligence
-

1. Intelligence is a key construct employed to know how individuals

differ from one another.
2. It also provides an understanding of how people adapt their
behaviour. According to the environment they live in.
3. We see intelligent people with attributes like mental alertness,
ready wit, quick in learning and ability to understand relationships

Definitions of intelligence;

OXFORD DICTIONARY; Oxford WECHSLER; His intelligence is almost

dictionary explains intelligence widely used, understood, intelligence in
as the power of perceiving terms of its functionality. He defined
learning, understanding and intelligence as the global and aggregate
knowing. capacity of an individual to think
rationally, act purposefully and to deal
effectively with his or her
environment.

ALFRED BINET; he was one of the GARDNER AND STERNBERG; They have
first psychologist who worked on suggested that intelligent individual
intelligence. He defined not only adapt to the environment,
intelligence as the ability to judge but also actively modify or shapes it.
well, understand well and reason
well.
 A Theories of intelligence D
-

PSYCHOMETRIC APPROACH: Considers intelligence as an aggregate

of abilities. It can express the individuals performance in the
terms of single index of cognitive abilities.

INFORMATION-PROCESSING APPROACH: It describes the process

people use in intellectual reasoning and problem-solving. The major
focus of this approach is on how intelligent a person acts. Rather
than focusing on the structure of intelligence, or it’s underlying
dimensions, information processing approach is emphasise,
studying cognitive functions underlying intelligent behaviour

UNI OR ONE FACTOR THEORY BY ALFRED BINET:-

This theory came to be disputed when psychologist started analysing data of individuals,
which was collected using Binet’s test.

1. Binet’s theory of intelligence was rather simple as it arose from his interest in
differentiating more intelligent from less intelligent individuals.

2. He therefore conceptualised intelligence as consisting of one similar set of abilities

which can be used for solving any or every problem in an individual’s environment.

3. His theory of intelligence is called union or one factor theory of intelligence

TWO FACTOR THEORY BY CHARLES SPEARMAN:-

In 1927, he proposed a t wo factor theory of intelligence, employing a statistical method called
factor analysis. He showed that intelligence considered of a general factor (g-factor) and some
specific factors (s-factor).

G-factor: it includes mental operations which are primary and common to all performances.

S-factor: it includes specific abilities for example, excellent, singers, architect, scientist and
athletes. They might be high on g factor, but in addition to this, they have specific abilities
which allow them to excel in their respective domains
 THEORY OF PRIMA'RY MENTAL ABILITIES BY LOUIS THURSTONE:-
It says that intelligence consist of seven primary abilities, each
of which relatively independent of others. Those are:

1. Verbal comprehension (grasping meaning of words, concepts

and ideas)

2. Numerical abilities (speed and accuracy in numerical and

computational skills)

3. Partial relations (visualising patterns and forms)

4. Perceptual speed (speed in perceiving details)

5. Word fluency ( using words fluently and flexibly)

6. Memory (accuracy and recalling information)

7. Inductive reasoning (deriving general rules from presented

facts)

HIERARCHICAL MODEL OF INTELLIGENCE BY ARTHUR JENSEN:-

It consist of abilities operating at t wo levels called level one and level t wo

Level 1: is the associative learning in which output is more or less similar to the input
for example- rote learning and memory

Level 2: is called cognitive competence involves higher-order skills as they transform the
input to produce an effective output
STRUCTURE-OF-INTELLECT-MODEL BY J.P. GUILFORD:-
It classifies intellectual traits among three dimensions that are operations, contents
and products

Operations: are what the

respondent does. These include
cognition, memory, recording,
memory retention, divergent
production, convergent production
and evaluation.

Contents: they refer to the nature

of materials or information on
which intellectual operations are
performed. These include visual, Products: refer to the firm in which
auditory, symbolic (for example, information is processed by the respondent
letters and numbers), symmetric products are classified into units, classes,
(For example words) and relations, systems, transformations, and
behavioural (For example implications.
information about peoples
behaviour, attitude, needs, etc.
Since this classification (Guilford, 1988)
includes 6x5x6 categories, therefore, the
model has 180 cells. Each cell is expected to
have at least one factor or ability. Some
cells may have more than one factor. Each
factor is described in terms of all three
dimensions.
Theories of multiple intelligence by Howard Gardner:

1. According to him, intelligence is not a single entity, rather distinct types of

intelligences exist.

2. Each of these intelligences are independent of each other.

3. If a person exhibits one type of intelligence, it does not necessarily indicate

being high or low on other types of intelligences.

4. Howard put forth that different types of intelligences interact and work
together to find a solution to a problem.

5. He studied extremely talented persons who had shown exceptional abilities in

their respective areas

He described it types of intelligence. These are as follows:

1. Linguistic

2. Logical Mathematical

3. Spatial

4. Musical

5. Bodily Kinaesthetic

6. Interpersonal

7. Naturalistic
LINGUISTIC: (skills involved in the LOGICAL- MATHEMATICAL: (skills in
production and use of language) scientific thinking and problem-solving)

1. It is the capacity to use language 1. Persons high on this type of

fluently and flexibility to express intelligence can think logically and
one’s thinking and understand critically
others.

2. Persons high on this intelligence are 2. They engage in abstract reasoning

word-smart i.e. they are sensitive to and can manipulate symbols to solve
different shades of word meanings, mathematical problems
are articulate and can create
linguistic images in their mind.

3. For example: poets and writers are 3. For example, scientist and noble
very strong in this component of prize winners are likely to be strong
intelligence in this component

SPATIAL: (skills in forming visual MUSICAL: (sensitivity to musical rhythms

images and patterns) and patterns)

1. It refers to the abilities involved in 1. It is the capacity to produce, create

forming, using and transforming and manipulate musical patterns.
mental images.

2. The person high on this intelligence 2. Person high on this intelligence are very
can easily represent the spatial sensitive to sound and vibration, and in
world in the mind. creating new patterns of sounds.

3. For example, pilots, sailors,

sculptures, painters, architects,
interior decorators, and surgeons
BODILY- KINAESTHETIC: (using whole INTERPERSONAL: (sensitivity to subtle
portions of the body, flexibility and aspects of other’s behaviours)
creatively)

1. This is consist of the use of the 1. This is the skill of understanding the
whole body or portions of it to motives, feelings and behaviours of
display or construction of products the other people so as to bond into
and problem-solving. comfortable relationship with others.

2. For examples, athletes, dancers 2. For example, psychologist counsellors,

actors, Sportspersons, gymnast and politicians, social workers and religious
surgeons. leaders.

INTERAPERSONAL: (awareness of one’s NATURALISTIC: (sensitivity to the features

own feelings, motives, and desires) of the natural world)

1. This refers to the knowledge of one’s 1. This involves complete awareness of our
internal strength and limitations, relationship with the natural world.
and using that knowledge to
effectively relate to others.

2. Person high on this ability have finer 2. It is useful in recognising the beauty of
sensibilities regarding their different species of flora and fauna and
identity, human existence and making subtle discrimination in the
meaning of life natural world

3. For example, philosophers and 3. For example, hunters, farmers, tourist,

spiritual leaders botanist, zoologist and birdwatchers
 Triarchic theory of intelligence by Robert Sternberg:-

1. He views intelligence as “the ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to

accomplish one’s goals and those of one’s society and culture.”.

2. According to this theory, there are three basic types of intelligence, componential
experiential and contextual.

Elements of the triarchy theory of intelligence:

Contextual Subtheory:
Metacomponents:
Specifies the behaviours
considered intelligent in a Control, monitor and
particular culture evaluate cognitive
processing

Contextual Subtheory:
Performance components:
Specifies the cognitive process
that underline all intelligent Execute strategies assemble by
behaviour metacomponents

Experiential Subtheory: Knowledge acquisition

compnents
Specifies how experiences affect
intelligence in how intelligence Encode, combine and compare
affects a person’s experiences information
COMPONENTIAL INTELLIGENCE: Componential or analytical intelligence is the
analysis of information to solve problems. Persons high on this ability, think
analytically and critically and succeed in schools.

This intelligence has three components each ser ving a different function

1. Knowledge acquisition component: this is responsible for learning and

acquisition of different ways of doing things

2. Meta or a high order component: this involves planning and concerning what
to do, and how to do

3. Performance component: which involves actually doing things.

EXPERIENTIAL INTELLIGENCE:
Experiential or creative intelligence is involved in using past experiences
creatively to solve novel problems. It is reflected in creative performance.
Persons high on this aspect, interrogate different experiences in an original
wait to make new discoveries and inventions. They quickly find out which
information is crucial in a given situation

CONTEXTUAL INTELLIGENCE:
Contextual or practical intelligence involves the ability to deal with
environmental demands encountered on a daily basis. It may be called ‘s treet
smartness’ or ‘business sense’. Persons high on this aspect easily adapt to their
present environment or select a more favourable environment than the existing
one, or modify the environment to fit their needs. Therefore, they turn out to be
successful in life.

Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence represents the information-

processing approach to understand intelligence.
 Planning, Attention-arousal, and Simultaneous-successive (PASS) Model of Intelligence
by J.P. Das, Jack Naglieri, and Kirby (1994)

1. This model has been developed by J.P. Das, Jack Naglieri, and Kirby (1994). According to this
model, intellectual activity involves the interdependent functioning of three neurological
systems, called the functional units of brain.

2. These units are responsible for arousal/attention, coding or processing, and planning
respectively.

AROUSAL/ATTENTION:

1. State of arousal is basic to any behaviour as it helps us in attending to stimuli.

2. Arousal and attention enable a person to process information.

3. An optimal level of arousal focuses our attention to the relevant aspects of a problem.

4. Too much or too little arousal would interfere with attention. For instance, when you are
told by your teacher about a test which s/he plans to hold, it would arouse you to attend to
the specific chapters.

5. Arousal forces you to focus your attention on reading, learning and revising the contents of
the chapters.

SIMULTANEOUS AND SUCCESSIVE PROCESSING:

1. You can integrate the information into your knowledge system either simultaneously or
successively.

2. Simultaneous processing takes place when you perceive the relations among various
concepts and integrate them into a meaningful pattern for comprehension. For example, in
Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM) Test, a design is presented from which a part has
been removed. You are required to choose one of the six options that best completes the
design.

3. Simultaneous processing helps you in grasping the meaning and relationship bet ween the
given abstract figures. Successive processing takes place when you remember all the
information serially so that the recall of one leads to the recall of another.

4. Learning of digits, alphabets, multiplication tables, etc. are examples of successive

processing.
PLANNING:
1. This is an essential feature of intelligence. After the information is attended to and
processed, planning is activated.

2. It allows us to think of the possible courses of action, implement them to reach a target,
and evaluate their effectiveness.

3. If a plan does not work, it is modified to suit the requirements of the task or situation. For
example, to take the test scheduled by your teacher, you would have to set goals, plan a
time schedule of study, get clarifications in case of problems and if you are not able to
tackle the chapters assigned for the test, you may have to think of other ways (e.g., give
more time, study with a friend, etc.) to meet your goals.

# A These PASS processes operate on a knowledge base developed

>))> either formally (by reading, writing, and experimenting) or
informally from the environment. These processes are
interactive and dynamic in nature; yet each has its own
distinctive functions.

Das and Naglieri have also developed a battery of tests, known as

the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS). It consists of verbal as
well as non-verbal tasks that measure basic cognitive functions
presumed to be independent of schooling.

The battery of tests is meant for individuals bet ween 5 and 18

years of age. The results of assessment can be used to remedy
cognitive deficits of children with learning problems.
This model represents the information- processing approach to
intelligence.
 Individual differences in intelligence

Intelligence: Interplay of Nature and Nurture:

As children grow in age, their intelligence

level tends to move closer to that of their The intelligence of identical t wins
adoptive parents. reared together correlate almost 0.90.

Children from disadvantaged homes The intelligence of identical t wins

adopted into families with higher socio- reared in different environments
economic status exhibit a large increase in correlate 0.72
their intelligence scores.
Fraternal t wins reared together
Environmental deprivation lowers correlate almost 0.60
intelligence while rich nutrition, good
family background, and quality schooling Brothers and sisters reared together
increases intelligence. correlate about 0.50

Intelligence is a product of complex Siblings reared apart correlate about

interaction of heredity (nature) and 0.25.
environment (nurture).

Heredity can best be viewed as something

that sets a range within which an
individual’s development is actually shaped
by the support and opportunities of the
environment.
 Assessment of Intelligence:

In 1905, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon, made the first successful attempt to formally
measure intelligence.

In 1908, when the scale was revised, they gave the concept of Mental Age (MA), which is a
measure of a person’s intellectual development relative to people of her/his age group.
Chronological Age (CA) is the biological age from birth.

A mental age of 5 means that a child’s performance on an intelligence test equals the average
performance level of a group of 5-year olds.

A bright child’s MA is more than her/his CA; for a dull child, MA is below the CA. Retardation
was defined by Binet and Simon as being t wo mental age years below the chronological age.

In 1912, William Stern, a German psychologist, devised the

concept of Intelligence Quotient (IQ). IQ refers to mental age
divided by chronological age, and multiplied by 100.

If MA is more than the CA, IQ is more than 100

 IQ scores are distributed in the population in such a way that the scores of most people tend
to fall in the middle range of the distribution. Only a few people have either very high or
very low scores.
The frequency distribution for the IQ scores tends to approximate a bell- shaped cur ve,
called the normal cur ve. This type of distribution is symmetrical around the central value,
called the mean.

The mean IQ score in a population is 100. People with IQ scores in the range of 90–110 have
normal intelligence. Those with IQ below 70 are suspected to have ‘intellectual disability’,
while persons with IQ above 130 are considered to have exceptional talents.

All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity;

some are exceptionally bright and some are below
average. One practical use of intelligence test is to
identify persons at the extremes of intellectual
functioning.

If you refer to the above table, you will notice that about 2 per cent of the population have IQ
above 130, and a similar percentage have IQ below 70.

The persons in the first group are called intellectually gifted; those in the second group are
termed intellectually disabled. These t wo groups deviate considerably from the normal
population in respect of their cognitive, emotional, and motivational characteristics.
Variations of Intelligence:
INTELLECTUAL DEFICIENCY:-

1. On the one hand are the gifted and creative persons we

discussed briefly earlier. On the other hand, there are
children who face enormous difficulty in learning even
very simple skills.
First, in order to be judged
2. Those children who show intellectual deficiency are as intellectually disabled,
termed as ‘intellectually disabled’. a person must show
significantly sub-average
intellectual functioning.
3. The American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) Persons having IQs below
views intellectual disability as “significantly sub- 70 are judged to have sub-
average general intellectual functioning existing average intelligence.
concurrently with deficits in adaptive behaviour and
manifested during the developmental period”. The second relates to
deficits in adaptive
behaviour. Adaptive
4. Different levels of intellectual disability are: mild (IQs behaviour refers to a
55 to approximately 70), moderate (IQs 35–40 to person’s capacity to be
approximately 50– 55), severe (IQs 20–25 to independent and deal
effectively with one’s
approximately 35–40), and profound (IQs below 20–25). environment.

5. Although the development of people with mild disability

is typically slower than that of their peers, they can The third feature is that
the deficits must be
function quite independently, hold jobs and families. As observed during the
the level of disability increases, the difficulties are developmental period,
strongly marked. that is bet ween 0 and 18
years of age.

6. Individuals with profound and severe disability are

incapable of managing life and need constant care for
their entire lives.
 INTELLECTUAL GIFTEDNESS:-

1. Intellectually gifted individuals show

higher performance because of their
outstanding potentialities.
Characteristics of gifted children :-
2. The study of gifted individuals began in • Advanced logical thinking,
1925, when Lewis Terman followed the questioning and problem solving
lives of about 1500 children with IQs of behaviour.
130 and above to examine how
intelligence was related to occupational • High speed in processing information.
success and life adjustment.
• Superior generalisation and discri-
mination ability.
3. Talent is a narrower term and refers to
remarkable ability in a specific field (e.g., • Advanced level of original and
spiritual, social, aesthetic, etc.). The creative
highly talented are sometimes called thinking.
‘prodigies’.
• High level of intrinsic motivation
and
4. It has been suggested by psychologists self-esteem.
that giftedness from the teachers’ point
of view depends on a combination of high • Independent and non-conformist
ability, high creativity, and high thinking.
commitment.
• Preference for solitary academic
activities for long periods.
5. Giftedness does not mean brilliant
academic performance is not correct.
Athletes who show superior psychomotor
ability are also gifted.
 Types of intelligence tests

INDIVIDUAL INTELLIGENCE TEST GROUP INTELLIGENCE TEST

1. An individual intelligence test is one 1. A group intelligence test can be

which can be administered to one administered to several persons
person at a time. simultaneously.

2. Individual tests require the test 2. Group tests, however, do not

administrator to establish a rapport allow an opportunity to be
with the subject and be sensitive to familiar with the subjects’
her/his feelings, moods and feelings.
expressions during the testing
session.

3. Individual tests allow people to 3. Group tests generally seek

answer orally or in a written form written answers usually in a
or manipulate objects as per the multiple-choice format.
tester’s instructions.

VERBAL NON VERBAL PERFORMANCE TESTS

Verbal tests require The non-verbal tests use Performance tests require
subjects to give verbal pictures or illustrations subjects to manipulate
responses either orally as test items. For ex: objects and other materials
or in a written form. Raven’s Progressive to perform a task. Written
Therefore, verbal tests Matrices (RPM) language is not necessary for
can be administered only answering the items. For
to literate people. example, Kohs’ Block Design
Test
 CULTURE-FAIR OR CULTURE-BIASED TESTS:-
1. Many intelligence tests show a bias to the culture in which they are developed.
Tests developed in America and Europe represent an urban and middle class
cultural ethos. Hence, educated middle class white subjects generally perform
well on those tests. The items do not respect the cultural perspectives of Asia
and Africa. The norms for these tests are also drawn from western cultural
groups.

2. It is nearly impossible to design a test that can be applied equally meaningfully

in all cultures. Psychologists have tried to develop tests that are culture-fair
or culturally appropriate, i.e. one that does not discriminate against
individuals belonging to different cultures.

3. In such tests, items are constructed in a manner that they assess experiences
common to all cultures or have questions in which language usage is not
required. Non-verbal and performance tests help reduce the cultural bias
usually associated with verbal tests.
INTELLIGENCE TESTING IN INDIA:-

1. S.M. Mohsin made a pioneering attempt in constructing an intelligence test in

Hindi in the 1930s.

2. C.H. Rice attempted to standardise Binet’s test in Urdu and Punjabi.

3. Mahalanobis attempted to standardise Binet’s test in Bengali.

4. Attempts were also made by Indian researchers to develop Indian norms for some
western tests including RPM, WAIS, Alexander’s Passalong, Cube Construction,
and Kohs’ Block Design.

5. Long and Mehta prepared a Mental Measurement Handbook listing out 103 tests
of intelligence in India that were available in various languages. Since then, a
number of tests have either been developed or adapted from western cultures.

6. The National Library of Educational and Psychological Tests (NLEPT) at the

National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCER T) has documented
Indian tests. Critical reviews of Indian tests are published in the form of
handbooks. NLEPT has brought out the handbooks in the area of intelligence,
aptitude, personality, attitudes, and interests.
 SOME MISUSES OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS:-

Tests serve many useful purposes such as selection, counselling, guidance,

self-analysis, and diagnosis. Unless used by a trained investigator, they may
be misused either intentionally or unintentionally. Some of the ill- effects
of intelligence testing by naive testers are:

• Poor performance on a test may attach a stigma to children and thereby

adversely affect their performance and self-respect.

• The tests may invite discriminating practices from parents, teachers and
elders in the society.

• Administering a test biased in favour of the middle class and higher class
populations may underestimate the IQ of children coming from
disadvantaged sections of the society.

• Intelligence tests do not capture creative potentialities and practical

side of intelligence, and they also do not relate much to success in life.
Intelligence can be a potential factor for achievement in various spheres of
life. It is suggested that one should guard against erroneous practices
associated with intelligence tests and take the help of trained
psychologists to analyse an individual’s strengths and weaknesses.
 Culture and intelligence
A major characteristic of intelligence is that it helps individuals to adapt to their
environment. The cultural environment provides a context for intelligence to
develop.

Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, has argued that culture provides a social context
in which people live, grow, and understand the world around them. For example, in
less technologically developed societies, social and emotional skills in relating to
people are valued, while in technologically advanced societies, personal
achievement founded on abilities of reasoning and judgment is considered to
represent intelligence.

culture is a collective system of customs, beliefs, attitudes, and achievements in

art and literature. A person’s intelligence is likely to be tuned by these cultural
parameters.

Many theorists have regarded intelligence as attributes specific to the person

without regard to their cultural background. The unique features of culture now
find some representation in theories of intelligence.

Sternberg’s notion of contextual or practical intelligence implies that intelligence is

a product of culture.

Vygotsky also believed that cultures, like individuals, have a life of their own;
they grow and change, and in the process specify what will be the end-product of
successful intellectual development. According to him, while elementary mental
functions (e.g., crying, attending to mother’s voice, sensitivity to smells, walking,
and running) are universal, the manner in which higher mental functions such as
problem solving and thinking operate are largely culture-produced.

Technologically advanced societies adopt child rearing practices that foster skills
of generalisation and abstraction, speed, minimal moves, and mental manipulation
among children. These societies promote a type of behaviour, which can be called
technological intelligence.

In these societies, persons are well-versed in skills of attention, observation,

analysis, performance, speed, and achievement orientation. Intelligence tests
developed in western cultures look precisely for these skills in an individual.
Technological intelligence is not so valued in many Asian and African societies.
Intelligence in the Indian Tradition

1. Contrary to technological intelligence, intelligence in the Indian tradition can be

termed as integral intelligence, which gives emphasis on connectivity with the
social and world environment.

2. Indian thinkers view intelligence from a holistic perspective where equal

attention is paid to cognitive and non-cognitive processes as well as their
integration.

3. The Sanskrit word ‘buddhi’ which is often used to represent intelligence is far
more pervasive in scope than the western concept of intelligence. Buddhi,
according to J.P. Das, includes such skills as mental effort, determined action,
feelings, and opinions along with cognitive competence such as knowledge,
discrimination, and understanding. Among other things, buddhi is the knowledge
of one’s own self based on conscience, will and desire. Thus, the notion of buddhi
has affective and motivational components besides a strong cognitive
component. Unlike the western views, which primarily focus on cognitive
parameters

The following competencies are identified as facets of intelligence in the Indian

tradition :

• Cognitive capacity (sensitivity to context, understanding, discrimination,

problem solving, and effective communication).

• Social competence (respect for social order, commitment to elders, the young and
the needy, concern about others, recognising others’ perspectives).

• Emotional competence (self- regulation and self-monitoring of emotions, honesty,

politeness, good conduct, and self-evaluation).

• Entrepreneurial competence (commitment, persistence, patience, hard work,

vigilance, and goal-directed behaviours).
 Emotional intelligence

1. The notion of emotional intelligence broadens the concept of intelligence beyond

the intellectual sphere/domain and considers that intelligence includes
emotions. it builds on the concept of intelligence in the Indian tradition.

2. Emotional intelligence is a set of skills that underlie accurate appraisal,

expression, and regulation of emotions. It is the feeling side of intelligence. A
good IQ and scholastic record is not enough to be successful in life.

3. Many people who are academically talented, but are unsuccessful in their own
life. They experience problems in family, workplace and interpersonal
relationships. the source of their difficulty may be a lack of emotional
intelligence.

4. This concept was first introduced by Salovey and Mayer who considered
emotional intelligence as “the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s
emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide one’s
thinking and actions”.

5. Emotional Quotient (EQ) is used to express emotional intelligence in the same

way as IQ is used to express intelligence.

6. Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to process emotional

information accurately and efficiently. -

Emotional intelligence is receiving increasing attention of educators for

dealing with students who are affected by stresses and challenges of
the outside world. Programmes aimed at improving students’ emotional
intelligence have beneficial effects on their academic achievement. They
encourage cooperative behaviour and reduce their antisocial activities.
These programmes are very useful in preparing students to face the
challenges of life outside the classroom
 Special Abilities

APTITUDE: NATURE AND MANAGEMENT

1. Aptitude refers to special Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT), the

abilities in a particular field of General Aptitude Tests Battery
activity. It is a combination of (GATB), and the Armed Ser vices
characteristics that indicates Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB)
an individual’s capacity to are well-known aptitude test
acquire some specific knowledge batteries.
or skill after training. These
specific skills and abilities are Among these, DAT is most commonly
called aptitudes. With proper used in educational settings. It
training these abilities can be consists of 8 independent subtests:
considerably enhanced. (i) Verbal Reasoning
(ii) Numerical Reasoning
2. Interest is a preference for a (iii) Abstract Reasoning
particular activity; aptitude is (iv) Clerical Speed and Accuracy
the potentiality to perform (v) Mechanical Reasoning
that activity. A student with (vi) Space Relations, (vii) Spelling,
high mechanical aptitude and and (viii) Language Usage.
strong interest in engineering is
more likely to be a successful J.M. Ojha has developed an Indian
mechanical engineer. adaptation of DAT.
 Creativity
1. Individuals vary in terms of the level and the areas in which they exhibit
creativity and that all may not be operating at the same level.

2. Einstein’s theory of relativity is an example of the highest level of

creativity which implies bringing out altogether new ideas, facts, theory,
or a product.

3. Another level of creativity is working on what has already been

established earlier by way of modifications, by putting things in new
perspectives or to new use.

4. Children begin to develop their imagination during the early years of

childhood but they express creativity mostly through physical activities
and in non-verbal ways. When language and intellectual functions are
fully developed and store of knowledge is adequately available, creativity
is expressed through verbal modes too.

5. Creativity is determined by both heredity and environment. Limits of the

creative potential are set by heredity, environmental factors stimulate
the development of creativity.
 Creativity and intelligence

1. A person who has the ability to learn faster and reproduce accurately may be
considered intelligent

2. Terman, in the 1920s, found that persons with high IQ were not necessarily
creative. At the same time, creative ideas could come from persons who did not
have a very high IQ.

3. Both high and low level of creativity can be found in highly intelligent children and
also children of average intelligence. The same person, thus, can be creative as well
as intelligent but it is not necessary that intelligent ones, must be creative.
Intelligence, therefore, by itself does not ensure creativity.

4. Relationship bet ween creativity and intelligence is positive. All creative acts
require some minimum ability to acquire knowledge and capacity to comprehend,
retain, and retrieve. Creative writers, for example, need facility in dealing with
language. The artist must understand the effect that will be produced by a
particular technique of painting, a scientist must be able to reason and so on.
Hence, a certain level of intelligence is required for creativity but beyond that
intelligence does not correlate well with creativity.

5. Creativity tests
> came into existence to assess variations in terms of the potential for creativity in
contrast to intelligence.

> A general feature of most of the creativity tests is that they are open-ended. They
permit the person to think of different answers to the questions or problems in terms
of her/his experiences, whatever these may have been. These help the individual to go
in different directions. There are no specified answers to questions or problems in
creativity tests. Therefore, there is freedom to use one’s imagination and express it in
original ways.

> Creativity, tests involve divergent thinking and assess such abilities as ability to
produce a variety of ideas, i.e. ideas which are off-the-beaten track, ability to see new
relationships bet ween seemingly unrelated things, ability to guess causes and
consequences, ability to put things in a new context, etc. This is contrary to the tests
of intelligence which mostly involve convergent thinking.

> creativity, mathematical creativity, etc. Some of the famous psychologists who have
developed creativity tests are Guilford, Torrance, Khatena, Wallach and Kogan,
Paramesh, Baqer Mehdi, and Passi.
 Summar y

• Individuals vary in their physical and psychological characteristics. Individual differences

refer to distinctiveness and variations in people’s characteristics and behaviour patterns.

• A wide variety of personal attributes such as intelligence, aptitude, interests, personality,

and values can be assessed. Psychologists assess these attributes through psychological tests,
interviews, case studies, observations, and self-reports.

• The term ‘intelligence’ refers to an individual’s capacity to understand the world, think
rationally, and use resources effectively to meet the demands of life. Intellectual development
is the product of a complex interplay of hereditary factors (nature), and environmental
conditions (nurture).

• The psychometric approaches to intelligence lay emphasis on studying intelligence as a

constellation of abilities, expressed in quantitative terms such as IQ. The more recent theories
representing information-processing approaches, e.g. Sternberg’s triarchic theory and Das’s
PASS model describe the processes underlying intelligent behaviour. Howard Gardner suggests
that there are eight different kinds of intelligence.

• Intelligence is assessed with the help of specially designed tests. Intelligence tests may be of
verbal or performance type; can be administered individually or in groups; and may be
culturally-biased or culturally-fair. At the t wo extremes of intelligence are the intellectually
deficient persons and the intellectually gifted.

• Culture provides a context for intellectual development. Western culture promotes

‘technological intelligence’ based on skills of analysis, performance, speed, and achievement
orientation. In contrast, non-western cultures value self-reflection, social and emotional
competence as signs of intelligent behaviour. Indian culture promotes ‘integral intelligence’ that
emphasises connectivity with people and the larger social world.

• Emotional intelligence involves the ability to perceive and manage one’s and other’s feelings
and emotions; to motivate oneself and restrain one’s impulses; and to handle interpersonal
relationships effectively.

• Aptitude refers to an individual’s potential for acquiring some specific skills. Aptitude tests
predict what an individual will be able to do given proper training and environment.

• Creativity is the ability to produce ideas, objects, or problem solutions that are novel,
appropriate and useful. Certain level of intelligence is necessary to be creative, but a high level
of intelligence, however, does not ensure that a person would certainly be creative.
 Ques/ans

1. How do psychologists characterize and define intelligence?

Ans. Psychological motion of intelligence is quite different from the
common sensed motion of intelligence.
Generally people saw intelligence as mental alertness, ready art,
quickness in learning and ability to understand relationships.

Oxford dictionary explained intelligence as the power of perceiving,

learning understanding and knowing.
Accordingly Alfred Binet also used these attributes and defined
intelligence as ability to judge well, understand well and reason well.

Later Wechsler gave a comprehensive definition in terms of its

functionality, i.e., its value for adaptation to environment. He defined
intelligence as “the global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think
rationally, act purposefully and to deal effectively with his/her
environment.”

Present day psychologists such as Gardner and Sternberg emphasized

that “Intelligent individual not only adapts to the environment, but actively
modifies or shapes it.”

Sternberg views intelligence as “ the ability to adapt, to shape and select

environment to accomplish ones goals and those of ones society and
culture.”
2.What extent is our intelligence the result of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture)?
Discuss. (CBSE 2014)
Ans. (i) Whether intelligence is evolved or it is developed due to the environment, is a question
of debate.
(ii)Lot of studies have been done to determine the role of nature and nurture.
(iii)Here we will discuss the controversy with the help of various twin studies, adoption studies
and environmental studies.

On the basis of twin studies co-relation results are as follows:

(i)Identical twins reared together correlate 0.90
(ii)Identical twins reported early in childhood and reared in different environments correlate
0.72
(iii)Fraternal twins reared together correlate 0.60
(iv)Siblings reared together correlate 0.50
(v) Siblings reared apart correlate 0.25

•Adoption Studies before the Age of 6-7 Years

These studies of adopted children show that children’s intelligence is more similar to their
biological parents.
These studies provide evidence that intelligence is determined because of nature.
•Adoption Studies after the Age of 6-7 Years
According to these studies as children grew older tends to more closer to that of their adoptive
parents.

Environmental Studies
Evidence for the influence of environment (Nurture) on the basis of Twin studies.
(i) The intelligence score of twins reared apart as they grew older, tends to more closer to that
of their adoptive parents.
(ii)On the basis of differences in environment, children from disadvantaged homes adopted
into families with higher, socio-economic status exhibit an increase in their intelligence scores.
(iii)Environmental deprivation lowers intelligence. Factors such as nutrition, good family
background and quality schooling increase growth rate of intelligence.
(iv)There is general consensus among psychologists that intelligence is a product of complex
interaction of heredity (Nature) and environment (Nurture).
(v)Heredity provides the potentials and sets a range of growth whereas environment facilitates
the development of intelligence.
3. Explain briefly the multiple intelligences identified by Gardner. (CBSE 2008)
Ans. Gardner’s theory based on information processing approaches functions
on three basic principles:
(i)Intelligence is not a single entity, there exist multiple intelligences.
(ii)The intelligences are independent from each other.
(iii)Different types of intelligences work together to provide a solution of
problem. Gardner has so far proposed eight intelligences, however all
individuals do not possess them in equal proportion. The particular situation or
the context decides the prominence of one type of intelligence over the others.

Following are the eight types of intelligence:

1.Linguistic: This is related to reading, writing, listening, talking, understanding
etc. Poets exhibit this ability better than others.

2.Logical-Mathematical: This type of intelligence deals with abstract reasoning

and manipulation of symbols involved in numerical problems. It is exhibited in
scientific work.

3.Spatial: This type of intelligence is involved in perceiving third dimension

formation of images. It is used while navigating in space, forming, transforming
and using mental images. Sailors, engineers, surgeons, pilots, care drivers,
sculptors and painters have highly developed spatial intelligence.

4.Musical: Persons with musical intelligence show sensitivity to pitch and tone
required for singing, playing and instrument, composing and appreciating music
etc.

5.Bodily Kinesthetic: It requires the skills and dexterity for fine coordinated
motor movements, such as those required for dancing, athletics, surgery, craft
making etc.

6.Inter-personal: It requires understanding of motives, feelings and behaviours

of other people.sales people, politicians, teachers, clinicians and religious
readers have high degree of inter-personal intelligence.

7. Intra-personal: It is related to understanding one’s self and developing a

sense of identity, e.g., philosophers and spiritual leaders.

8.Naturalistic: It is related to recognizing the flora and fauna, i.e., natural world
and making a distinction in the natural world. It is more possessed by hunters,
farmers, tourists, students of biological sciences etc.
4. How does the Triarchic theory help us to understand intelligence? (CBSE 2012-13)
Ans. 1. Robert J. Sternberg proposes a theory of intelligence based on information
processing approach in 1985 known as the Triarchic theory of intelligence.
2. According to Sternberg, intelligence is an ability to adapt, to shape and select
environment to accomplish ones goals and those of ones society and culture.
3. This theory attempts to understand the cognitive processes involved in problem
solving.

4. According to him there are three types of intelligences:

(i)Componential intelligence (Analytical): This dimension specifies the cognitive

processes that underlie an intelligent behaviour.
This dimension serves three different functions:
(a)Knowledge acquisition components: These are the processes used in learning,
encoding, combining and comparing information.
(b)Metacomponents: ‘Meta’ means higher. These are executive processes. They control
monitor and evaluate cognitive processing.
(c)Performance components: These components execute strategies prepared by
metacomponents to perform a task.For example, While studying students plan the lesson
chapterwise, they make
schedules, categories the learning material and do integrate the information to
comprehend well.

(ii)Experiential intelligence (Creative): This dimension specifies how experiences effect

intelligence and how intelligence effects a person’s experiences.
(а)Experiential intelligence refers to an individual’s ability to make use of one’s past
experiences to deal with novel situations creatively and effectively.
(b)This intelligence is mostly high among scientists and creative people.
(c) For example if a person is trapped in a room, he finds out a way of coming out of the
room using rope or ladder etc. in a creative way. He had some knowledge of getting out
from this situation by watching out a movie few years back.

(iii)Contextual intelligence (Practical): This dimension specifies the ability to deal with
environmental demands on daily basis.
(a)It is individual’s ability to make use of his/her potential to deal with day-to-day life.
(b)It may be called street smartness or ‘business sense’.
(c)People high in this ability are successful in life.
•It deals with the ways people handle effectively their environmental demands and adapt
to different contexts with available resources.
5. Any intellectual activity involves the independent functioning of three
‘neurological systems’. Explain with reference to PASS model.
Ans. According to PASS model, theory based on information processing
approach, intellectual activity involves the interdependent functioning of
the three neurological systems called the functional units of the brain.
These units are responsible for:
•the arousal and attention. • the simultaneous and successive processing.
•the planning.

Arousal and Attention

(i)State of arousal helps in attending to the stimuli.
(ii)Arousal and attention enable a person to process information.
(iii)Optimal level of arousal focuses our attention on relevant aspects of a
problem.
(iv)Too much or too little arousal interferes with attention and performance.
Example: Arousal helps the individual to focus ones attention on reading,
learning and revising the contents of the material to be learnt.
Simultaneous and Successive Processing:
Simultaneous Processing refers to perceiving relations amongst various
concepts and integrate them into meaningful patterns for comprehension!
For e.g., in Raven’s standard progressive matrices (RSPM Test) choosing
appropriate pattern by comprehending relationship.

Successive Processing refers to recalling information serially so that one

recall leads to another recall. For example, learning of digits and letters and
multiplication tables.
Planning:
1.After the information is attended to and processed, planning is activated.
2.Planning involves reaching to the target and evaluating their
effectiveness. Planning allows us to think of possible courses of action and
implementing them.
3.If a plan does not work, it is modified to suit the requirements of the task
or the situation.
4.For example, to take a test scheduled by your teacher, you’d have to set
goals, plan a time schedule of studies, get clarifications in case of problems
or think of other ways to meet your goals.
6. Are there cultural differences in the conceptualisation of
intelligence?
Ans. Yes, culture, which is a set of beliefs, customs, attitudes and
achievements in art of literature, affects the process of intellectual
development.

•According to Sternberg, intelligence is a product of culture.

•Vyotsky believes that while elementary7 mental operations are
common, higher mental activities like problem-solving and thinking are
culturally produced.

•Technological Intelligence
(i)Promotes an individualistic pattern of action.
(ii)Individuals in technologically educated western societies possess
this kind of intelligence.
(iii)They are well versed in skills of attention, observation, analysis,
speed, moves abstraction, generalisation, creativity, Minimum moves
etc.

•Integral Intelligence
(i)Intelligence in the Indian tradition is integral intelligence.
(ii)It views intelligence from a holistic perspective.
(iii)It gives equal attention to cognitive and non-cognitive processes, as
well as their integration.
(iv)‘Buddhi’ is the knowledge of one’s own self based on conscience,
will and desire.
(v)It has effective, motivational as well as cognitive components. .
It includes:
(i)Cognitive competence (discrimination, problem-solving).
(ii)Social competence (respect for elders, concern for others,
respecting opinions of others).
(iii)Emotional competence (self regulation, self monitoring). ‘
(iv)Entrepreneurial competence commitment, persistence, patience).
7. What is IQ? How do psychologists classify people on the bases of their IQ
scores?
Ans.(i)IQ is an index of brightness.
(ii)It is the ratio of mental age to chronological age.
(iii)The concept of IQ was given by William. Stern w7ho gave the formula to
calculate IQ i.e.,

•IQ is relatively stable.

•It is a good predictor of potential.
•IQ scores are distributed in a population in such a way that most people tend
to fall in the middle range of the distribution.
•This can be shown in the form of following table.
8.Discuss various types of intelligence tests.
Or
How can you differentiate between verbal and performance tests of intelligence?
(CBSE 2008, 2014)
Ans. Types of Intelligence Tests:
Individual or group tests based on contact: .
Individual Test:
(i)Administered to one individual at a time.
(ii)Requires the administrator to establish a rapport with the subject and be sensitive to his/her feelings,
mood and expressions during the testing sessions which provides understanding of other aspects of
subjects personality.
(iii)Allows people to answer orally or in written form or manipulate the objects as per the tester’s instructions.
• Example: Stanford Binet intelligence scale, WAIS, WISSC, Alexander Pass along test.

Group Test:
(i)Administered to several individuals at a time simultaneously.
(ii)Do not allow an opportunity to be familiar with the subjects’ feelings.
(iii)Seek answers in a Multiple-choice format.
(iv)It is relatively economical and less time consuming.
(v)Example: Group Test of Intelligence by Prayag Mehta, Group Test on Intelligence by S. Jalota.

Verbal, Non-verbal and Performance Tests based on Mode of Administration: Verbal Tests:
(i)Requires subject to give verbal responses either orally or in written form.
(ii)Can be administered to literates only. ,
(iii)Example: CIE, Verbal Group Test, Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale.

Non-verbal Test:
• Has pictures or illustrations as test items.
•Example: Ravens progressive matrices. In this test the subject examines an incomplete pattern and chooses
a figure from the alternatives that will complete the pattern.
•Reduces culture biases.
•Example: SRPM, CIE Non-verbal group test of Intelligence.

Performance Test:
•Requires the subject to manipulate objects to perform the test.
•Written language is not necessary for answering the items.
•Example: Kohs’s Block designs test. Here the subject is asked to arrange the blocks in a specified period to
produce a given design, Bhatia’s Battery performance test.
•Can be administered to persons from different cultures and reduce culture biases.
•Example: Draw a Man Test by Pramila Pathak, Kohs Block designs test.

Culture Biased or Culture Fair Tests based on Nature of Items used:

•Psychological tests that show a bias toward the culture in which they are developed are Culture Biased
Tests.
•Tests developed-in-America and Europe represent an urban and middle class cultural ethos. (Middle class
white subjects perform well on these tests). The items do not consider favourably to Asians and Africans.
•Culture Fair Tests: One does not discriminate against as individuals belong to different cultures.
•Non-verbal and Performance Tests reduce cultural influences.
To overcome the limitation of Culture biased tests, Culture fair tests were developed, e.g. non-verbal and
performance tests are called so because people of any culture could take them. For e.g. Standard
progressive Matrices and Bhatia’s Battery Performance Test.
9. Discuss how interplay of Nature and Nurture influences intelligence.
Or
All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity. How do individuals vary in their intellectual
ability? Explain. (CBSE 2014)
Ans. All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity. They vary in their intellectual ability.
Some are exceptionally bright and some are below average. Some possess high IQ range while
others have average or below average.
All the scores gradually and symmetrically decline towards both the sides but never touch the X-
axis.

(i) The frequency distribution for the IQ scores tends to approximate a bell-shaped curve, called the
normal curve. This type of distribution is symmetrical around the central value, called the mean.

(ii) On the basis of IQ, people are classified in different groups. It is clear that only 2.2 percent
people who possess above 130 IQ range are very intelligent or very superior, their IQ score is more
than 130.

(iii) People falling between 90-109 IQ range are considered as average. The mean IQ score in a
population is 100. People with IQ scores in the range of 90-110 have normal intelligence.

(iv) Those with IQ below 70 are suspected to have ‘mental retardation’. Mental retardation refers to
sub-average intellectual functioning. The behaviour is maladaptive and manifest in four forms i.e.,
mild, moderate, severe and profound mental retardation.
The extreme right also lie to 2.2 percent population which are known as gifted i.e., they enjoy
exceptional intelligence, exceptional talent and exceptional creativity.
10.Which of the two lQ or EQ, do you think would
be more related to success in life and Why?
Ans.
(i) IQ is a good predictor of potential.
(ii) EQ is a good predictor of success.

-Researchers had proved that—EQ helps in

dealing with students who are stressed and face
challenges of the outside world.

-It improves the academic performance.

-It is very useful in preparing students to face the

challenges of life outside the classroom.

-They are less anti-social and more co-operative.

11. How is ‘Aptitude’ different from ‘interest1 and intelligence?
Ans.

Aptitude:
(i)Aptitude refers to combination of characteristics indicative of an
individual’s potential to acquire some specific skills with training.

(ii)It is specific mental ability or teach ability of an individual to learn

a particular skill.

(iii)It is the potentiality to perform a particular activity.

(iv)Aptitude is a determiner to learn a particular skill.

Interest:
(i)Interest refers to preference for a particular activity or what one
enjoys doing.
(ii)Interest are acquired/learnt.
(iii)Interest is a facilitator.

An individual with high scientific aptitude having strong interest in

mechanical activities is more likely to be successful mechanical
engineer.

Intelligence:
(i) Intelligence is a global and aggregate capacity of an individual to
think rationally, act purposefully and to deal effectively with her/his
environment.

(ii)Intelligence is a general mental ability.

(iii)It is product of heredity and environment.

(iv)It does not require training for the growth.

12.How is creativity related to intelligence?(Delhi Board 2010)
Or
How creativity and creativity tests are related but different from each other?
Ans. Creativity and intelligence are positively correlated because high ability is
component of creativity, A highly intelligent person may not be creative but all the
creative persons are definitely high in intelligence. _
(i)Creativity is the ability to produce ideas, objects, or problem solutions that are novel,
appropriate and useful.

(ii) Intelligence is subset of creativity.

(iii) Terman found that persons with high IQ were not necessarily creative. The same
time, creative ideas could come from persons who did not even one of those identified
as gifted, followed up through out their adult life, had become well known for creativity
in some field.

(iv)Researchers have found that both high and low level of creativity can be found in
highly intelligent children and also children of average intelligence. The same person
can be creative as well as intelligent but it is not necessary that intelligent once must be
creative.

Creative tests are different from intelligence tests:

(i)Creative tests measure creative thinking ability whereas intelligence tests measure
general mental ability.

(ii) Creative tests measure convergent and divergent thinking whereas intelligence test
measure convergent thinking only.

(iii)Creative tests measure imagination and spontaneous expression to produce new

ideas, to see new relationship, to guess causes and consequences and ability to put
things in a new context. Intelligence tests measure potential.

(iv)In creative tests questions are open-ended that have no specified answers whereas
intelligence tests mostly use close-ended questions.