Chapter 3.

Network Protocols and

Communications

Objectives

Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to answer the following
questions:

Why are protocols necessary in communication?

What is the purpose of adhering to a protocol suite?

What is the role of standards organizations in establishing protocols for

network interoperability?

How are the TCP/IP model and the OSI model used to facilitate standard-
ization in the communication process?

Why did RFCs become the process for establishing standards?

What is the RFC process?

How does data encapsulation allow data to be transported across the

network?

How do local hosts access local resources on a network?

How do local hosts access remote resources on a network?

Key Terms

This chapter uses the following key terms. You can find the definitions in
the Glossary.

source page 117

destination page 117

channel page 117

protocols page 118

encapsulation page 120

segmenting page 121

access method page 121

flow control page 122

response timeout page 122

acknowledgement page 122

unicast page 122

multicast page 123

broadcast page 123

protocol suite page 123

proprietary page 127

Ethernet page 127

standard page 133

protocol data unit page 144

network prefix page 147

burned-in address page 149

Address Resolution Protocol page 149

default gateway page 152

Introduction (3.0.1.1)

More and more, it is networks that connect us. People communicate on-
line from everywhere. Conversations in classrooms spill into instant mes-
sage chat sessions, and online debates continue at school. New services
are being developed daily to take advantage of the network.

Rather than developing unique and separate systems for the delivery of
each new service, the network industry as a whole has adopted a devel-
opmental framework that allows designers to understand current net-
work platforms, and maintain them. At the same time, this framework is
used to facilitate the development of new technologies to support future
communications needs and technology enhancements.

Central to this developmental framework is the use of generally accepted

models that describe network rules and functions.

Within this chapter, you will learn about these models, as well as the
standards that make networks work, and how communication occurs
over a network.
 CLASS ACTIVITY 3.0.1.2: DESIGNING A COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM

Let’s just talk about this . . .

You have just purchased a new automobile for your personal use. After
driving the car for a week or so, you find that it is not working correctly.

After discussing the problem with several of your peers, you decide to
take it to an automotive repair facility that they highly recommend. It is
the only repair facility located in close proximity to you.

When you arrive at the repair facility, you find that all the mechanics
speak another language. You are having difficulty explaining the
automobile’s performance problems, but the repairs really need to be
done. You are not sure you can drive it back home to research other
options.

You must find a way to work with the repair facility to ensure that your
automobile is fixed correctly.

How will you communicate with the mechanics in this firm? Design a
communications model to ensure that the car is properly repaired.

Rules of Communication (3.1)

For communication to occur between two people or objects, both must

follow a set of predetermined rules.

The Rules (3.1.1)

A network can be as complex as devices connected across the Internet, or

as simple as two computers directly connected to one another with a sin-
gle cable, and anything in between. Networks can vary in size, shape, and
function. However, simply having the physical connection between end
devices is not enough to enable communication. For communication to
occur, devices must know “how” to communicate.
What Is Communication? (3.1.1.1)

People exchange ideas using many different communication methods.

However, regardless of the method chosen, all communication methods
have three elements in common. The first of these elements is the mes-
sage source, or sender. Message sources are people, or electronic devices,
that need to send a message to other individuals or devices. The second
element of communication is the destination, or receiver, of the message.
The destination receives the message and interprets it. A third element,
called a channel, consists of the media that provides the pathway over
which the message travels from source to destination. This is shown in
Figure 3-1.

Figure 3-1 Communications

Communication begins with a message, or information, that must be sent

from a source to a destination. The sending of this message, whether by
face-to-face communication or over a network, is governed by rules
called protocols. These protocols are specific to the type of communica-
tion method that is occurring. In our day-to-day personal communication,
the rules we use to communicate over one medium, like a telephone call,
are not necessarily the same as the protocols for using another medium,
such as sending a letter.

For example, consider two people communicating face to face. Prior to

communicating, they must agree on how to communicate. If the commu-
nication is using voice, they must first agree on the language. Next, when
they have a message to share, they must be able to format that message in
a way that is understandable. For example, if someone uses the English
language, but poor sentence structure, the message can easily be misun-
derstood. Each of these tasks describes protocols put in place to accom-
plish communication. This is also true of computer communication.

Think of how many different rules or protocols govern all the different
methods of communication that exist in the world today.
Establishing the Rules (3.1.1.2)

Before communicating with one another, individuals must use estab-

lished rules or agreements to govern the conversation. Figure 3-2 shows
why protocols are necessary for effective communication. Without cor-
rect formatting and adherence to established rules and protocols, it is
very difficult to interpret the message.

Figure 3-2 Importance of Protocols

The protocols used are specific to the characteristics of the communica-

tion method, including the characteristics of the source, destination, and
channel. These rules, or protocols, must be followed for the message to be
successfully delivered and understood. There are many protocols avail-
able that govern successful human communication. After there is an
agreed-upon method of communicating (face-to-face, telephone, letter,
photography), the protocols put in place must account for the following
requirements:

An identified sender and receiver

Common language and grammar

Speed and timing of delivery

 Confirmation or acknowledgement requirements

As shown in Figure 3-3, the protocols that are used in network communi-
cations share many of the fundamental traits as those protocols used to
govern successful human conversations. In addition to identifying the
source and destination, computer and network protocols define the de-
tails of how a message is transmitted across a network to answer the pre-
vious requirements. While there are many protocols that must interact,
common computer protocols include

Message encoding

Message formatting and encapsulation

Message size

Message timing

Message delivery options

Each of these will be discussed in more detail next.

Figure 3-3 Protocols

Message Encoding (3.1.1.3)

One of the first steps to sending a message is encoding it. Encoding is the
process of converting information into another, acceptable form for
transmission. Decoding reverses this process to interpret the information.

Imagine a person planning a holiday trip with a friend, and calling the
friend to discuss the details of where they want to go. To communicate
the message, the sender must first convert, or encode, his thoughts and
perceptions about the location into words. The words are spoken into the
telephone using the sounds and inflections of spoken language that con-
vey the message. On the other end of the telephone line, the person listen-
ing to the description receives and decodes the sounds to visualize the im-
age of the sunset described by the sender.

Encoding also occurs in computer communication. Encoding between

hosts must be in an appropriate form for the medium. Messages sent
across the network are first converted into bits by the sending host. Each
bit is encoded into a pattern of sounds, light waves, or electrical impulses,
depending on the network media over which the bits are transmitted. The
destination host receives and decodes the signals to interpret the
message.

Message Formatting and Encapsulation (3.1.1.4)

When a message is sent from source to destination, it must use a specific

format or structure. Message formats depend on the type of message and
the channel that is used to deliver the message.

Letter writing is one of the most common forms of written human com-
munication. For centuries, the agreed-upon format for personal letters
has not changed. In many cultures, a personal letter contains the follow-
ing elements:

An identifier of the recipient

A salutation or greeting

The message content

A closing phrase

An identifier of the sender

In addition to having the correct format, most personal letters must also
be enclosed, or encapsulated, in an envelope for delivery, as shown in
Figure 3-4. The envelope has the address of the sender and receiver on it,
each located at the proper place on the envelope. If the destination ad-
dress and formatting are not correct, the letter is not delivered. The
process of placing one message format (the letter) inside another message
format (the envelope) is called encapsulation. Deencapsulation occurs
when the process is reversed by the recipient and the letter is removed
from the envelope.

Figure 3-4 Formatting and Encapsulation for a Postal Letter

A letter writer uses an accepted format to ensure that the letter is deliv-
ered and understood by the recipient. In the same way, a message that is
sent over a computer network follows specific format rules for it to be de-
livered and processed. Just as a letter is encapsulated in an envelope for
delivery, so too are computer messages encapsulated. Each computer
message is encapsulated in a specific format, called a frame, before it is
sent over the network. A frame acts like an envelope; it provides the ad-
dress of the intended destination and the address of the source host, as
shown in Figure 3-5.

Figure 3-5 Frame

The format and contents of a frame are determined by the type of mes-
sage being sent and the channel over which it is communicated. Messages
that are not correctly formatted are not successfully delivered to or pro-
cessed by the destination host.
Message Size (3.1.1.5)

Another rule of communication is size. When people communicate with

each other, the messages that they send are usually broken into smaller
parts or sentences. These sentences are limited in size to what the receiv-
ing person can process at one time. An individual conversation can be
made up of many smaller sentences to ensure that each part of the mes-
sage is received and understood. Imagine what it would be like to read
this course if it all appeared as one long sentence; it would not be easy to
read and comprehend.

Likewise, when a long message is sent from one host to another over a
network, it is necessary to break the message into smaller pieces. The
rules that govern the size of the pieces, or frames, communicated across
the network are very strict. They can also be different, depending on the
channel used. Frames that are too long or too short are not delivered.

The size restrictions of frames require the source host to break a long
message into individual pieces that meet both the minimum and maxi-
mum size requirements. This is known as segmenting. Each segment is
encapsulated in a separate frame with the address information, and is
sent over the network. At the receiving host, the messages are deencapsu-
lated and put back together to be processed and interpreted.

Message Timing (3.1.1.6)

Another factor that affects how well a message is received and under-
stood is timing. People use timing to determine when to speak, how fast
or slow to talk, and how long to wait for a response. These are the rules of
engagement.
Access Method

The access method determines when someone is able to send a message.

These timing rules are based on the environment. For example, you
might be able to speak whenever you have something to say. In this envi-
ronment, a person must wait until no one else is talking before speaking.
If two people talk at the same time, a collision of information occurs and
it is necessary for the two to back off and start again. Likewise, it is neces-
sary for computers to define an access method. Hosts on a network need
an access method to know when to begin sending messages and how to
respond when errors occur.

Flow Control

Timing also affects how much information can be sent and the speed in
which it can be delivered. If one person speaks too quickly, it is difficult
for the other person to hear and understand the message. The receiving
person must ask the sender to slow down. In network communication, a
sending host can transmit messages at a faster rate than the destination
host can receive and process. Source and destination hosts use flow con-
trol to negotiate correct timing for successful communication.

Response Timeout

If a person asks a question and does not hear a response within an ac-
ceptable amount of time, the person assumes that no answer is coming
and reacts accordingly. The person might repeat the question or might go
on with the conversation. Hosts on the network also have rules that spec-
ify how long to wait for responses and what action to take if a response
timeout occurs.

Message Delivery Options (3.1.1.7)

A message might need to be best delivered in different ways. Sometimes,

a person wants to communicate information to a single individual. At
other times, the person might need to send information to a group of peo-
ple at the same time, or even to all people in the same area. A conversa-
tion between two people is an example of a one-to-one delivery. When a
group of recipients need to receive the same message simultaneously, a
one-to-many or one-to-all message delivery is necessary.
There are also times when the sender of a message needs to be sure that
the message is delivered successfully to the destination. In these cases, it
is necessary for the recipient to return an acknowledgement to the
sender. If no acknowledgement is required, the delivery option is re-
ferred to as unacknowledged.

Hosts on a network use similar delivery options to communicate.

A one-to-one delivery option is referred to as a unicast, meaning that

there is only a single destination for the message.

When a host needs to send messages using a one-to-many delivery option,

it is referred to as a multicast. Multicasting is the delivery of the same
message to a group of host destinations simultaneously.

If all hosts on the network need to receive the message at the same time, a
broadcast is used. Broadcasting represents a one-to-all message delivery
option. Additionally, hosts have requirements for acknowledged versus
unacknowledged messages.

Network Protocols and Standards (3.2)

A strict set of rules must be adhered to in order to allow communication

to occur between humans or machines. To ensure that these rules or pro-
tocols function together and in a predictable manner, a number of orga-
nizations and processes have been developed to provide standards.

Protocols (3.2.1)

Just like in human communication, the various network and computer

protocols must be able to interact and work together for network commu-
nication to be successful. A group of inter-related protocols necessary to
perform a communication function is called a protocol suite. Protocol
suites are implemented by hosts and networking devices in software,
hardware, or both.
Protocols: Rules That Govern Communications (3.2.1.1)

One of the best ways to visualize how the protocols within a suite interact
is to view the interaction as a stack. A protocol stack shows how the indi-
vidual protocols within a suite are implemented. The protocols are
viewed in terms of layers, with each higher-level service depending on
the functionality defined by the protocols shown in the lower levels. The
lower layers of the stack are concerned with moving data over the net-
work and providing services to the upper layers, which are focused on
the content of the message being sent. As shown in Figure 3-6, we can use
layers to describe the activity occurring in our face-to-face communica-
tion example. At the bottom layer, the physical layer, we have two people,
each with a voice that can say words out loud. At the second layer, the
rules layer, we have an agreement to speak in a common language. At the
top layer, the content layer, there are words that are actually spoken. This
is the content of the communication.

Figure 3-6 Protocols—Rules That Govern Communications

Were we to witness this conversation, we would not actually see layers

floating in space. The use of layers is a model that provides a way to con-
veniently break a complex task into parts and describe how they work.
Network Protocols (3.2.1.2)

At the human level, some communication rules are formal and others are
simply understood based on custom and practice. For devices to success-
fully communicate, a network protocol suite must describe precise re-
quirements and interactions. Networking protocols define a common for-
mat and set of rules for exchanging messages between devices. Some
common networking protocols are IP, HTTP, and DHCP.

Figure 3-7 illustrates networking protocols that describe the following

processes:

How the message is formatted or structured, as shown in Figure 3-7a

The process by which networking devices share information about

pathways with other networks, as shown in Figure 3-7b

How and when error and system messages are passed between devices,
as shown in Figure 3-7c

The setup and termination of data transfer sessions, as shown in Figure

3-7d
Figure 3-7 Role of Protocols

For example, IP defines how a packet of data is delivered within a net-

work or to a remote network. The information in the IPv4 protocol is
transmitted in a specific format so that the receiver can interpret it cor-
rectly. This is not much different than the protocol used to address an en-
velope when mailing a letter. The information must adhere to a certain
format, or the letter cannot be delivered to the destination by the post
office.

Interaction of Protocols (3.2.1.3)

An example of using the protocol suite in network communications is the

interaction between a web server and a web client, as shown in Figure 3-
8.
Figure 3-8 Interaction of Protocols

This interaction uses a number of protocols and standards in the process

of exchanging information between them. The different protocols work
together to ensure that the messages are received and understood by
both parties. Examples of these protocols are

Application protocol: Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a protocol

that governs the way that a web server and a web client interact. HTTP
defines the content and formatting of the requests and responses that are
exchanged between the client and server. Both the client and the web
server software implement HTTP as part of the application. HTTP relies
on other protocols to govern how the messages are transported between
the client and server.

Transport protocol: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is the trans-

port protocol that manages the individual conversations between web
servers and web clients. TCP divides the HTTP messages into smaller
pieces, called segments. These segments are sent between the web server
and client processes running at the destination host. TCP is also responsi-
ble for controlling the size and rate at which messages are exchanged be-
tween the server and the client.

Internet protocol: IP is responsible for taking the formatted segments

from TCP, encapsulating them into packets, assigning them the appropri-
ate addresses, and delivering them across the best path to the destination
host.

Network access protocols: Network access protocols describe two pri-

mary functions: communication over a data link and the physical trans-
mission of data on the network media. Data-link management protocols
take the packets from IP and format them to be transmitted over the me-
dia. The standards and protocols for the physical media govern how the
signals are sent and how they are interpreted by the receiving clients. An
example of a network access protocol is Ethernet.

Protocol Suites (3.2.2)

As stated previously, a protocol suite is a set of protocols that work to-

gether to provide comprehensive network communication services. A
protocol suite can be specified by a standards organization or developed
by a vendor.

Protocol Suites and Industry Standards (3.2.2.1)

The protocols IP, HTTP, and DHCP are all part of the Internet protocol
suite known as Transmission Control Protocol/IP (TCP/IP). The TCP/IP pro-
tocol suite is an open standard, meaning that these protocols are freely
available to the public, and any vendor is able to implement these proto-
cols on its hardware or in its software.

A standards-based protocol is a process or protocol that has been en-

dorsed by the networking industry and ratified, or approved, by a stan-
dards organization. The use of standards in developing and implementing
protocols ensures that products from different manufacturers can inter-
operate successfully. If a protocol is not rigidly observed by a particular
manufacturer, its equipment or software might not be able to success-
fully communicate with products made by other manufacturers.

In data communications, for example, if one end of a conversation is us-

ing a protocol to govern one-way communication and the other end is as-
suming a protocol describing two-way communication, in all probability,
no data will be exchanged.
Some protocols are proprietary. Proprietary, in this context, means that
one company or vendor controls the definition of the protocol and how it
functions. Some proprietary protocols can be used by different organiza-
tions with permission from the owner. Others can only be implemented
on equipment manufactured by the proprietary vendor. Examples of pro-
prietary protocols are AppleTalk and Novell NetWare.

Several companies might even work together to create a proprietary pro-

tocol. It is not uncommon for a vendor (or a group of vendors) to develop
a proprietary protocol to meet the needs of its customers and later assist
in making that proprietary protocol an open standard. For example,
Ethernet was a protocol originally developed by Bob Metcalfe at the
Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) in the 1970s. In 1979, Bob
Metcalfe formed his own company, 3COM, and worked with Digital
Equipment Corporation (DEC), Intel, and Xerox to promote the “DIX” stan-
dard for Ethernet. In 1985, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE) published the IEEE 802.3 standard that was almost iden-
tical to Ethernet. Today, 802.3 is the common standard used in local-area
networks (LAN). As another example, most recently, Cisco opened the
Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP) as an informational
RFC to meet the needs of customers who desire to use the protocol in a
multivendor network.

Figure 3-9 shows some common protocol suites and industry standards.
Figure 3-9 Protocol Suites and Industry Standards

Creation of the Internet and Development of TCP/IP (3.2.2.2)

The IP suite is a suite of protocols required for transmitting and receiving

information using the Internet. It is commonly known as TCP/IP because
the first two networking protocols defined for this standard were TCP and
IP. The open standards–based TCP/IP has replaced other vendor-propri-
etary protocol suites, such as Apple’s AppleTalk and Novell’s Internetwork
Packet Exchange/Sequenced Packet Exchange (IPX/SPX).

The first packet-switching network and predecessor to today’s Internet

was the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET), which
came to life in 1969 by connecting mainframe computers at four loca-
tions. ARPANET was funded by the U.S. Department of Defense for use by
universities and research laboratories. Bolt, Beranek and Newman (BBN)
was the contractor that did much of the initial development of the
ARPANET, including creating the first router known as an Interface
Message Processor (IMP).

In 1973, Robert Kahn and Vinton Cerf began work on TCP to develop the
next generation of the ARPANET. TCP was designed to replace ARPANET’s
current Network Control Program (NCP). In 1978, TCP was divided into
two protocols: TCP and IP. Later, other protocols were added to the TCP/IP
suite of protocols, including Telnet, FTP, DNS, and many others.
Some important dates in the development of network protocols and ap-
plications are

1969: On October 29, 1969, the first message is transmitted from an SDS
Sigma 7 mainframe computer at the University of California, Los Angeles
(UCLA) to an SDS 940 mainframe computer at Stanford Research Institute.

1970: ALOHAnet becomes operational. It is the first packet radio net-

work, developed by Norman Abramson, University of Hawaii.

1972: Ray Tomlinson chooses the @ sign to signify the recipient’s

destination.

1972: Larry Roberts writes the first email management program.

1972: The Telnet specification is written (RFC 318).

1981: The TCP and IP protocols are formalized (RFC 793 and RFC 791).

1982: The Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) is developed to allow routers

to exchange network information (RFC 827).

1984: The Domain Name Service (DNS) is introduced.

1985: The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is documented (RFC 765).

1986: Cisco launches its first routing innovation, the AGS multiprotocol
router.

1988: The Internet Relay Chat (IRC) is developed by Jarkko Oikarinen.

1991: Tim Bemers-Lee and Robert Cailliau release the specifications for
WWW.

1993: The first web browser, MOSAIC, is developed by Marc Andreessen

at the University of Illinois, Champaign-Urbana.

1995: The first specifications for IPv6 (the eventual successor to IPv4)
are released (RFC 1883).
 2011: The first World IPv6 Day (June 8, 2011). Many websites and
Internet service providers around the world, including Google, Facebook,
and Yahoo!, participate with more than 1000 other companies for a
worldwide trial of IPv6.

2012: The launch of the permanent IPv6 Internet on June 6, 2012.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite and Communication Process (3.2.2.3)

Common TCP/IP Protocols

Today, the suite includes dozens of protocols, as shown in Figure 3-10.

They are organized in layers using the TCP/IP protocol model. TCP/IP pro-
tocols are included in the Internet layer to the application layer when ref-
erencing the TCP/IP model. The lower-layer protocols in the data link or
network access layer are responsible for delivering the IP packet over the
physical medium. These lower-layer protocols are developed by stan-
dards organizations such as IEEE. Table 3-1 describes the function of
some of the protocols found in the TCP/IP suite.

Figure 3-10 TCP/IP Protocol Suite and Communication Process

Table 3-1 Common TCP/IP Protocols and Processes
The TCP/IP protocol suite is implemented within the operating system and
software as a TCP/IP stack on both the sending and receiving hosts to pro-
vide end-to-end delivery of applications over a network. The 802.3 or
Ethernet protocols are used to transmit the IP packet over the physical
medium used by the LAN.

Figure 3-11 and the following list show the complete communication
process using an example of a web server transmitting data to a client.

Figure 3-11 Protocol Operation of Sending and Receiving a Message

1. The web server’s Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) page is the data
to be sent.

2. The application protocol HTTP header is added to the front of the

HTML data. The header contains various information, including the HTTP
version the server is using and a status code indicating that it has infor-
mation for the web client.

3. The HTTP application layer protocol delivers the HTML-formatted web

page data to the transport layer. The TCP transport layer protocol is used
to manage the individual conversation between the web server and web
client.

4. The IP information is added to the front of the TCP information. IP as-

signs the appropriate source and destination IP addresses. This informa-
tion is known as an IP packet.

5. The Ethernet protocol adds information to both ends of the IP packet,

known as a data-link frame. This frame is delivered to the nearest router
along the path toward the web client. This router removes the Ethernet
information, analyzes the IP packet, determines the best path for the
packet, inserts the packet into a new frame, and sends it to the next
neighboring router toward the destination. Each router removes and
adds new data-link information before forwarding the packet.

6. This data is now transported through the internetwork, which consists

of media and intermediary devices.

7. The client receives the data-link frames that contain the data, and each
protocol header is processed and then removed in the opposite order that
it was added. The Ethernet information is processed and removed, fol-
lowed by the IP protocol information, then the TCP information, and fi-
nally the HTTP information.

8. The web page information is then passed on to the client’s web browser
software.
 ACTIVITY 3.2.2.4: MAPPING THE PROTOCOLS OF THE TCP/IP SUITE

Go to the course online to perform this practice activity.

Standards Organizations (3.2.3)

Standards organizations are important in maintaining an open Internet

with freely accessible specifications and protocols that can be imple-
mented by any vendor. A standards organization might draft a set of
rules entirely on its own or in other cases might select a proprietary pro-
tocol as the basis for the standard. If a proprietary protocol is used, it
usually involves the vendor who created the protocol.

Open Standards (3.2.3.1)

Open standards encourage competition and innovation. They also guar-

antee that no single company’s product can monopolize the market, or
have an unfair advantage over its competition. A good example of this is
when purchasing a wireless router for the home. There are many differ-
ent choices available from a variety of vendors, all of which incorporate
standard protocols such as IPv4, DHCP, 802.3 (Ethernet), and 802.11 (wire-
less LAN). These open standards also allow a client running Apple’s OS X
operating system to download a web page from a web server running the
Linux operating system. This is because both operating systems imple-
ment the open standard protocols, such as those in the TCP/IP suite.

Standards organizations are usually vendor-neutral, nonprofit organiza-

tions established to develop and promote the concept of open standards.

Standards organizations include

The Internet Society (ISOC)

The Internet Architecture Board (IAB)

The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

 The International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

ISOC, IAB, and IETF (3.2.3.2)

The Internet Society (ISOC) is responsible for promoting open develop-

ment, evolution, and Internet use throughout the world. ISOC facilitates
the open development of standards and protocols for the technical infra-
structure of the Internet, including the oversight of the Internet
Architecture Board (IAB).

The Internet Architecture Board (IAB) is responsible for the overall man-
agement and development of Internet standards. The IAB provides over-
sight of the architecture for protocols and procedures used by the
Internet. The IAB consists of 13 members, including the chair of the
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). IAB members serve as individuals
and not representatives of any company, agency, or other organization.

The IETF’s mission is to develop, update, and maintain Internet and

TCP/IP technologies. One of the key responsibilities of the IETF is to pro-
duce Request for Comments (RFC) documents, which are a memorandum
describing protocols, processes, and technologies for the Internet. The
IETF consists of working groups (WG), the primary mechanism for devel-
oping IETF specifications and guidelines. WGs are short term, and after
the objectives of the group are met, the WG is terminated. The Internet
Engineering Steering Group (IESG) is responsible for the technical man-
agement of the IETF and the Internet standards process.

The Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) is focused on long-term research

related to Internet and TCP/IP protocols, applications, architecture, and
technologies. While the IETF focuses on shorter-term issues of creating
standards, the IRTF consists of research groups for long-term develop-
ment efforts. Some of the current research groups include Anti-Spam
Research Group (ASRG), Crypto Forum Research Group (CFRG), Peer-to-
Peer Research Group (P2PRG), and Router Research Group (RRG).
IEEE (3.2.3.3)

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE, pronounced “I-

triple-E”) is a professional organization for those in the electrical engi-
neering and electronics fields who are dedicated to advancing technologi-
cal innovation and creating standards. As of 2012, IEEE consists of 38 soci-
eties, publishes 130 journals, and sponsors more than 1300 conferences
each year worldwide. The IEEE has over 1300 standards and projects cur-
rently under development.

The IEEE has more than 400,000 members in more than 160 countries.
More than 107,000 of those members are student members. IEEE provides
educational and career enhancement opportunities to promote the skills
and knowledge with the electronics industry.

The IEEE is one of the leading standards-producing organizations in the

world. It creates and maintains standards affecting a wide range of indus-
tries including power and energy, healthcare, telecommunications, and
networking. The IEEE 802 family of standards deals with local-area net-
works and metropolitan-area networks, including both wired and wire-
less. Each IEEE standard consists of a WG responsible for creating and im-
proving the standards. Table 3-2 lists some of these working groups.

Table 3-2 IEEE 802 Working Groups and Study Groups

The IEEE 802.3 and IEEE 802.11 standards are significant IEEE standards
in computer networking. The IEEE 802.3 standard defines Media Access
Control (MAC) for wired Ethernet. This technology is usually for LANs,
but also has wide-area network (WAN) applications. The 802.11 standard
defines a set of standards for implementing wireless local-area networks
(WLAN). This standard defines the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
physical and data link MAC for wireless communications.

ISO (3.2.3.4)

ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, is the world’s

largest developer of international standards for a wide variety of prod-
ucts and services. ISO is not an acronym for the organization’s name;
rather the ISO term is based on the Greek word isos, meaning equal. The
International Organization for Standardization chose the ISO term to af-
firm its position as being equal to all countries.

In networking, ISO is best known for its Open Systems Interconnection

(OSI) reference model. ISO published the OSI reference model in 1984 to
develop a layered framework for networking protocols. The original ob-
jective of this project was not only to create a reference model but also to
serve as a foundation for a suite of protocols to be used for the Internet.
This was known as the OSI protocol suite. However, because of the rising
popularity of the TCP/IP suite, developed by Robert Kahn, Vinton Cerf,
and others, the OSI protocol suite was not chosen as the protocol suite for
the Internet. Instead, the TCP/IP protocol suite was selected. The OSI pro-
tocol suite was implemented on telecommunications equipment and can
still be found in legacy telecommunication networks.

You might be familiar with some of the products that use ISO standards.
The ISO file extension is used on many CD images to signify that it uses
the ISO 9660 standard for its file system. ISO is also responsible for creat-
ing standards for routing protocols.

Other Standards Organizations (3.2.3.5)

Networking standards involve several other standards organizations.

Some of the more common ones are

EIA: The Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA), previously known as the

Electronics Industries Association, is an international standards and
trade organization for electronics organizations. The EIA is best known
for its standards related to electrical wiring, connectors, and the 19-inch
racks used to mount networking equipment.

TIA: The Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) is responsible

for developing communication standards in a variety of areas including
radio equipment, cellular towers, Voice over IP (VoIP) devices, satellite
communications, and more. Many of its standards are produced in collab-
oration with the EIA.

ITU-T: The International Telecommunications Union-

Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) is one of the largest
and oldest communication standard organizations. The ITU-T defines
standards for video compression, Internet Protocol Television (IPTV), and
broadband communications, such as a digital subscriber line (DSL). For
example, when dialing another country, ITU country codes are used to
make the connection.

ICANN: The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers

(ICANN) is a nonprofit organization based in the United States that coor-
dinates IP address allocation, the management of domain names used by
DNS, and the protocol identifiers or port numbers used by TCP and UDP
protocols. ICANN creates policies and has overall responsibility for these
assignments.

IANA: The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) is a depart-

ment of ICANN responsible for overseeing and managing IP address allo-
cation, domain name management, and protocol identifiers for ICANN.

Familiarization with the organizations that develop standards used in

networking will help you have a better understanding of how these stan-
dards create an open, vendor-neutral Internet, and allow you to learn
about new standards as they develop.
 LAB 3.2.3.6: RESEARCHING NETWORKING STANDARDS

In this lab, you will complete the following objectives:

Part 1: Research Networking Standards Organizations

Part 2: Reflect on Internet and Computer Networking Experiences

ACTIVITY 3.2.3.7: STANDARDS BODY SCAVENGER HUNT

Go to the course online to perform this practice activity.

Reference Models (3.2.4)

There are two basic types of networking models:

Protocol model: This model closely matches the structure of a particu-

lar protocol suite. The hierarchical set of related protocols in a suite typi-
cally represents all the functionality required to interface the human net-
work with the data network. The TCP/IP model is a protocol model, be-
cause it describes the functions that occur at each layer of protocols
within the TCP/IP suite.

Reference model: This model provides consistency within all types of

network protocols and services by describing what has to be done at a
particular layer, but not prescribing how it should be accomplished. A
reference model is not intended to be an implementation specification or
to provide a sufficient level of detail to define precisely the services of the
network architecture. The primary purpose of a reference model is to aid
in clearer understanding of the functions and processes involved.
The Benefits of Using a Layered Model (3.2.4.1)

A layered model, such as the TCP/IP model, is often used to help visualize
the interaction between various protocols. A layered model depicts the
operation of the protocols occurring within each layer, as well as the in-
teraction of protocols with the layers above and below each layer.

There are benefits to using a layered model to describe network protocols

and operations. Using a layered model

Assists in protocol design, because protocols that operate at a specific

layer have defined information that they act upon and a defined interface
to the layers above and below.

Fosters competition because products from different vendors can work

together.

Prevents technology or capability changes in one layer from affecting

other layers above and below.

Provides a common language to describe networking functions and

capabilities.

The OSI model is the most widely known internetwork reference model.
It is used for data network design, operation specifications, and
troubleshooting.

The TCP/IP and OSI models, shown in Figure 3-12, are the primary mod-
els used when discussing network functionality. Designers of network
protocols, services, or devices can create their own models to represent
their products. Ultimately, designers are required to communicate to the
industry by relating their product or service to either the OSI model or
the TCP/IP model, or to both.
Figure 3-12 OSI and TCP/IP Models

The OSI Reference Model (3.2.4.2)

Lesson 1: The OSI Model - Introduction

Initially the OSI model was designed by the ISO to provide a framework
on which to build a suite of open systems protocols. The vision was that
this set of protocols would be used to develop an international network
that would not be dependent on proprietary systems.

Ultimately, the speed at which the TCP/IP-based Internet was adopted,

and the rate at which it expanded, caused the development and accep-
tance of the OSI protocol suite to lag behind. Although a few of the devel-
oped protocols using the OSI specifications are widely used today, the
seven-layer OSI model has made major contributions to the development
of other protocols and products for all types of new networks.

The OSI model provides an extensive list of functions and services that
can occur at each layer. It also describes the interaction of each layer with
the layers directly above and below it. Although the content of this course
is structured around the OSI reference model, the focus of discussion is
the protocols identified in the TCP/IP protocol model. Table 3-3 lists the
function of each of the layers found in the OSI reference model.

Table 3-3 OSI Reference Model

NOTE

Whereas the TCP/IP model layers are referred to only by

name, the seven OSI model layers are more often referred to
by number rather than by name. For example, the physical
layer is referred to as Layer 1 of the OSI model.

The TCP/IP Protocol Model (3.2.4.3)

The TCP/IP protocol model for internetwork communications was created

in the early 1970s and is sometimes referred to as the Internet model. As
shown in Figure 3-13, it defines four categories of functions that must oc-
cur for communications to be successful. The architecture of the TCP/IP
protocol suite follows the structure of this model. Because of this, the
Internet model is commonly referred to as the TCP/IP model.
Figure 3-13 TCP/IP Model

Most protocol models describe a vendor-specific protocol stack. However,

because the TCP/IP model is an open standard, one company does not
control the definition of the model. The definitions of the standard and
the TCP/IP protocols are discussed in a public forum and defined in a pub-
licly available set of RFCs. The RFCs contain both the formal specification
of data communications protocols and resources that describe the use of
the protocols.

The RFCs also contain technical and organizational documents about the
Internet, including the technical specifications and policy documents pro-
duced by the IETF.

Comparing the OSI Model with the TCP/IP Model (3.2.4.4)

The protocols that make up the TCP/IP protocol suite can be described in
terms of the OSI reference model. In the OSI model, the network access
layer and the application layer of the TCP/IP model are further divided to
describe discrete functions that must occur at these layers.

At the network access layer, the TCP/IP protocol suite does not specify
which protocols to use when transmitting over a physical medium; it only
describes the hand-off from the Internet layer to the physical network
protocols. OSI Layers 1 and 2 discuss the necessary procedures to access
the media and the physical means to send data over a network.
As shown in Figure 3-14, the critical parallels between the two network
models occur at OSI Layers 3 and 4. OSI Layer 3, the network layer, is al-
most universally used to describe the range of processes that occur in all
data networks to address and route messages through an internetwork.
IP is the TCP/IP suite protocol that includes the functionality described at
OSI Layer 3.

Figure 3-14 Comparing the OSI Model and the TCP/IP Model

Layer 4, the transport layer of the OSI model, describes general services
and functions that provide ordered and reliable delivery of data between
source and destination hosts. These functions include acknowledgement,
error recovery, and sequencing. At this layer, the TCP/IP protocols TCP
and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) provide the necessary functionality.

The TCP/IP application layer includes a number of protocols that provide

specific functionality to a variety of end-user applications. The OSI model
Layers 5, 6, and 7 are used as references for application software develop-
ers and vendors to produce products that operate on networks.

ACTIVITY 3.2.4.5: IDENTIFY LAYERS AND FUNCTIONS

Go to the course online to perform this practice activity.

 PACKET TRACER ACTIVITY 3.2.4.6: INVESTIGATING THE TCP/IP AND OSI MODELS

IN ACTION

This simulation activity is intended to provide a foundation for under-

standing the TCP/IP protocol suite and the relationship to the OSI model.
Simulation mode allows you to view the data contents being sent across
the network at each layer.

As data moves through the network, it is broken down into smaller pieces
and identified so that the pieces can be put back together when they ar-
rive at the destination. Each piece is assigned a specific name (protocol
data unit [PDU]) and associated with a specific layer of the TCP/IP and OSI
models. Packet Tracer simulation mode enables you to view each of the
layers and the associated PDU. The following steps lead the user through
the process of requesting a web page from a web server by using the web
browser application available on a client PC.

Even though much of the information displayed will be discussed in more

detail later, this is an opportunity to explore the functionality of Packet
Tracer and be able to visualize the encapsulation process.

LAB 3.2.4.7: RESEARCHING RFCS

In this lab, you will complete the following objectives:

Part 1: RFC Editor

Part 2: Publishing RFCs

Moving Data in the Network (3.3)

To move through the network, data must be properly encapsulated with

sufficient control and addressing information to allow it to move from
the sender to the receiver. The actual information required depends on
whether the data is destined for a local or remote resource.
Data Encapsulation (3.3.1)

In theory, a single communication, such as a music video or an email

message, could be sent across a network from a source to a destination as
one massive, uninterrupted stream of bits. If messages were actually
transmitted in this manner, it would mean that no other device would be
able to send or receive messages on the same network while this data
transfer was in progress. These large streams of data would result in sig-
nificant delays. Further, if a link in the interconnected network infra-
structure failed during the transmission, the complete message would be
lost and have to be retransmitted in full.

Communicating the Messages (3.3.1.1)

A better approach is to divide the data into smaller, more manageable

pieces to send over the network. This division of the data stream into
smaller pieces is called segmentation. Segmenting messages has two pri-
mary benefits:

By sending smaller individual pieces from source to destination, many

different conversations can be interleaved on the network. The process
used to interleave the pieces of separate conversations together on the
network is called multiplexing.

Segmentation can increase the reliability of network communications.

The separate pieces of each message need not travel the same pathway
across the network from source to destination. If a particular path be-
comes congested with data traffic or fails, individual pieces of the mes-
sage can still be directed to the destination using alternate pathways. If
part of the message fails to make it to the destination, only the missing
parts need to be retransmitted.

The downside to using segmentation and multiplexing to transmit mes-

sages across a network is the level of complexity that is added to the
process. Imagine if you had to send a 100-page letter, but each envelope
would only hold one page. The process of addressing, labeling, sending,
receiving, and opening the entire 100 envelopes would be time-consum-
ing for both the sender and the recipient.
In network communications, each segment of the message must go
through a similar process to ensure that it gets to the correct destination
and can be reassembled into the content of the original message. This is
shown in Figure 3-15.

Figure 3-15 Communicating the Message

Various types of devices throughout the network participate in ensuring

that the pieces of the message arrive reliably at their destination.

Protocol Data Units (PDU) (3.3.1.2)

As application data is passed down the protocol stack on its way to be

transmitted across the network media, various protocols add information
to it at each level. This is commonly known as the encapsulation process.

The form that a piece of data takes at any layer is called a protocol data
unit (PDU). During encapsulation, each succeeding layer encapsulates the
PDU that it receives from the layer above in accordance with the protocol
being used. At each stage of the process, a PDU has a different name to re-
flect its new functions. This is shown in Figure 3-16.
Figure 3-16 Encapsulation

Although there is no universal naming convention for PDUs, in this

course, the PDUs are named according to the protocols of the TCP/IP suite.

Data: The general term for the PDU used at the application layer

Segment: Transport layer PDU

Packet: Internet layer PDU

Frame: Network access layer PDU

Bits: A PDU used when physically transmitting data over the medium

Encapsulation (3.3.1.3)

Data encapsulation is the process that adds additional protocol header in-
formation to the data before transmission. In most forms of data commu-
nications, the original data is encapsulated or wrapped in several proto-
cols before being transmitted.

When sending messages on a network, the protocol stack on a host oper-

ates from top to bottom. In the web server example, we can use the
TCP/IP model to illustrate the process of sending an HTML web page to a
client.

The application layer protocol, HTTP, begins the process by delivering the
HTML-formatted web page data to the transport layer. There the applica-
tion data is broken into TCP segments. Each TCP segment is given a label,
called a header, containing information about which process running on
the destination computer should receive the message. It also contains the
information that enables the destination process to reassemble the data
to its original format.

The transport layer encapsulates the web page HTML data within the seg-
ment and sends it to the Internet layer, where the IP protocol is imple-
mented. Here the entire TCP segment is encapsulated within an IP packet,
which adds another label, called the IP header. The IP header contains
source and destination host IP addresses, as well as information neces-
sary to deliver the packet to its corresponding destination process.

Next, the IP packet is sent to the network access layer, where it is encap-
sulated within a frame header and trailer. Each frame header contains a
source and destination physical address. The physical address uniquely
identifies the devices on the local network. The trailer contains error-
checking information. Finally, the bits are encoded onto the media by the
server network interface card (NIC).

Deencapsulation (3.3.1.4)

This process is reversed at the receiving host and is known as deencapsu-

lation. Deencapsulation is the process used by a receiving device to re-
move one or more of the protocol headers. The data is deencapsulated as
it moves up the stack toward the end-user application.

ACTIVITY 3.3.1.5: IDENTIFY THE PDU LAYER

Go to the course online to perform this practice activity.

Accessing Local Resources (3.3.2)

To access a network resource, the data must be encapsulated with the

correct destination addresses and must also contain proper source ad-
dressing information to allow the destination device to reply. Accessing a
local network resource requires two types of addresses with different
roles.

Network Addresses and Data-Link Addresses (3.3.2.1)

The OSI model describes the processes of encoding, formatting, segment-

ing, and encapsulating data for transmission over the network. The net-
work layer and data link layer are responsible for delivering the data
from the source device or sender to the destination device or receiver.
Protocols at both layers contain source and destination addresses, but
their addresses have different purposes.

Network Address

The network layer, or Layer 3, logical address contains information re-

quired to deliver the IP packet from the source device to the destination
device. A Layer 3 IP address has two parts, the network prefix and the
host part. The network prefix is used by routers to forward the packet to
the proper network. The host part is used by the last router in the path to
deliver the packet to the destination device.

An IP packet contains two IP addresses:

Source IP address: The IP address of the sending device.

Destination IP address: The IP address of the receiving device. The des-

tination IP address is used by routers to forward a packet to its
destination.
Data Link Address

The data link, or Layer 2, physical address has a different role. The pur-
pose of the data-link address is to deliver the data-link frame from one
network interface to another network interface on the same network.
Before an IP packet can be sent over a wired or wireless network, it must
be encapsulated in a data-link frame so that it can be transmitted over the
physical medium, the actual network. Ethernet LANs and wireless LANs
are two examples of networks that have different physical media, each
with its own type of data-link protocol.

The IP packet is encapsulated into a data-link frame to be delivered to the

destination network. The source and destination data-link addresses are
added, as shown in Figure 3-17:

Source data-link address: The physical address of the device that is

sending the packet. Initially this is the NIC that is the source of the IP
packet.

Destination data-link address: The physical address of the network in-

terface of either the next-hop router or the network interface of the desti-
nation device.

Figure 3-17 Network Addresses and Data-Link Addresses

Communicating with a Device on the Same Network (3.3.2.2)

To understand how communication is successful in the network, it is im-

portant to understand the roles of both the network layer addresses and
the data-link addresses when a device is communicating with another de-
vice on the same network. In this example shown in Figure 3-18, we have
a client computer, PC1, communicating with a file server, FTP server, on
the same IP network.

Figure 3-18 Communication with a Device on the Same Network

Network Addresses

The network layer addresses, or IP addresses, indicate the network and

host address of the source and destination. The network portion of the
address will be the same; only the host or device portion of the address
will be different.

Source IP address: The IP address of the sending device, the client com-
puter PC1: 192.168.1.110.

Destination IP address: The IP address of the receiving device, FTP

server: 192.168.1.9.
Data Link Addresses

When the sender and receiver of the IP packet are on the same network,
the data-link frame is sent directly to the receiving device. On an Ethernet
network, the data-link addresses are known as Ethernet MAC addresses.
MAC addresses are 48-bit addresses that are physically embedded on the
Ethernet NIC. A MAC address is also known as the physical address or
burned-in address (BIA).

Source MAC address: This is the data-link address, or the Ethernet MAC
address, of the device that sends the IP packet, PC1. The MAC address of
the Ethernet NIC of PC1 is AA-AA-AA-AA-AA-AA.

Destination MAC address: When the receiving device is on the same

network as the sending device, this is the data-link address of the receiv-
ing device. In this example, the destination MAC address is the MAC ad-
dress of the FTP server: CC-CC-CC-CC-CC-CC.

The source and destination addresses are added to the Ethernet frame.
The frame with the encapsulated IP packet can now be transmitted from
PC1 directly to the FTP server.

MAC and IP Addresses (3.3.2.3)

MAC Addresses

It should now be clear that to send data to another host on the same LAN,
the source host must know both the physical and logical addresses of the
destination host. After this is known, it can create a frame and send it out
on the network media. The source host can learn the destination IP ad-
dress in a number of ways. For example, it can learn the IP address
through the use of the Domain Name System (DNS), or it can know the
destination IP address because the address is entered in the application
manually, such as when a user specifies the IP address of a destination
FTP server. But how does a host determine the Ethernet MAC address of
another device?

Most network applications rely on the logical IP address of the destina-

tion to identify the location of the communicating hosts. The data-link
MAC address is required to deliver the encapsulated IP packet inside the
Ethernet frame across the network to the destination.

The sending host uses a protocol called Address Resolution Protocol

(ARP) to discover the MAC address of any host on the same local network,
as shown in Figure 3-19. The sending host sends an ARP Request message
to the entire LAN. The ARP Request is a broadcast message. The ARP
Request contains the IP address of the destination device. Every device on
the LAN examines the ARP Request to see whether it contains its own IP
address. Only the device with the IP address contained in the ARP
Request responds with an ARP Reply. The ARP Reply includes the MAC ad-
dress associated with the IP address in the ARP Request.

Figure 3-19 Address Resolution Protocol

Accessing Remote Resources (3.3.3)

The method that a host uses to send messages to a destination on a re-

mote network differs from the way a host sends messages to a destination
on the same local network. When a host needs to send a message to an-
other host located on the same network, it will forward the message di-
rectly. A host will use ARP to discover the MAC address of the destination
host. It includes the destination IP address within the packet header and
encapsulates the packet into a frame containing the MAC address of the
destination and forwards it.
Default Gateway (3.3.3.1)

Configuring a Default Gateway

When a host needs to send a message to a remote network, it must use

the router, also known as the default gateway. The default gateway is the
IP address of an interface on a router on the same network as the sending
host.

It is important that the address of the default gateway be configured on

each host on the local network. If no default gateway address is config-
ured in the host TCP/IP settings, or if the wrong default gateway is speci-
fied, messages addressed to hosts on remote networks cannot be
delivered.

In the example shown in Figure 3-20, the hosts on the LAN are using R1
as the default gateway with its 192.168.1.1 address configured in their
TCP/IP settings. If the destination of a PDU is on a different IP network,
the hosts send the PDUs to the default gateway on the router for further
transmission.

Figure 3-20 Accessing Remote Resources

Communicating with a Device on a Remote Network (3.3.3.2)

But what are the roles of the network layer address and the data link
layer address when a device is communicating with a device on a remote
network? In this example, shown in Figure 3-21, we have a client com-
puter, PC1, communicating with a server, named Web Server, on a differ-
ent IP network.

Figure 3-21 Communicating with a Device on a Remote Network

Network Addresses

IP addresses indicate the network and device addresses of the source and
destination. When the sender of the packet is on a different network from
the receiver, the source and destination IP addresses will represent hosts
on different networks. This will be indicated by the network portion of
the IP address of the destination host.

Source IP address: The IP address of the sending device, the client com-
puter PC1: 192.168.1.110.

Destination IP address: The IP address of the receiving device, the

server, Web Server: 172.16.1.99.
Data Link Addresses

When the sender and receiver of the IP packet are on different networks,
the Ethernet data-link frame cannot be sent directly to the destination
host because the host is not directly reachable in the network of the
sender. The Ethernet frame must be sent to another device known as the
router or default gateway. In our example, the default gateway is R1. R1
has an interface and an IP address that is on the same network as PC1.
This allows PC1 to reach the router directly.

Source MAC address: The Ethernet MAC address of the sending device,
PC1. The MAC address of the Ethernet interface of PC1 is AA-AA-AA-AA-
AA-AA.

Destination MAC address: When the receiving device is on a different

network from the sending device, this is the Ethernet MAC address of the
default gateway or router. In this example, the destination MAC address
is the MAC address of the R1 Ethernet interface that is attached to the PC1
network, which is 11-11-11-11-11-11.

The Ethernet frame with the encapsulated IP packet can now be transmit-
ted to R1. R1 forwards the packet to the destination, Web Server. This can
mean that R1 forwards the packet to another router or directly to Web
Server if the destination is on a network connected to R1.

How does the sending device determine the MAC address of the router?

Each device knows the IP address of the router through the default gate-
way address configured in its TCP/IP settings. The default gateway ad-
dress is the address of the router interface connected to the same local
network as the source device. All devices on the local network use the de-
fault gateway address to send messages to the router. After the host
knows the default gateway IP address, it can use ARP to determine the
MAC address of that default gateway. The MAC address of the default
gateway is then placed in the frame.
 PACKET TRACER ACTIVITY 3.3.3.3: EXPLORE A NETWORK

This simulation activity is intended to help you understand the flow of

traffic and the contents of data packets as they traverse a complex net-
work. Communications will be examined at three different locations sim-
ulating typical business and home networks.

LAB 3.3.3.4: USING WIRESHARK TO VIEW NETWORK TRAFFIC

In this lab, you will complete the following objectives:

Part 1: Download and Install Wireshark

Part 2: Capture and Analyze Local ICMP Data in Wireshark

Part 3: Capture and Analyze Remote ICMP Data in Wireshark

Summary (3.4)

CLASS ACTIVITY 3.4.1.1: GUARANTEED TO WORK!

You have just completed the Chapter 3 content regarding network proto-
cols and standards.

Assuming that you resolved the beginning of this chapter’s modeling ac-
tivity, how would you compare the following steps taken to design a com-
munications system to the networking models used for communications?

Establishing a language to communicate

Dividing the message into small steps, delivered a little at a time, to fa-
cilitate understanding of the problem

Checking to see whether the data has been delivered fully and correctly

Timing needed to ensure quality data communication and delivery

Data networks are systems of end devices, intermediary devices, and the
media connecting the devices. For communication to occur, these devices
must know how to communicate.

These devices must comply with communication rules and protocols.

TCP/IP is an example of a protocol suite. Most protocols are created by a
standards organization such as the IETF or IEEE. The Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers is a professional organization for
those in the electrical engineering and electronics fields. ISO, the
International Organization for Standardization, is the world’s largest de-
veloper of international standards for a wide variety of products and
services.

The most widely used networking models are the OSI and TCP/IP models.
Associating the protocols that set the rules of data communications with
the different layers of these models is useful in determining which de-
vices and services are applied at specific points as data passes across
LANs and WANs.

Data that passes down the stack of the OSI model is segmented into pieces
and encapsulated with addresses and other labels. The process is re-
versed as the pieces are deencapsulated and passed up the destination
protocol stack. The OSI model describes the processes of encoding, for-
matting, segmenting, and encapsulating data for transmission over the
network.

The TCP/IP protocol suite is an open standard protocol that has been en-
dorsed by the networking industry and ratified, or approved, by a stan-
dards organization. The Internet protocol suite is a suite of protocols re-
quired for transmitting and receiving information using the Internet.

Protocol data units (PDU) are named according to the protocols of the
TCP/IP suite: data, segment, packet, frame, and bits.

Applying models allows individuals, companies, and trade associations to

analyze current networks and plan the networks of the future.

Practice

The following activities provide practice with the topics introduced in this
chapter. The labs and class activities are available in the companion The
Introduction to Networks Lab Manual (ISBN 978-1-58713-312-1). The
Packet Tracer Activities PKA files are found in the online course.

Class Activities

Class Activity 3.0.1.2: Designing a Communications System

Class Activity 3.4.1.1: Guaranteed to Work!

Labs

Lab 3.2.3.6: Researching Networking Standards

 Lab 3.2.4.7: Researching RFCs

Lab 3.3.3.4: Using Wireshark to View Network Traffic

Packet Tracer Activities

Packet Tracer Activity 3.2.4.6: Investigating the TCP/IP and OSI Models in
Action

Packet Tracer Activity 3.3.3.3: Explore a Network

Check Your Understanding

Complete all the review questions listed here to test your understanding
of the topics and concepts in this chapter. The appendix “Answers to the
‘Check Your Understanding’ Questions” lists the answers.

1. Which of the following elements do both human and computer com-

munication systems have in common? (Choose three.)

A. Source

B. Keyboard

C. Channel

D. Default gateway

E. Receiver

2. What happens to frames that are too long or too short for the channel
used?

A. They are broken up into smaller pieces.

B. They are dropped.

C. They clog the network and block the delivery of other frames.
D. They are returned to the sender.

E. They are delivered but much slower than proper-size frames.

3. Which message timing factor impacts how much information can be

sent and the speed at which it can be delivered?

A. Access method

B. Delay speed

C. Flow control

D. Response timeout

4. What is the name given to a one-to-many message delivery option?

A. Unicast

B. Multicast

C. Broadcast

D. Manycast

5. What name is given to a group of interrelated protocols necessary to

perform a communication function?

A. Functional collection

B. Functional protocol

C. Protocol suite

D. Protocol stack

6. What type of protocol describes communication over a data link and

the physical transmission of data on the network media?

A. Application protocol
B. Transport protocol

C. Internet protocol

D. Network access protocol

7. Which of the following are examples of proprietary protocols? (Choose

two.)

A. TCP/IP

B. ISO

C. AppleTalk

D. Novell NetWare

8. Which organization is responsible for the standard that defines Media

Access Control for wired Ethernet?

A. ISOC

B. IAB

C. IETF

D. IEEE

E. ISO

9. What organization is responsible for the overall management and de-

velopment of Internet standards?

A. IAB

B. IETF

C. IRTF

D. IEEE
E. ISO

10. Which organization is responsible for developing communications

standards for Voice over IP (VoIP) devices?

A. The Electronics Industry Alliance (EIA)

B. The Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA)

C. The International Telecommunications Union – Telecommunications

Standardization Sector (ITU-T)

D. The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN)

11. Which of the following TCP/IP protocols exist at the transport layer of
the TCP/IP reference model? (Choose two.)

A. HTTP

B. FTP

C. TCP

D. DNS

E. UDP

12. Which of the following OSI model layers have the same functionality
as the network access layer in the TCP/IP model? (Choose two.)

A. Application

B. Transport

C. Session

D. Physical

E. Presentation

F. Data link
G. Network

13. Which OSI reference model layer is responsible for common repre-
sentation of the data transferred between application layer services?

A. Application

B. Transport

C. Session

D. Physical

E. Presentation

F. Data link

G. Network

14. Which TCP/IP model layer is responsible for providing the best path
through the network?

A. Application

B. Transport

C. Internet

D. Network access

15. Which application layer protocol allows users on one network to reli-
ably transfer files to and from a host on another network?

A. HTTP

B. FTP

C. IMAP

D. TFTP
E. DHCP

16. What is the transport layer PDU?

A. Data

B. Segment

C. Packet

D. Frame

E. Bit

17. What is the correct order of data decapsulation?

A. Data > segment > packet > frame > bit

B. Bit > frame> segment > packet > data

C. Bit > frame > packet > segment > data

D. Data > frame > packet > segment > bit

E. Bit > packet > frame > segment > data

18. What pieces of information are required for a host to access resources
on the local network? (Choose three.)

A. Physical address

B. Network address

C. Process number (port)

D. Default gateway address

E. Host name

19. What pieces of information are required for a host to access resources
on a remote network? (Choose four.)
A. Physical address

B. Network address

C. Process number (port)

D. Default gateway address

E. Host name

20. What are some of the four major responsibilities of network

protocols?