AMITY INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL, PUSHP VIHAR

CLASS 11-PSYCHOLOGY

CHAPTER 8-THINKING

Nature of Thinking
Thinking is a higher mental process that involves analysing and drawing meaning from the
information which we receive from our environment.

 It is considered as the base of all the cognitive activities like Problem Solving, Decision
Making, etc.
 It is an internal mental process that can be understood from our overt Behaviour
 It is goal-directed in nature

Building blocks of thought

People usually think by means of mental images or thoughts which are discussed below-

1.Mental Images
 It is defined as a mental representation of sensory experience
 We usually think about places, events, etc
 For example, using maps and locating different places there subsequently requires the
use of mental images.
Images are of two types-

 Memory image includes those images that resemble the object or event being
represented.
 Eidetic Image is usually a sharp and detailed visual representation of something that
has been seen.

2. Concepts
 Whenever we come across a novel object we try to understand what it actually is, what
its features and characteristics are and we try to match it with features of the existing
category, and if it is a perfect match we include that object in the category with whom
it’s features match.
 A concept is defined as the mental representation of categories and refers to those ideas,
objects which share common properties and features.
Concepts are of two types-
 Natural concepts have no set of properly defined features that are based on prototypes.
 Logical Concepts are the ones that can be clearly defined by a set of rules or features.
 Why do we need to Form concepts?

 We need to form concepts because of the reasons mentioned below:

 It helps in Organizing our knowledge and that makes our knowledge accessible when
we need it.
 Saves our time and effort.
 We form concepts to make our thought process quick and efficient.

Problem-solving
Obstacles To Solving Problems

 A Mental set is defined as the tendency of a person to solve problems in an already tried
and tested manner and that at times leads to rigidity which obstructs us in solving
problems in a unique manner.
 Lack Of Motivation is also another reason why people fail to solve problems because
even if a person has a sharp mind and intelligence but lacks motivation then that
intelligence is of very little use.

Reasoning
It is a process that involves inference and is used in logical thinking and problem solving and
conclusions are drawn in reasoning on the basis of the information and facts available.

Deductive Reasoning Inductive Reasoning

Deductive Reasoning begins with making a general assumption Inductive Reasoning is based on specific facts and
about something and draws conclusions on the basis of those observations.
assumptions.
It involves drawing a general conclusion based on a
It is Reasoning from general to particular. particular observation.

Accurate assumptions should be made so that we are able to The goal is to determine what conclusion can be drawn from
draw apt conclusions. certain given information.

Decision Making
 Decision-Making is a kind of problem-solving in which we have several alternatives
and after evaluating the cost and benefit associated with each alternative, the best
alternative must be chosen.
 Judgment and Decision Making are interrelated processes. However, judgment is a
process by which we form opinions, arrive at conclusions, and make critical evaluations
about objects, events, and people on the basis of available information

Nature and process of Creative Thinking

 Creative thinking as the name suggests is mainly about solving problems in a novel and unique
manner and coming up with something unique or out of the box.

 It includes both convergent and divergent thinking but more convergent thinking.
 Creativity can be applied in most fields and everyone has the potential to be creative.
 Convergent thinking has only one correct answer and it does not lead to the generation
of new ideas.
 Divergent Thinking has many correct answers and leads to the generation of new and
novel ideas.
 Divergent thinking abilities generally include fluency, flexibility, originality, and
elaboration.
o Fluency is the ability to produce many ideas for a given task or a problem
o Flexibility indicates variety in thinking. It may be thinking of different uses of
an object, or different interpretation of a picture, story or different ways of
solving a problem.
o Originality is the ability to produce ideas that are rare or unusual by seeing new
relationships, combining old ideas with new ones, looking at things from
different perspectives etc
o Elaboration is the ability that enables a person to go into details and workout
implications of new ideas

Stages of Creative Thinking are discussed below:

Preparation The problem is clearly formulated in this stage and facts and information about the problem is collected to
comprehensively understand and analyse the problem.

Incubation It is the second stage of Creative Thinking and is characterized by a feeling of getting stuck as creative ideas
don’t occur when we consciously think about the problem. They usually occur during the time of relaxation.

Illumination It is the third stage of Creative Thinking where there is the sudden realization of the solution of the problem
into the consciousness

Verification In the fourth stage of Creative Thinking, the solution is found in the illumination stage is tested to see that
whether it works or not and what kind of modification is needed is also considered.

Revision In the last stage of Creative Thinking, if a solution is not reached, a revision may be a prerequisite.

Barriers to creative thinking

Barriers to Creative Thinking are discussed below-

 The tendency to be overpowered and influenced by pre-existing habits is a huge

obstruction in the creative thinking process and coming up with out of the box ideas
 Motivational and emotional barriers show that creativity is more than just a cognitive
process as other factors like fear of failure, lack of motivation hinder our creative
thinking ability
  Cultural Barriers are related to excessive adherence to tradition, expectations, and
Conformity. it arises due to the fear of being different, social pressure, mediocrity, etc.

Strategies to overcome creative thinking Barriers

Strategies that can be used to overcome barriers associated with creative thinking are elucidated
below:

 Encourage self-evaluation.
 Be positive and confident in life.
 Develop independent thinking in making judgments.
 See multiple angles and perspectives of a particular problem.
 Resist the temptation of instant gratification.
 Become more aware and sensitive to notice sounds, feelings etc

Ways to enhance creative thinking

Some of the ways which can be used to enhance creative thinking are elucidated below:

 Osborn’s Brainstorming technique can be used to increase fluency and flexibility of

ideas to open-ended situations which does help in increasing the fluency of ideas and
piling up alternatives.
 Getting feedback on the solutions we devise from those who have less personal
involvement in the task helps us to see the problem in an objective and unbiased
manner.
 Developing Independent Thinking in taking decisions and making judgments increase
our self-esteem.
 The use of imagination and visualization helps us increase our creative potential.
 Diagram thinking-sometimes ideas cluster like branches of a tree and this way we can
organise our ideas in a systematic and organized manner.

Thought and Language

Language as a Determinant of Thought

 Benjamin Lee Whorf had this point of view that the language we use determines the
content of our thought which is termed the Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis.
 The extent to which individuals can think is to a large extent determined by the language
we use.

Thought as a Determinant of language

 Piaget believed that thought not only determines language, it precedes it

 Children form an internal representation of the world.
 Through thinking, language is just a vehicle for thought.
  A child’s observation and imitation of the other person’s behavior involves thinking
but no language.

Different origins of language and thought

 Lev Vygotsky who is an esteemed Russian Psychologist was of the view that language
and thought to develop separately in a child until about two years of age when they
merge
 Before 2 years of age, thought is experienced more in action rather than verbal.
 Around 2 years of age child begins to express his/her thought verbally and in a rational
way.

Development Of Language and Language Use

Language involves the use of symbols and symbols represent someone or something. It
involves the use of rules and when we present two or more words together a proper and logical
sequence is followed. Language is primarily used for communicating one’s thoughts, feelings,
and ideas to others People who can’t use oral speech communicate through the use of signs
which is a form of language

Development Of Language

Human Language is more complex, creative, and spontaneous as compared to the system of
Communication which other animals use

Stages of Language Development are elaborated below:

 Newborn babies and young infants make a variety of sounds which gradually get
modified to resemble words. The first sound produced by babies is crying which is
similar across many situations and pitch intensity changes to signify different states
such as hunger, pain, etc.
 At around 6 months of age, children enter the babbling phase which involves
repetition of a variety of vowel and condiment words.
 By about 9 months of age, these sounds get elaborated to strings to some sound
combinations such as (dadada) into repetitive patterns.
 Around 1st birthday most of the children enter the one-word stage and the first word
usually contains one syllable(example ma,pa).
 Around 18-20 months of age children enter two words stage which exemplifies
telegraphic speech and contains mostly mound and verbs
 Close to their 3rd Birthday which is 2.5 years, children’s language development gets
focused on the rules of the language they hear. This is called Syntactic Development.

How language is Acquired?

 Some suggest that language acquisition is primarily biologically determined. This is

typically a nativity position in the nature-nurture debate.
  Language development for Behaviourists like B.F.Skinner follows learning principles
like association, imitation, and reinforcement that is in terms of operant conditioning
 Noam Chomsky suggested that children are born with a language acquisition device,
LAD, which represents knowledge of universal grammar.

language use

 language use involves knowing socially appropriate ways of communication.

Knowledge of vocabulary and syntax of a language does not ensure proper use of
language to achieve the purpose of communication in a variety of social situations.
 When we use language we have various pragmatic intentions such as requesting,
asking, thanking, demanding, etc. In order to effectively serve these social goals,
language use must be pragmatically correct or contextually appropriate besides being
grammatical and meaningful.
 Children often have difficulty with choice of appropriate utterances for politeness or
for requests and their use of language conveys a demand or a command instead of a
polite request. When children are engaged in conversations, they also have difficulty in
taking turns in speaking and listening like adults.