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DATA COMMUNICATION&COMPUTER NETWORK

Chapter 1

Fundamentals of Data Communication and Computer Network

INTRODUCTION

• Computers are used to generate information. Generated information is not useful in itself.
The information must be delivered to the right person at the right time.
• Often information must be transmitted from one location to another. This process is called
data communication.
• Here, we will be concerned with the hardware, software and procedures used in data
communication.
• Electronic communication consists of telecommunication and data communications.
Telecommunication refers to the use of telephone, telegraph, and radio or television facility
to transmit information, either directly or via computer. Data communication means the
transfer of data or information between computers devices.

DATA COMMUNICATION:-

1. Data communication is the active process of transporting data from one point to another.
Networks are communication system designed to convey information from a point of source
to a point of destination.
2. In Simplest Form, when we talk about data communication, it involves exchange of data
between sender and receiver.
3. Computer works with binary language of zero and one .therefore one computer generates a
streams of zeros and ones and it sends to another computer ,to which it is connected in some
fashion .connection can be simple wire or wireless media as well.
4. These two computers need not be close to each other’s. They can be in different rooms, streets,
cities, countries.
5. Networks come in two flavors – local as in local area network, which cover a small area and
have a finite, relatively small, number of users and global or long-haul, which cover long-
distance and have an unlimited number of users.
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6. Telephone networks are long network. It refers to the transmission of the digital signals over a
communication channel between the transmitter and receiver computers. Communication is
possible only with wired and wireless connectivity of the computers with each other.

Data communication system depends on three fundamental characteristics:

• Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the
intended device or user and only by that device or user.

• Accuracy: The system must deliver data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable. Data sent by sender must receive by the
receiver in the same form as the one in which it was sent.

• Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data must travel from the
sender to the receiver in finite amount of time.
• Data delivered late are useless. In the case of video, audio and voice data, timely delivery
means delivering data as they are produced, in the same order that they are produced, and
without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.

Data Communication Component:-

The following are the basic components for working of communication system.

1. Transmitter
2. Receiver
3.Medium
4.Message
5. Protocol

The transmitter sends the message and the receiver receives the message. The medium is the channel
over which the message is sent and the protocol is the set of rules that guide show the data is
transmitted from encoding to decoding. The message of course is central to all the components. The
message is the data that is being communicated.
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Transmitter: The transmitter is the device that sends the message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, video camera, and so on.

Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, television, and so on.

Medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from sender to
receiver. It can consist of twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, laser or radio waves
(terrestrial or satellite microwave).

Message: The message is the transmission (data) to be communicated. It can consist of text, number,
pictures, sound, or video or any combination of these.

Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication. It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices maybe connected but not
communicating, just as a person speaking German cannot be understood by a person who speaks only
Japanese.
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DATA REPRESENTATION:

Data is collection of raw facts which is processed to deduce information. There may be different
forms in which data may be represented. Some of the forms of data used in communications are as
follows:
1. Text
Text includes combination of alphabets in small case as well as upper case. It is stored as a pattern
of bits. Prevalent encoding system : ASCII, Unicode
2. Numbers
Numbers include combination of digits from 0 to 9.It is stored as a pattern of bits. Prevalent
encoding system: ASCII, Unicode
3. Images
An image is worth a thousand words‖ is a very famous saying. In computers images are digitally
stored. A Pixel is the smallest element of an image. To put it in simple terms, a picture or image is
a matrix of pixel elements. The pixels are represented in the form of bits. Depending upon the type
of image (black n white or color) each pixel would require different number of bits to represent the
value of a pixel. The size of an image depends upon the number of pixels (also called resolution)
and the bit pattern used to indicate the value of each pixel. Example: if an image is purely black
and white (two color) each pixel can be represented by a value either 0 or 1, so an image made up
of 10 x 10 pixel elements would require only 100 bits in memory to be stored. On the other hand
an image that includes gray may require 2bits to represent every pixel value (00 - black, 01 – dark
gray, 10– light gray, 11 –white). So the same 10 x 10 pixel image would
now require 200 bits of memory to be stored. Commonly used Image formats : jpg, png, bmp, etc
4. Audio
Data can also be in the form of sound which can be recorded and broadcasted. Example: What we
hear on the radio is a source of data or information. Audio data is continuous, not discrete.
5. Video:-Video refers to broadcasting of data in form of picture or movie

PROTOCOL:

• A Protocol is set of rules and conventions that governs data communications .the sender
and receiver , the two key parties in data communication , must agree on common set of
rules ,i.e. protocols before they can communicate with each other.
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• Just person speak in French cannot communicate with another person who understand
English, two devices that are connected to each other need not necessarily be able to
communicate with each other unless they agree on a set of data communication protocol .
• The sending device cannot just send the data and expect the receiving device to receive and
further interpret it correctly.
• When the sender sends a message it may consist of text, number, images, etc. which are
converted into bits and grouped into blocks to be transmitted and often certain additional
information called control information is also added to help the receiver interpret the data.
For successful communication to occur, the sender and receiver must agree upon certain
rules called protocol.

A Protocol is defined as a set of rules that governs data communications.

A protocol defines what is to be communicated, how it is to be communicated and when it is to be
communicated.

Elements of a Protocol:-
There are three key elements of a protocol:
A. Syntax- (What is to be Communicated ?):-

It means the structure or format of the data. This means that the order in which it is to be sent is
delivered .for instance protocol , a protocol could define that the first 16 bits of any data
transmission must always contain the receiver’s address.
B. Semantics:-(How it is to be communicated?):-

1) It defines the interpretation of data that is being sent .for example, the semantic could define
that ,if last two bits of the receiver’s address field contains 00 ,it means that sender and receiver on
the same network.

2) It also tells what action/decision is to be taken based on the interpretation.

C. Timing:-(when it should be communicated?)

This refers to the agreement of the sender and receiver about data transmission and rates and
duration. For instance, protocol could demand that sender must send 1000 bytes and wait for
acknowledgement from the receiver before sending any data.
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STANDARDS IN NETWORKING:

Standards are necessary in networking to ensure interconnectivity and interoperability between

various networking hardware and software components. Without standards we would have
proprietary products creating isolated islands of users which cannot interconnect.

Concept of Standard:-
Standards provide guidelines to product manufacturers and vendors to ensure national and
international interconnectivity. Data communications standards are classified into two
categories:
1. De facto Standard
1. These are the standards that have been traditionally used and mean by fact or by convention
2. These standards are not approved by any organized body but are adopted by widespread use.
2. De jure standard
o It means by law or by regulation.
o These standards are legislated and approved by an body that is officially recognized. These are
usually led by governments or government appointment agencies.
Standard Organizations in field of Networking
1. International Standard Organization (ISO) ISO:-

• 1.It is well known multinational standard body. Most members of ISO are representative
of their respective governments. It created in 1947 , ISO is non-profitable standard
creation organization’s(open system Interconnection) model as networking protocol is big
contribution of ISO to the data communication world.
• 2. It is the international organization for standardization on a wide range of subjects. It is
comprised mainly of members from the standards committee of various governments
throughout the world. It is even responsible for developing models which provides high
level of system compatibility, quality enhancement, improved productivity and reduced
costs. The ISO is also responsible for endorsing and coordinating the work of the other
standards organizations.

2. International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunication Sector (ITU-T) ITU-T :

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• This committee was formed by united nations in response to demand from the nations, who
were developing their own national standards for data communication in the early in 1970s
,leading to issues of incompatibility with each other.
• The V series standers for use in modem (e.g. V.32),X series standards for public digital
network(e.g. X.25), email (e.g. X.400) & the integrated Digital Services Network (ISDN)
are some of the major contribution of ITU_ T Data Communication .
• It is one of the four permanent parts of the International Telecommunications Union based
in Geneva, Switzerland. It has developed three sets of specifications: the V series for
modem interfacing and data transmission over telephone lines, the X series for data
transmission over public digital networks, email and directory services; the I and Q series
for Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and its extension Broadband ISDN. ITU-T
membership consists of government authorities and representatives from many countries
and it is the present standards organization for the United Nations.

3. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) :-

• IEEE is an international professional organization founded in United States and is

compromised of electronics, computer and communications engineers. It is currently the
world’s largest professional society with over 200,000 members.
• It develops communication and information processing standards with the underlying goal
of advancing theory, creativity, and product quality in any field related to electrical
engineering.

4. American National Standards Institute (ANSI):-

• ANSI is the official standards agency for the United States and is the U.S voting
representative for the ISO. ANSI is a completely private, non-profit organization comprised
of equipment manufacturers and users of data processing equipment and services.
• ANSI membership is comprised of people form professional societies, industry
associations, governmental and regulatory bodies, and consumer goods.

5. Electronics Industry Association (EIA) :-

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• EIA is a non-profit U.S. trade association that establishes and recommends industrial
standards. EIA activities include standards development, increasing public awareness, and
lobbying and it is responsible for developing the RS (recommended standard) series of
standards for data and communications.
6. Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA):-
• TIA is the leading trade association in the communications and information technology
industry. It facilitates business development opportunities through market development,
trade promotion, trade shows, and standards development.
• It represents manufacturers of communications and information technology products and
also facilitates the convergence of new communications networks.

oExamples of Standard Creation Committees :

1. International Organization for Standardization(ISO)
2. International Telecommunications Union –
Telecommunications Standard (ITU-T)
3. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
4. Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers(IEEE)
5. Electronic Industries Associates (EIA)
o Examples of Forums
1. ATM Forum
2. MPLS Forum
3. Frame Relay Forum
o Examples of Regulatory Agencies:
1. Federal Communications Committee (FCC)

BANDWIDTH OF A SIGNAL

• Bandwidth can be defined as the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied by the
signal. It may also be defined as the frequency range over which a signal is transmitted.
Different types of signals have different bandwidth.
• Ex. Voice signal, music signal, etc Bandwidth of analog and digital signals are calculated
in separate ways; analog signal bandwidth is measured in terms of its frequency (hz) but
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digital signal bandwidth is measured in terms of bit rate (bits per second, bps)Bandwidth of
signal is different from bandwidth of the medium/channel
• Bandwidth of composite signal is the difference between highest and the lowest
frequencies contained in the signal.

Bandwidth= Highest Frequency(H) - Lowest Frequency(L).

The bandwidth of periodic and non periodic composite signals

If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700,
and 900 Hz, what is its bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all components have a
maximum amplitude of 10 V.

Solution

Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and B the bandwidth. Then

The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz.
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The bandwidth

Bandwidth of an analog signal:-

Bandwidth of an analog signal is expressed in terms of its frequencies. It is defined as the range of
frequencies that the composite analog signal carries. It is calculated by the difference between the
maximum frequency and the minimum frequency. Consider the signal shown in the diagram
below:

The signal shown in the diagram is an composite analog signal with many component signals. It
has a minimum frequency of F1 = 30Hz and maximum, frequency of F2 = 90Hz.
Hence the bandwidth is given by F2 – F1 = 90 – 30 = 60 Hz
Bandwidth of a digital signal
It is defined as the maximum bit rate of the signal to be transmitted. It is measured in bits per
second.

BANDWIDTH OF A CHANNEL
A channel is the medium through which the signal carrying information will be passed.
In terms of analog signal, bandwidth of the channel is the range of frequencies that the channel can
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carry. In terms of digital signal, bandwidth of the channel is the maximum bit rate supported by the
channel. i.e. the maximum amount of data that the channel can carry per second. The bandwidth of
the medium should always be greater than the bandwidth of the signal to be transmitted else the
transmitted signal will be either attenuated or distorted or both leading in loss of information.

The channel bandwidth determines the type of signal to be

transmitted i.e. analog or digital.
3 THE MAXIMUM DATA RATE OF A CHANNEL
Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
The quality of the channel indicates two types:
a) A Noiseless or Perfect Channel
An ideal channel with no noise.
The Nyquist Bit rate derived by Henry Nyquist gives the bit rate for a Noiseless Channel.
b) A Noisy Channel
A realistic channel that has some noise. The Shannon Capacity formulated by Claude
Shannon gives the bit rate for a Noisy Channel
Nyquist Bit Rate
The Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical maximum bit rate for a noiseless channel

Where,
Bit rate is the bit rate of the channel in bits per second .Bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel
L is the number of signal levels.
Example
What is the maximum bit rate of a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 5000 Hz transmitting a
signal with two signal levels.
Solution:
The bit rate for a noiseless channel according to Nyquist Bit rate can be calculated as follows:
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Bit Rate = 2 x Bandwidth x Log2 L

= 2 x 5000 x log2 2 =10000 bps

Shannon Capacity
The Shannon Capacity defines the theoretical maximum bitrate for a noisy channel

Where,
Capacity is the capacity of the channel in bits per second
Bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel SNR is the Signal to Noise Ratio.
Shannon Capacity for calculating the maximum bit rate for a noisy channel does not consider the
number of levels of the signals being transmitted as done in the Nyquist bit rate.
Example:
Calculate the bit rate for a noisy channel with SNR 300 and bandwidth of 3000Hz
Solution:
The bit rate for a noisy channel according to Shannon Capacity can be calculated as follows:
Capacity=bandwidth X log2 (1 +SNR)
= 3000 x log2 (1 + 300)
= 3000 x log2 ( 301)
= 3000 x 8.23
= 24,690bps

• DATA FLOW (Modes of communication)

Two devices communicate with each other by sending and receiving data. The data can flow
between the two devices in the following ways.
1. Simplex
2. Half Duplex
3. Full Duplex
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In Simplex, communication is unidirectional Only one of the devices sends the data and the other
one only receives the data. Example: in the above diagram: a CPU send data while a monitor only
receives data.

Half Duplex:-

cx

In half duplex both the stations can transmit as well as receive but not at the same time.
When one device is sending other can only receive and vice versa (as shown in figure
above.)Example: A walkie-talkie.

Full Duplex:-

In Full duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receiveat the same time.
Example: mobile phones
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Signals:

Computer networks are designed to transfer data from one point to another. During transit data is
in the form of electromagnetic signals. Hence it is important to study data and signals before we
move to further concepts in data communication.

Signal-Signal are generated as physical representations of Data. signal is a function of time and
location.

DATA & SIGNALS

To be transmitted, data must be transformed to electromagnetic signals. Data can be Analog or Digital.
1. Analog data:-refers to information that is continuous; ex. sounds made by a human voice

2. Digital data:-For example, data are stored in computer memory in the form of Os and 1s.They have
limited number of defined values

Periodic and Non Periodic signals:-

Signals which repeat itself after a fixed time period are called Periodic Signals. Signals which do
not repeat itself after a fixed time period are called Non-Periodic Signals. In data communications,
we commonly use periodic analog signals and non-periodic digital signals.

ANALOG SIGNAL:-

Analog signal is continuously varying signal.They have infinite values in a range.An analog signal has
infinitely many levels of intensity over aperiod of time.As the wave moves from value A to value B, it
passesthrough and includes an infinite number of values along itspath as it can be seen in the figure
below.A simple analog signal is a sine wave that cannot be furtherdecomposed into simpler signals.
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A sine wave is characterized by three parameters:

1. Peak Amplitude
2. Frequency
3. Phase

Characteristics of an Analog Signal

Peak Amplitude
The amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of its intensity at time t The peak amplitude of a
signal is the absolute value of the highest intensity. The amplitude of a signal is proportional to the
energy carried by the signal.

Frequency
Frequency refers to the number of cycles completed by the wave in one second.Period refers to the
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time taken by the wave to complete one second.

Phase:-Phase describes the position of the waveform with respect to time (specifically elative to t
time O

).

Phase indicates the forward or backward shift of the waveform from the axis It is measured in
degrees or radian The figure above shows the sine waves with same amplitude and frequency but
different phases
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Relation between Frequency &Period Frequency& Period are inverse of each other.
It is indicated by the following formula:

Example1. A wave has a frequency of 100hz. Its period(T) is given

by
T = 1/ F = 1/ 100 = 0.01 sec
Example2. A wave completes its one cycle in 0.25 seconds. Its
frequency is given by
F = 1 / T = 1 / 0.25 = 4 Hz

Wavelength
The wavelength of a signal refers to the relationship between frequency (or period) and
propagation speed of the wave through a medium. The wavelength is the distance a signal travels
in one period. It is given by Wavelength = Propagation Speed X Period
OR
Wavelength =Propagation Speed X 1 / Frequency
It is represented by the symbol : λ (pronounced as lamda)
It is measured in micrometers
It varies from one medium to another.

Time Domain and Frequency domain representation of signals

A sine wave can be represented either in the time domain or frequency domain.
The time-domain plot shows changes in signal amplitude with respect to time. It indicates time
and amplitude relation of a signal.
The frequency-domain plot shows signal frequency and peak amplitude.
The figure below show time and frequency domain plots of three sine waves.
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A complete sine wave in the time domain can be represented by one single spike in the frequency
domain

Composite Signal
A composite signal is a combination of two or more simple sine waves with different frequency,
phase and amplitude. If the composite signal is periodic, the decomposition gives a series of
signals with discrete frequencies; if the composite signal is non-periodic, the decomposition gives
a combination of sine waves with continuous frequencies.

For data communication a simple sine wave is not useful, what is used is a composite signal which
is a combination of many simple sine waves. According to French Mathematician, Jean Baptist,
any composite signal is a combination of simple sine waves with different amplitudes and
frequencies and phases. Composite signals can be periodic or non periodic. A periodic composite
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signal can be decomposed into a series of signals with discrete frequencies. A non-periodic signal
when decomposed gives a combination of sine waves with continuous frequencies.

Digital Signal:-refers to information that has discrete states Digital data take on discrete values.

It takes the form of pulses, where we have something or nothing (i.e. 0 or 1) can be used to plot a
digital signal. Information can also be explained in the form of a digital signal. A digital signal can
be explained with the help of following points:

Definition:-
A digital is a signal that has discrete values. The signal will have value that is not continuous.

LEVEL
Information in a digital signal can be represented in the form of voltage levels.
Ex. In the signal shown below, a ‗1‘ is represented by appositive voltage and a ‗0‘ is represented
by a Zero voltage

A Signal can have more than two levels

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In general, if a signal has L levels then, each level needLog2L bits

Example: Consider a digital Signal with four levels, how many bits are required per level?
Answer: Number of bits per level = Log2L
= Log24
=2
Hence, 2 bits are required per level for a signal with four levels.

BIT LENGTH or Bit Interval (Tb)

It is the time required to send one bit. It is measured in seconds.

BIT RATE
It is the number of bits transmitted in one second. It is expressed as bits per second (bps).
Relation between bit rate and bit interval can be as follows
Bit rate = 1 / Bit interval.

A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are needed per level? We calculate the number of
bits from the formula

Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.

Baud Rate
It is the rate of Signal Speed, i.e the rate at which the signal changes. A digital signal with two
levels ‘0‘ & ‘1‘ will have the same baud rate and bit rate .The diagram below shows three signal of
period (T) /second
a) Signal with a bit rate of 8 bits/ sec and baud rate of 8baud/sec
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b) Signal with a bit rate of 16 bits/ sec and baud rate of 8baud/sec
c) Signal with a bit rate of 16 bits/ sec and baud rate of 4baud/sec
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TYPES OF CHANNELS:

Each composite signal has a lowest possible(minimum)frequency and a highest possible

(maximum) frequency. From the point of view of transmission, there are two types of
channels:

Low pass Channel

This channel has the lowest frequency as ‗0‘ and highest frequency as some non-zero frequency
‗f1‘.This channel can pass all the frequencies in the range 0 to f1.

Band pass channel

This channel has the lowest frequency as some non-zero frequency ‗f1‘ and highest frequency as
some non-zero frequency ‗f2‘.This channel can pass all the frequencies in the range f1 to f2.

Transmission of Digital signal

Digital signal can be transmitted in the following two ways:

Baseband Transmission

The signal is transmitted without making any change to it (ie. Without modulation).
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Baseband transmission of a digital signal that preserves the shape of the digital signal is
possible only if we have a low-pass channel with an infinite or very wide bandwidth.

In baseband transmission, the required bandwidth is proportional to the bit rate;

if we need to send bits faster, we need more bandwidth.

In baseband transmission, the bandwidth of the signal to be transmitted has to be less than the
bandwidth of the channel.
Ex. Consider a Baseband channel with lower frequency0Hz and higher frequency 100Hz, hence its
bandwidth is100 (Bandwidth is calculated by getting the difference between the highest and lowest
frequency).We can easily transmit a signal with frequency below 100Hz, such a channel whose
bandwidth is more than the bandwidth of the signal is called Wideband channel Logically a signal
with frequency say 120Hz will be blocked resulting in loss of information, such a channel whose
bandwidth is less than the bandwidth of the signal is called Narrowband channel

2.6.2 Broad band Transmission

Given a band pass channel, a digital signal cannot be transmitted directly through it In broadband
transmission we use modulation, i.e we change the signal to analog signal before transmitting it.
The digital signal is first converted to an analog signal, since we have a band pass channel we
cannot directly send this signal through the available channel.

Ex. Consider the band pass channel with lower frequency 50Hz and higher frequency 80Hz, and
the signal to be transmitted has frequency 10Hz. To pass the analog signal through the and pass
channel, the signal is modulated using a carrier frequency.

Ex.The analog signal (10Hz) is modulated by a carrier frequency of 50Hz resulting in an signal of
frequency60Hz which can pass through our band pass channel. The signal is demodulated and
again converted into an digital signal at the other end as shown in the figure below.
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Digital Transmission
Introduction:-
Data or information can be stored in two ways, analog and digital. For a computer to use that data
is must be in discrete digital form. Like data, signals can also be in analog and digital form. To
transmit data digitally it needs to be first converted to digital form.
Digital-to-digital conversion

• This section explains how to convert digital data into digital signals. It can be done in two
ways, line coding and block coding.
• For all communications, line coding is necessary whereas block coding is optional.Line
Coding
The process for converting digital data into digital signal is said to be Line Coding.
• Digital data is found in digital format, which is binary bits. It is represented (stored)
internally as series of 1s and 0s.
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Digital signals which represents digital data, represented as discrete signals. There are three types
of line coding schemes available:

UNI-POLAR ENCODING
Unipolar encoding schemes uses single voltage level to represent data. In this case, to represent
binary 1 high
voltage is transmitted and to represent 0 no voltage is transmitted. It is also called Unipolar-Non-
return-to-zero,
because there’s no rest condition i.e. it either represents 1 or 0.

POLAR ENCODING
Polar encoding schemes multiple voltage levels are used to represent binary values. Polar
encodings are available in
four types:
• POLAR-NRZ (NON-RETURN TO ZERO)
It uses two different voltage levels to represent binary values, generally positive voltage represents
1 and negative
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value represents 0. It is also NRZ because there’s no rest condition.

NRZ scheme has two variants: NRZ-L and NRZ-

NRZ-L changes voltage level at when a different bit is encountered whereas NRZ-I changes
voltage when a 1 is
encountered.
• RZ (RETURN TO ZERO)
Problem with NRZ was the receiver cannot conclude when a bit ended and when the next bit is
started, in case when
sender and receiver’s clock are not synchronized.

Zero Encoding]
RZ uses three voltage levels, positive voltage to represent 1, negative voltage to represent 0 and
zero voltage for
none. Signals change during bits not between bits.
• MANCHESTER
This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-L. Bit time is divided into two halves. It
transitions at the
middle of the bit and changes phase when a different bit is encountered.
• DIFFERENTIAL MANCHESTER
This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-I. It also transitions at the middle of the bit
but changes
phase only when 1 is encountered.
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BIPOLAR ENCODING
Bipolar encoding uses three voltage levels, positive, negative and zero. Zero voltage represents
binary 0 and bit 1 is
represented by altering positive and negative voltages.

Block Coding

• To ensure accuracy of data frame received, redundant bits are used. For example, in even
parity one parity bit is added to make the count of 1s in the frame even. This way the original
number of bits are increased. It is called Block Coding.
• Block coding is represented by slash notation, mB/nB, that is m-bit block is substituted
with n-bit block where n > m.
Block coding involves three steps: division, substitution and combination.
After block coding is done it is line coded for transmission.

Analog-to-Analog Conversion
Analog signals are modified to represent analog data. This conversion is also known as Analog
Modulation. Analog modulation is required when band pass is used. Analog to analog conversion can
be done in three ways:

• Amplitude Modulation

In this modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal is modified to reflect the analog data.
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Amplitude modulation is implemented by means of a multiplier. The amplitude of modulating

signal (analog data) is multiplied by the amplitude of carrier frequency, which then reflects
analog data.

The frequency and phase of carrier signal remain unchanged.

• Frequency Modulation

In this modulation technique, the frequency of the carrier signal is modified to reflect the
change in the voltage levels of the modulating signal (analog data).

The amplitude and phase of the carrier signal are not altered.

• Phase Modulation

In the modulation technique, the phase of carrier signal is modulated in order to reflect the change
in voltage (amplitude) of analog data signal.
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Phase modulation is practically similar to Frequency Modulation, but in Phase modulation

frequency of the carrier signal is not increased. Frequency of carrier is signal is changed (made dense
and sparse) to reflect voltage change in the amplitude of modulating signal.

ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION:

The tendency today is to change an analog signal to digital data. In this section we describe two
techniques, pulse code modulation and delta modulation.

1.Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

2.Delta Modulation (DM)

1.Pulse Code Modulation (PCM):-

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Figure 4.21 Components of PCM encoder

PCM encoder has three Processes

1. Analog signal is sampled .

2. Sample signal is quientized .
3. Quientized values are encoded as stream of Bits.

1.Sampling of Analog Signal]

The analog signal is sampled every T interval. Most important factor in sampling is the rate on which
analog signal is sampled. According to Nyquist Theorem, the sampling rate must be at least two times
of the highest frequency of the signal.

Sample signal is quantized:-Quantization of sampled analog signal]

Sampling yields discrete form of continuous analog signal. Every discrete pattern shows the amplitude
of the analogsignal at that instance. The quantization is done between the maximum amplitude value
and the minimum amplitudevalue. Quantization is approximation of the instantaneous analog value.
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ENCODING:-In encoding, each approximated value is then converted into binary format.

Three different sampling methods for PCM

Three different sampling methods for PCM

Delta Modulation :-Delta modulation is a Differential Pulse Code modulation (DPCM) technique in
which the difference signal is encoded into a single bit.

• Delta modulation provides a staircase approximation of the input sampled signal where only
one bit per sample is transmitted.
• This one bit is sent by comparing the present sample value with the previous sample value and
the result whether the amplitude is to be increased or decreased is transmitted.
• If the step is reduced, 0 is transmitted and if the step is increased then 1 is transmitted.
• The Fig1 illustrates the block diagram of Delta modulation transmitter.
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Delta modulation transmitter

• Sample and hold circuit will sample the analog input signal into Pulse amplitude modulated
(PAM) signal.
• The generated PAM signal is given as one of the input to the comparator and the other input is
a signal from DAC output.
• The Up-down counter stores the magnitude of the previous sample in the binary value.
• This binary number is converted into equivalent voltage in the Digital-to-analog converter
(DAC).
• The PAM signal and the DAC output are compared in the comparator, which implies that the
sampled signal is compared against the previous sample to increase or decrease the amplitude
of the DM signal.
• The Up-down counter is incremented or decremented depending on whether the previous
sample is larger or smaller than the current sample.
• This counter is clocked at a rate equal to the sample rate, which is updated after each
comparison.
• Depending on the results of comparison, the output of the comparator generates the Delta pulse
code modulated signal.
• The Fig2 illustrates the block diagram of Delta modulation receiver.
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Delta modulation transmitter

• The receiver of the delta modulator consists of DAC, up/down counter and LPF. It does not
contain the comparator.
• The Delta PCM signal is fed to the up/down counter which works at the same sample rate as
transmitter.
• Depending on the binary input received the value in the up/down counter is accordingly
incremented or decremented.
• Based on the input received from the up/down counter, DAC will generate the output PAM
signal. The output signal of DAC in the transmitter and receiver is identical to reconstruct the
signal.
• This signal is then allowed to pass through a low pass filter which will filter out the high
frequency components from the signal and thus produce the original analog signal.

DM is the simplest form of differential pulse-code modulation (DPCM) where the difference
between successive samples are encoded into n-bit data streams. In delta modulation, the
transmitted data are reduced to a 1-bit data stream. Its main features are: The analog signal is
approximated with a series of segments.

OR
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The process of delta modulation

Delta modulation components

The delta demodulator comprises of a low pass filter, a summer, and a delay circuit. The predictor
circuit is eliminated here and hence no assumed input is given to the demodulator.

Delta modulation was introduced in the 1940s as a simplified form of pulse code modulation
(PCM), which required a difficult-to-implement analog-to-digital (A/D) converter.

Delta demodulation components

Digital-to-Analog Conversion
When data from one computer is sent to another via some analog carrier, it is first converted into
analog signals. Analog signals are modified to reflect digital data.

An analog signal is characterized by its amplitude, frequency, and phase. There are three kinds of
digital-to-analog conversions:

• Amplitude Shift Keying

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In this conversion technique, the amplitude of analog carrier signal is modified to reflect
binary data.

When binary data represents digit 1, the amplitude is held; otherwise it is set to 0. Both
frequency and phase remain same as in the original carrier signal.

Phase Shift Keying

In this conversion scheme, the phase of the original carrier signal is altered to reflect the binary data.

• When a new binary symbol is encountered, the phase of the signal is altered. Amplitude and
frequency of the original carrier signal is kept intact.

• Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

QPSK alters the phase to reflect two binary digits at once. This is done in two different
phases. The main stream of binary data is divided equally into two sub-streams. The serial
data is converted in to parallel in both sub-streams and then each stream is converted to digital
signal using NRZ technique. Later, both the digital signals are merged together.

COMPUTER NETWORK:-
A computer network is interconnection of various computer systems located at different places.

In computer network two or more computers are linked together with a medium and data
communication devices for the purpose of communicating data and sharing resources.
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The computer that provides resources to other computers on a network is known as server.
In the network the individual computers, which access shared network resources,

Characteristics of a Computer Network:-

The primary purpose of a computer network is to share resources:

• You can play a CD music from one computer while sitting on another computer
• You may have a computer that doesn’t have a DVD or BluRay (BD) player. In this case,
you can place a movie disc (DVD or BD) on the computer that has the player, and then
view the movie on a computer that lacks the player. You may have a computer with a
CD/DVD/BD writer or a backup system but the other computer doesn’t have it. In this
case, you can burn discs or make backups on a computer that has one of these but using
data from a computer that doesn’t have a disc writer or a backup system.
• You can connect a printer (or a scanner, or a fax machine) to one computer and let other
computers of the network print (or scan, or fax) to that printer (or scanner, or fax machine)
• You can place a disc with pictures on one computer and let other computers access those
pictures You can create files and store them in one computer ,t hen access those files from
the other computer(s)connected to it

Concept of Networking:
A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of hardware components
and computers interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and
information. Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of characteristics such as the
medium used to transport the data, communications protocol used, scale, topology, and
organizational scope. The rules and data formats for exchanging information in a computer
network are defined by communications protocols.

Properties of Network
1. Facilitate communications:
Using a network, people can communicate efficiently and easily via email, instant messaging, chat
rooms, telephone, video telephone calls, and video conferencing.
2. Permit sharing of files, data, and other types of information
In a network environment, authorized users may access data and information stored on other
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computers on the network. The capability of providing access to data and information on shared
storage devices is an important feature of many networks.

3. Share Network and computing resources

In a networked environment, each computer on a network may access and use resources
provided by devices on the network, such as printing a document on a shared network printer.
Distributed computing uses computing resources
across a network to accomplish tasks.

BENEFITS OF NETWORK
1)File sharing: Network file sharing between computers gives you more flexibility than using
floppy drives or Zip drives. Not only can you share photos, music files, and documents, you can
also use a home network to save copies of all of your important data on a different computer.
Backups are one of the most critical yet
overlooked tasks in home networking.
2) Printer / peripheral sharing: Once a home network is in place, it’s then easy to set up all of
the computers to share a single printer. No longer will you need to bounce from one system or
another just to print out an email message. Other computer peripherals can be shared similarly
such as network scanners, Web cams, and CD burners.
3) Internet connection sharing: Using a home network, multiple family members can access the
Internet simultaneously without having to pay an ISP for multiple accounts. You will notice the
Internet connection slows down when several people share it, but broadband Internet can handle
the extra load with little trouble.
4) Multi-player games: Many popular home computer games support LAN mode where friends
and family can play together, if they have their computers networked.
5) Internet telephone service: Voice over IP (VoIP)services allows you to make and receive
phone calls through your home network across the Internet.

6)Home entertainment: Newer home entertainment products such as digital video recorders
(DVRs) and video game consoles now support either wired or wireless home networking. Having
these products integrated into your network enables online Internet gaming, video sharing and other
advanced features.
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APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER NETWORKING

The main reason is that each computer network is designed with a specific purpose. Due to
advancement in Computer Networks field we are now moving from personalized computing to
network computing. Therefore, its application is increasing every day.

For example, a computer network in an office is used to connect computers in a smaller area, and it
provides fast communication between the office persons/machines. The following is the list of some
general application of computer network:
Resource sharing
Using networks we can share any resource, CPU processing power, peripherals like printers, scanners,
etc, information like files and data and even software. This sharing is done by communicating the
machine through whom we want to share.
Personal communication
There are many examples available with us for personal communication through computer networks,
like email, chatting, audio/video conferencing, etc
Information Broadcasting and Search
This is also a mostly used application like website, blogs, social networking website, search engines,
etc. Computer network provide us tremendous opportunity for information broadcasting, display,
searching and information retrieval. Apart from these commonly used applications of computer
networks we have following specific applications of computer networking.
Some Specific end applications:
Campus-wide computing and resources sharing
Collaborative research and development
Integrated system for design + manufacturing + inventory
Electronic commerce, publishing and digital libraries
Multimedia communication (tele-training, etc.)
Health-care delivery (remote diagnosis, telemedicine)
Video-on-demand.
On-line learning.
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Computer Network

Computer Network is a system of interconnected computers that enable the computers to

communicate with each other and share their resources, data and applications. The physical
location of each computer is tailored to personal and organizational needs. A network may include
only personal computers or a mix of PCs, minis and mainframes spanning a particular geographical
area. Computer networks that are commonly used today may be classified as follows:

1. Based on geographical area:

1. Local Area Networks (LANs)
2. Wide Area Networks(WANs)
3. Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
4. Personal Area Network (PAN)

TYPES OF NETWORK
There are many different types of networks. However, from an
end user’s point of view there are three basic types:

• Personal Area Network

• Campus Area Networko
• Local Area Network
• Wide Area Network
• Metropolitan Area Network

Local Area Network (LAN):

• LAN Area network is a local area network (LAN) supplies networking capability to a
group of computers in close proximity to each other such as in an office building, a
school, or a home. A LAN is useful for sharing resources like files, printers, games or
other applications.
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• A LAN in turn often connects to other LANs, and to the Internet or other WAN. Most
local area networks are built with relatively inexpensive hardware such as Ethernet
cables, network adapters, and hubs. Wireless LAN and other more advanced LAN
hardware options also exist.
• LAN is a computer network that spans a relatively small area. Most LANs are confined
to a single building or group of buildings. However, one LAN can be connected to
other LANs over any distance via telephone lines and radio waves.
• Most LANs connect workstations and personal computers. Each node (individual
computer) in a LAN has its own CPU with which it executes programs, but it is also
able to access data and devices anywhere on the LAN.
• This means that many users can share expensive devices, such as laser printers, as well
as data. Users can also use the LAN to communicate with each other, by sending e-mail
or engaging in chat sessions. There are many different types of LANs-token ring
networks, Ethernets, and ARC nets being the most common for PCs.

• LAN is a group of computers that are connected in a small area such as building, home,
etc. Through this type of network, users can easily communicate with each other by
sending and receiving messages.
• LAN is generally used for connecting two or more personal computers through some
medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable etc. Through the number of computers
connected in a LAN is limited, the data is transferred at an extremely faster rate.
• LAN is a network which is designed to operate over a small physical area such as an
office, factory or a group of buildings.
• LAN’s are easy to design and troubleshoot
• Exchange of information and sharing of resources becomes easy because of LAN.
• In LAN all machines are connected to a single cable.
• Different types of topologies such as star, tree, bus, ring, etc Can be used It is usually a
privately owned network.
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Characteristics of LAN
• Very high degree of interconnection between the computers
• High rate of data transmission
• Physical connection of computers in a LAN is easy
• Every computer in the LAN can communicate with every other computer.
• The medium used for data transmission is inexpensive.

Advantages of LAN:-
• High reliability .Failure of individual computers does not affect the entire LAN.
• It is possible to add a new computer easily.
• The transmission of data is at a very high rate.
• Sharing of peripheral devices such as printer is possible

• Wide Area Networks (WANs):-

The term Wide Area Network (WAN) usually refers to a network which covers a large
geographical area, and use communications circuits to connect the intermediate nodes.
• A major factor impacting WAN design and performance is a requirement that they lease
communications circuits from telephone companies or other communications carriers.
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Transmission rates are typically 2 Mbps, 34 Mbps, 45 Mbps, 155 Mbps, 625 Mbps (or
sometimes considerably more).
• When network spans over a large distance or when the computers to be connected to each other
are at widely separated locations a local area network cannot be used. A wide area
network(WAN) is installed. The communication between different users of WAN is
established using leased telephone lines, satellite links and similar channels.
• It is cheaper and more efficient to use the phone network for the link.
• Most WAN networks are used to transfer large blocks of data between its users.
• WAN is a group of computers that are connected in a large area such as continent, country, etc.
WAN is generally used for connecting two or more LANs through some medium such as
leased telephone lines, microwaves, etc. In WAN, data is transferred at slow rate.

When network spans over a large distance or when the computers to be connected to each other are at
widely separated locations a local area network cannot be used.

A wide area network(WAN) is installed. The communication between different users of WAN is
established using leased telephone lines, satellite links and similar channels.

It is cheaper and more efficient to use the phone network for the link. Most WAN networks are used
to transfer large blocks of data between its users.

Characteristics of WAN:-

• Remote data entry and access is possible.

• Communication facility is provided.
• Centralized information is created and used.
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Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is one of a number of types of networks (see also LAN and
WAN). A MAN is a relatively new class of network, it serves a role similar to an ISP, but for
corporate users with large LANs.

• It is in between LAN& WAN technology that covers the entire city. It uses similar technology
as LAN.
• It can be a single network such as cable TV network, or a measure of connecting a number of
LAN’s o a large network so that resources can be shared LAN to LAN as well as device to
device.
• MAN is a network of computers that covers a large area like city. The size of the MAN
generally lies between LAN and WAN, typically covering a distance of 5 km to 50 km. The
geographical area covered by MAN is comparatively larger than LAN but smaller than WAN.
MAN is generally owned by private organizations. MAN is generally connected with the help
of optical fibers, copper wires etc.
• One of the most common examples of MAN is cable television network within a city. A
network device known as router is used to connect the LANs together. The router directs the
information packets to the desired destination.

4) Personal Area Network (PAN)

• PAN is the interconnection of information technology devices within the range of an individual
person, typically within a range of 10 meters.
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• For Example: a person traveling with a laptop, a personal digital assistant (PDA), and a
portable printer could interconnect them without having to plug anything in, using some form
of wireless technology such as WiFi. Typically, this kind of personal area network could also
be interconnected without wires to the Internet or other networks. You can use PAN networks
to transfer files including email and calendar appointments, digital photos and music etc from
your portable devices such as phones and tablets to PC and vice versa.
• A personal area network is a computer network organized around an individual person. It
generally consists of a mobile computer, a cell phone or personal digital assistant.
• PAN enables the communication among these devices. It can also be used for communication
among personal devices themselves for connecting to a digital level network and internet. The
PANs can be constructed using wireless or cables.

CAMPUS AREA NETWORK(CAN) :

• The campus area network is made up of an interconnection of LAN with limited geographical area. Network
equipments such as switches, routers and the transmission media i.e. optical fiber etc are almost entirely
owned by the campus owner.
• For example a university CAN would connect different buildings in its campus,such as various department
,library, student hall to each other.
DISTINGUISH BETWEEN LAN, WAN,MAN

Parameters LAN WAN MAN

Ownership of network Private Private or public Private or public
Geographical area coveredSmall Very large Moderate
Design and maintenance Easy Not easy Not easy
Communication medium Coaxial cable PSTN or satellite links Coaxial cables, PSTN, optical
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fibre, cables, wireless

Bandwidth Low High moderate
Data rates(speed) High Low moderate
Principle Operate on the principle
Switching
of Both
broadcasting
Propagation Delay Short Long Moderate

Network Features:-
File Sharing
Printer sharing
Application services
E-mail
Remote access
Internet and Intranet
Network security: Internal and External
File Sharing:-Due to use of networks . Due to use of networks the sharing of files becomes easier.
Advantages: easily share information on network
User needs regular access of word processing files, spreadsheets so they access easily
Disadvantages: Conflicting Problem arises is same file is simultaneously accessed by multiple users.
Less secure if permission to access is not set properly.
NETWORK CLASSIFICATION BY THEIR COMPONENT ROLE
LOCAL AREA NETWORK
PEER TO PEER NETWORK
CLIENT SERVER NETWORK
Network Architectures :
Introduction The term network architecture is not specific and is broadly applied to both the
physical construction of a network as well as the logical interactions and protocols implemented in
the network. Architecture in this course means how different machines communicate, specifically
which computers in the network are providing useful services and which are using these services.
We will often describe an “individual” system acting independently on a network as an agent.
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PEER TO PEER NETWORK

• In peer to peer network each computer is responsible for making its own resources available to other
computers on the network. Each computer is responsible for setting up and maintainingits own
security for these resources. Also each computer is responsible for accessing the requirednetwork
resources from peer to peer relationships. Peer to peer network is useful for a small network
containing less than 10 computers on a single LAN .
• In peer to peer network each computer can function as both client and server. Peer to peer networks
do not have a central control system. There are no servers in peer networks. Peer networks are
amplified into home group.
• Conceptually, the simplest form of network architecture is peer to-peer, in which each computer agent
is more or less an equal partner in providing services and in using them.
• Peer-to-peer networks are decentralized in that no single agent determines the interactions but the
responsibilities are shared. The conceptually opposite architecture is the client-server architecture.
• A central server provides services over the network and the clients use these services. Many network
relationships are a mixture of these two basic types and are therefore known as hybrid architectures.

• Peer-to-peer relationships are common both on a local level and on wide area networks. A peer is an
equal so this means each agent member of the network may act as both a provider of services and as
a user of services.
• On a local level, this type of network may be called a workgroup in a LAN or an ad hoc wireless
network when the local network itself is a decentralized wireless network.
• On WANs, the same term, peer-to-peer, is used to describe file and service sharing relationships in
which each user also provides some small part of the service, such as storing and sharing files. On a
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LAN, when a relatively small group of people are working together on projects, a small number (for
example, a dozen or fewer machines) may be shared over the network in a workgroup.
• Each member of the group has remote access to some or all of the other machines and there is no
center. The advantages of this type of network are that it is easy to set up and relatively easy to
maintain if the group remains small. Since there is no central server, a network administrator may not
be needed. One disadvantage of workgroups is that they have poor security.
• Managing passwords (also called passcodes) becomes a matter of either sharing passwords or having
some way of managing passwords across the workgroup. They can also make it difficult for users to
find the resources required for a job. The scalability of peer-to peer networks, their ability to increase
(or decrease) in size, may be limited by exponential growth in interactions.
• Ad hoc wireless (or peer-to-peer wireless) may also be considered a topology but the relationship
with the term peer-to-peer should be discussed here. Wireless devices often connect to a single access
point such as a wireless router or hub in a home, business, or school.
• In an ad hoc wireless network, each device can serve as an access point to every other in a peer-to-
peer fashion. The advantages are similar to other peer-to-peer networks in that no centralized device
has to be maintained. As with other peer-to-peer networks, the disadvantages are that membership can
be difficult to control and

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF PEER TO PEER NETWORK

Advantages:
• Use less expensive computer hardware
• Easy to administer:- each machine performs its own aministrations

• No NOS(N/W operating system) required-

• More built in redundancy
• Easy setup& low cost
• No extra investment in server hardware and software is required.
• User not dependent on other computer for its operation.
• Easy set up and lower cost for small network
• User can control resource sharing.
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Disadvantages:
• Less security- it operates on the most common desktop operating systems like windows which
are not very secure OS.
• It is not possible to save important data in a centralized manner.
• Additional load on the computer because of resource sharing and absence of server.
• As there is no centralized management it makes large peer networks hard to manage and final
data easily.
• No central point of Storage or file archiving
• Backup is difficult -there is no centralized server hence data is scattered over man workstation.
• Individual Performance is affected:- If some workstations have frequently used resources on
them ,then the use of these resources by other computer might adversely affects the person
using this particular workstation

CLIENT/SERVER NETWORK:-
Clients:- the individual workstation in the network
Server:- Central computer which is more powerful than clients and which allows the clients to access its
software and database is called server.
No client can access the resources of the server until he has been Permitted by the server to do so.

• Scalability is limited. Each device must be operating in the same ad hoc mode and must have a
way of handling collisions. Peer-to-peer is also the common name for file services shared over
the Internet. Peer-to-peer interactions over the Internet are of course not strictly peer-to-peer
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because they rely on more or less centralized servers for services such as DNS (domain name
system) and directory services.
• Peer-to-peer over the the Internet has led to some serious challenges in security and intellectual
property rights management. Because each participant in the group must provide some part of
the services to the other members, each agent must provide access to unknown agents.
• The decentralization means a wide variety of files can be shared. File sharing may include
copyrighted (or otherwise restricted) material, and more dangerous payloads such as viruses
and worms, which may then gain access to a large number of agents in the network.
• The legal and ethical implications of this type of network relationship are also not clear
because, as in all peer-to-peer architectures, responsibility is shared between the members of
the group.
• However, in addition to their controversial files-sharing uses, peer-to-peer services over the
Internet are used in a number of ordinary practical applications such as Voice over IP (VoIP),
instant messaging, large binary updates (including operating systems and games), and
distributed search engines.
• Client-Server The client-server architecture means a central agent called a server controls
resources and provides them to outside agents known as clients. The server must have special
software to handle the transactions, as well as some data to evaluate and respond to requests for
services.
• All services require resources — processing time, memory, storage, communication, etc.
Having resources at a central location allows much more control over them so that the services
can be maintained securely, efficiently, and reliably. The terms client and server are not limited
to individual machines and can refer to groups of machines or even just single applications
running on one machine.
• For example, client software you use nearly every day may include your Internet browser that
allows you to access data on web servers, or your mail client that allows you to access and
manage your electronic mail messages. From a security point of view, server-based networks
tend to be more secure in that all access can be checked and controlled by the administrators.
• The server can easily contain a one-way hash of all passwords and account names so that
passwords are never shared either between users or obtained from the server. One danger is
that having resources in one place means that the whole network can be compromised with one
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accident or attack. Even simply requesting services repeatedly can overload a server, making
services temporarily unavailable, and the Denial of Service (DoS) attack has become one of the
more common types of attack on the Internet. Services provided in the client-server model can
include some that require a single location. Some typical services more common on the local
level include data storage, printing services, mail services, etc. Services generally requested
over the Internet include web servers, databases and more. On larger networks, such as the
Internet, services provided include those protocols necessary for shuttling packets from router
to router through the network, as discussed in later lessons.
• ad hoc wireless — a decentralized wireless network topology in which nodes communicate
directly with each other. Nodes can forward packets on behalf of other nodes, with routing
decisions being made dynamically based on connectivity.
• administrators — privileged users who set up, configure, and manage networks and/or the
machines connected to networks.
• Architecture — (in networking) the physical and logical design of the network, governing the
connections between devices and the flow of data between them.
• client-server — a centralised communication scheme in which a dedicated server machine
performs a services on behalf of (typically many) remote clients. cloud computing — a client-
server scheme in which data and applications reside on a server (or on a distributed group of
cooperating servers) and clients connect using a widely-available general-purpose application
such as a web browser.
• 4Denial of Service (DoS) — an attack that disrupts client-server communication by
overloading the server with repeated requests, preventing real clients from accessing the
service.
• Domain Name System (DNS) — the distributed database that maps symbolic names (such as
www.google.com) onto their IP address (such as 173.194.38.16).
• In client-server network relationships, certain computers act as server and other act as clients.
• A server is simply a computer, that available the network resources and provides service to
other computers when they request it. A client is the computer running a program that requests
the service from a server. Local area network (LAN) is based on client server network
relationship. A client-server network is one n which all available network resources such as
files, directories, applications and shared devices, are centrally managed and hosted and then
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are accessed by client. Client server network are defined by the presence of servers on a
network that provide security and administration of the network.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CLIENT-SERVER NETWORK

Advantages:
• Network is Very secure:- use to good administration centrally, shared resources located in the
centralized area and they are administrate centrally.
• Server are physically laced in separate and secure room.
• Better performance
• Centralized backup: centralized backup is much faster too.
• High reliability ,Reduces cost because of sharing of hardware and software
• Increase speed use to dedicated server for sharing resources
• Single password allows access to all users to work from the same of data.
• Central file storage, which allow all users to work from the same of data.
Disadvantages:
• Requires professional administration:-provide professional Network administration services.
• More hardware intensive
• We have to use a high speed server computer with lots o memory and Disk Space.
• Expensive dedicated hardware needs to be used
• It requires special network operating system and number of client licenses.
• Difference between Peer To Peer and Client-server Networks
Sr. Peer To Peer Client-server
No
1 It is much like company uses It is much like company using centralized
decentralized management management
2 In this each machine has same In this server has more power and client has less
power power.
3 Uses less expensive computer It has to use expensive hardware.
hardware.
4 Easy to set up and administer. Complex to setup and require professional
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administrator.
5 Network O.S. not required Network O.S. required.
6 Less secure Very Secure
7 Decentralized backup i.e. difficult Centralized backup i.e. easy o backup.
to backup.
8 It has built in residency No built in redundancy.
9 It is suitable for small network. It is suitable for large network.
10 Poor performance. Better Performance.

Application:-

E mail clients

Web Browsers

FTP clients.

TYPES OF SERVERS:-

File server: These servers provide the services for storing, retrieving and moving the data. A user can read,
write, exchange and manage the files with the help of file servers.
Printer server: The printer server is used for controlling and managing printing on the network. It also
offers the fax service to the network users.
Application server: The expensive software and additional computing power can be shared by the
computers in a network with he help of application servers.
Message server: It is used to co-ordinate the interaction between users, documents and applications. The
data can be used in the for of audio, video, binary, text or graphics.
Database server: It is a type of application server. It allows the user to access the centralized strong
database.
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Differentiate between data & information. What are the different

forms in which data can be represented?
2. What are the characteristics of data communication?
3. What are the components of a data communication system?
4. Define computer network and categorize.
5. Explain protocols in details

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Explain the term bandwidth of a signal
2. Explain the term bandwidth of a channel.
3. Write short note on maximum data rate of a channel

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Define analog and digital signals

2. Explain Composite analog signals.
3. Explain Time and Frequency Domain Representation of
signals
4. Explain the characteristics of an Analog signal
5. Explain the characteristics of an Digital signal
6. Explain the difference between
. Lowpass and Bandpass channel
. Narrowband and wideband channel
7. Explain why a digital signal requires to undergo a change
before transmitting it through a bandpass channel.
 Total Marks -12

TRANMISSION MEDIA Two main categories: Guided ― wires, cables Unguided ― wireless
transmission, e.g. radio, microwave, infrared, sound, sonar We will concentrate on guided media
here: Twisted-Pair cables: Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) cables Shielded Twisted-Pair
(STP) cables Coaxial cables Fiber-optic cables
Twisted-Pair Cables
If the pair of wires are not twisted, electromagnetic noises from, e.g., motors, will affect the closer wire more
than the further one, thereby causing errors
Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) Typically wrapped inside a plastic cover (for mechanical protection) A
sample UTP cable with 5 unshielded twisted pairs of wires
Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) STP cables are similar to UTP cables, except there is a metal foil or braided-
metal-mesh cover that encases each pair of insulated wires
Coaxial Cables In general, coaxial cables, or coax, carry signals of higherfreq (100KHz–500MHz) than
UTP cables Outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second
conductor that completes the
Fiber-Optic Cables 108 ms-1 Light travels at 3 in free space and is the fastest possible speed in the
Universe Light slows down in denser media, e.g. glass Refraction occurs at interface, with light
bending away from the normal when it enters a less dense medium
Fiber-Optic Cables An optical fiber consists of a core (denser material) and a cladding (less dense
material) Simplest one is a multimode step-index optical fiber Multimode = multiple paths,
whereas step-index = refractive index follows a step-function profile (i.e. an abrupt change of
refractive index between the core and the cladding) Light bounces back and forth along the core
Common light sources: LEDs and lasers