Geotechnical

Investigations

Dr. C H SOLANKI
Professor

Civil Engineering Department

Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat,
Gujarat, India.
1
The geotechnical investigation program should
be such that it can be ascertained that
foundation System is safe against:

 Shear Failure of Soil

 Excessive Settlement of Soil
 Liquefaction

2
Geotechnical Project Sequence

• Site Research
• Field Reconnaissance
• Field Exploration
• Laboratory Investigations
• Geotechnical Interpretations, Analysis
• Report of Exploration

3
 Some Common Objectives

• Identify & describe pertinent surface conditions

• Determine location and thickness of soil and rock
strata (subsurface soil profile)
• Determine location of groundwater table
• Recover samples for laboratory testing
• Conduct lab and/or field testing
• Identify special problems and concerns

4
Geotechnical investigation would consist of:

• Number of test bores

• Depth of test bores

• Field tests

• Laboratory tests

• Correlation of field and laboratory tests data for

determination of safe bearing capacity (SBC)

5
Preliminaries: How Many Borings & How Deep?

“No hard-and-fast rule exists for determining

the number of borings or the depth to which
borings are to be advanced.”

Reference: Braja M. Das, Principles of Geotechnical

Engineering, 6th Edition

6
 Preliminaries:
How Many Borings?

• Conventional Wisdom
– The number (density) of borings will
increase:
• As soil variability increases
• As the loads increase
• For more critical/significant structures
• Thumb Rules
– Soft Soils - Space 100’ to 200’
– As soils become harder, spacing may be
increased up to 500’
7
 Preliminaries:
How Many Borings?

Structure Subsurface Spacing of Borings (ft)

or Project Variability
Irregular 100-1000 (200, typical)
Highway
Average 200-2000 (500, typical)
Subgrade
Uniform 400-4000 (1000, typical)
Irregular 25-75
Multistory
Average 50-150
Building
Uniform 100-300
Source: Sowers 1979
8
How Many Borings?

9
 NUMBER OF TEST BORES

As per IS:1892,Clause 2.3.1 “For a compact building site

covering an area of 0.4 hectare (4000m2), one borehole or
trial pit in each corner and one in center should be
adequate. For smaller and less important buildings even
one borehole or trial pit in the centre will suffice”.

10
Since soil is highly heterogeneous, some
reference books suggests as under:

11
• However, for ordinary buildings, investigation can be
limited to economize in money and time and two test
bores may be taken across the site. If highly variable
strata are encountered additional test bores may be
taken.

12
• When area to be
investigated is large and
plant layout is not
finalized, the area may be
divided into grid of
suitable size and test
points taken on grid
corners

• Where structural layout

has been finalized, test
points may be taken to
correspond with all the
important building units.

13
• For various structures the number of test points may be considered as
under:

14
 DEPTH OF TEST BORES

The depth of test bores should extend up to the point at

which the vertical stress due to proposed structure is equal
to or less than 10% of original effective stress at the point
before the structure is constructed. Normally, it should be
one and half times the width of footing below the
foundation level.

15
How Deep?

16
 Preliminaries:
How Deep (Bridges)?
• Boring depth is governed by various factors,
including:
– Foundation type
– Foundation load

• Generally speaking, 50’- 80’ is reasonable

– Local experience is helpful
– Look at nearby structures if available
– If no experience or other info available, plan for long
first hole, then adjust.

17
 Preliminaries:
How Many Borings & How Deep?

“The final engineering can be

no better than the data upon
which it is based.”

Reference: George F. Sowers, Introductory Soil Mechanics

and Foundations: Geotechnical Engineering, 4th Edition

18
The depth of exploration at the start of work may be decided as under
(ref.: Table 1, Clause 2.3.2.1, IS:1892):

19
 FIELD TESTS
• The most widely used method of subsurface
investigation is boring holes in the ground and
simultaneously conducting standard penetration tests
and collecting undisturbed samples.
However, sometimes due to site constraints, time
constraints, importance of the project, erratic
subsurface strata or to supplement the data obtained
from test bores additional field tests are required.

20
Tests in Test Bores

21
Tests in Trial Pits

22
 In-situ Testing
• When it is difficult to obtain “undisturbed”
samples
• Cohesionless soils, Sensitive clays
• In-situ Test Methods
– Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
– Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
– Vane Shear Test (VST)

23
 Standard Penetration Test
(SPT)
 140 lb (63.5 kg) Hammer
 30in (76 cm) free fall
 Drive sampler over 18 inches
 Record no. of blows per each 6 inch
penetration
 SPT blow count=blows for 2nd 6 inch
penetration + blows for 3rd 6inch
penetration
24
Standard Split Spoon
Sampler

 Thick wall (0.25in) cylinder

 Sampling tube is split along the length
 Hammered into the ground

25
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

26
Types of Samples :
Disturbed Sample ( DS ):
• Obtained by direct excavations, augers & thick wall
samplers.
• Used for mechanical analysis, water content determination ,
index properties tests, compaction tests, …etc.
Undisturbed Sample ( UDS ):
• Obtained by forcing a thin wall sampler (75 cm dia shelby
tube) into the soil at the bottom of the borehole by hand or
by jacking.
• For a hard strata sample may be driven by blows from
monkey.
• In soft clayey / silty soil, below water table UDS is obtained
by piston sampler.

27
• In sandy soil, below water table UDS is obtained by compressed
air sampler.
• Used for shear, consolidation, & permeability test.
Split Spoon Sampler ( SPT ): ( IS 2132)
• A thick wall split – tube sampler, 50.8 mm OD & 35 mm ID, is
driven into soil at the bottom of the hole under the blows of a 65
kg hammer with 75 cm free fall.
• The number of blows required to drive each 15cm penetration is
recorded.
• The first 15 cm penetration is termed as a seating value. The last
30 cm penetration termed as ‘ N value ’.
• If the stratum consists of fine sand & silt below water table, the
corrected N value obtained by, N’=15+½(N–15)
• For cohesion less soil N Value is also corrected for
Overburden pressure.

28
 N Value
It should be noted that Standard Penetration Test is currently most

popular and economical means to obtain subsurface information (both

on land and offshore). It is estimated that 85 to 90 percent of

conventional foundation design is made using the standard penetration

test N-value. The N-value has been used in correlation for unit weight

(γ), relative density (Dr), angle of internal friction () and undrained

compressive strength (qu).

29
N Value Correlations

30
 Use of SPT Data

• To Determine Relative Density, Dr

• To determine 
• To determine C

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Mechanical Cone

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33
CPT Truck

34
Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

• Measures:
– Cone Resistance, qc
– Sleeve Resistance, fsc
• Typical CPT results

35
Typical CPT
Data

36
Use of CPT Data

37
 Vane Shear Test

• Specially suited for soft, sensitive clays

• Quick test, used to determine undrained
shear strength

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 Vane Shear Test
• Drill test hole
• Insert vane
• Rotate head
• Measure torque
• Relate resistance to
soil shear strength

39
 Comparison of In-Situ
Test Methods
• Simplicity & ruggedness
• Ease of Testing
• Resolution
• Basis for Interpretation
• Types of Soils
• Equipment Availability
• Potential for Future Development

40
 Groundwater Monitoring

 Groundwater level must be

determined during geotechnical
exploration
 Measure at time of drilling and
later (24 hrs, 1 week, etc.)
 Can be accomplished by leaving
selected soil borings open
 Or, install a piezometer

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 SPT:
Automatic
Trip
Hammer

42
 CPT Versus SPT

• CPT: Advantages over SPT

– provides much better resolution, reliability
– versatility; pore water pressure, dynamic
soil properties
• CPT: Disadvantages
– Does not give a sample
– Will not work with soil with gravel
– Need to mobilize a special rig

43
 Field CBR Test :
IS 2720 ( Part 31 – 1990 )
• Guiding Parameter for the design of Flexible Pavements.
• Evaluate the strength of sub grade & bases for roads & runway
pavements.
• The ratio of the force per unit area required to penetrate a soil mass
with a standard circular piston at the rate of 1.25 mm/min to that
required for corresponding penetration of a standard material.
• California Bearing Ratio = Pt/Ps x 100 , Where
Pt = Corrected unit load read
from load penetration curve.
Ps = Unit Standard load taken
from table given.

44
45
 Plate Load Test :
IS (1888 – 1982)
• Determination of ultimate bearing capacity of soil in
place which assumes that soil strata is reasonably
uniform.
• Also used to find modulus of sub grade reaction.
Limitation :
• The test results reflect only the character of the soil
located within a depth of less than twice the width of
bearing plate. Since the foundations are generally
larger then the test plates, the settlement & shear
resistance will depend on the properties of a much
thicker stratum.

46
47
 Balancing Cost & Risk
“The scope of a subsurface exploration for
any particular site is a difficult problem
which is closely linked with the relative
cost of the investigation and the project
for which it is undertaken.”
VNS Murthy: Geotechnical Engineering: Principles and Practices
of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

48
 Ex-Situ (Laboratory) Tests

• ex-situ -- “out of its – Moisture content

original place” – Unit weight
• Laboratory testing is – Sieve analysis
the most common – Atterberg limits
method for – Compaction
measuring soil and – Hydraulic conductivity
rock properties – Consolidation
• Numerous – Direct shear
examples... – Triaxial shear
– Unconfined
compression
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 Volume Weight Characteristics

• Moisture content • Classification & in

w volume weight
relationship
• Density  • Classification & pressure
computation
• Porosity n • Parameters used to
represent relative
• Void ratio e volume of solids in given
• Specific Gravity G volume of soil
• Volume computations
50
 Plasticity Characteristics
• Liquid limit • Classification &
wL property correlation
ships
• Plastic limit
wp • Study of field
behaviour.
• Liquidity Index IL • Identification of clay
• Consistency Index IC mineral & swelling
• Shrinkage limit ws potential & swelling
pressure
• Activity A

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 Gradation Characteristics
• Effective Diameter • Classification,
D10 Permeability ,
Filter Design

• Percent Grain Size • Classification and Filter

D15, 30, D50, D60, D85 Design

• Uniformity coefficient U • Classification & property

correlation
Coefficient of Curvature Cc
• Clay size fraction

52
 Consolidation Characteristics
• Coefficient of
compressibility
av Computation of
settlement under
• Coefficient of volume loading.
mv
• Compression index
cc
• Recompression index
cR

53
• Coefficient of • Computation of
consolidation time rate of
cv settlement

• Coefficient of • Computation of
secondary compression secondary
cά compression.

54
 Strength Characteristics
• Angle of Internal Friction, • Analysis of Stability
Φ and Load Carrying
• Cohesion Intercept, c Capacity based on
• Unconfined compression Strength
strength, qu

• In-Situ shear strength

55
• Blow count from SPT • Empirical
N, Nc relationship of
strength &
compressibility
Bearing capacity
factor Nc, Nq, Nr • Bearing capacity

• Sensitivity St • Estimating effect of

disturbance of
structure on
strength
56
 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPACTED SOILS

Maximum unit weight • Compaction control,

dmax Computation of
stresses,
• Optimum moisture
content • Compaction control,
to estimate strength
• Relative density ID
parameter
• California bearing
• Pavement design
ratio

57
 Data Presentation
Scope of Information
• Log of Boring
– Soil Test Boring
Records
– Test Pit Records
• Data Included
– Field
– Laboratory
• Software Based
Programs

58
Sounding Test

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LABORATORY TESTS :-

 Field Dry Density & Field Moisture Content :

IS 2720 ( Part 2 – 1983 )
• Basic parameters related to all strength, Elasticity,
Deformability, Seepage Parameters.
• Increase in density makes soil more strong, less compressible
& permeable.

 Particle Size Distribution :

IS 2720 ( Part 4 – 1983 )
• Basic for the classification of soil.

60
 Consistency Limits (Atterberg’s Limits ) :
IS 2720 ( Part 5 – 1985 ) `
• Basic of classification of clayey soil.
• Liquid Limit : The minimum water content at which a part
of soil cut by a groove of standard dimensions, will flow together
for a distance of 12mm under an impact of 25 blows in the
device.
• Plastic Limit :
The minimum water content at which a soil just begin to rumbled
when rolled into a thread approximately 3 mm in diameter.

61
• Shrinkage Limit :
The maximum water content at which a
reduction in water content will not cause
a decrease in the volume of a soil mass.
 IS CLASSIFICATION :
Fine Grained Soil :
• ML – Silt of Low Plasticity
• MI – Silt of Intermediate Plasticity
• MH – Silt of High Plasticity
• CL – Clay of Low Plasticity
• CI – Clay of Intermediate
Plasticity
• CH – Clay of High Plasticity

62
 Specific Gravity :
IS 2720 ( Part 5 – 1985 )
• Inherent material properties.
• Co - related with the consistency & particle size.
• Related to soil composition i.e. void ratio, porosity, density

 Shear Parameters i.e. C -  :

IS 2720 ( Part 12 – 1981 ), IS 2720 ( Part 13 – 1981 )
• Determines the shear strength capacity, stability of slopes,
the bearing capacity of foundations, the lateral earth pressure
exerted by soil on retaining walls & similar structures.
• Determine either by two procedures based on soil
composition, density, specific gravity.
• --- Triaxial Shear Test, --- Direct Shear Test (Box Shear)

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• Unconsolidated Undrained
Condition (UU – Test)
• Consolidated Undrained
Condition ( CU – Test )
• Consolidated Drained
Condition ( CD – Test )

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Swelling Parameters :
IS 2720 ( Part 40 & 41 – 1977 )
• Causes soil re – arrangement, increases
compressibility of soils & instability to the founding
structures & retaining wall.
• Expansive clays increase in their volume when they
come in contact with water due to its surface
properties.
• --- Free Swell Index, --- Swelling Pressure Test

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 SBC Based on Shear :
IS (6403 – 1981)
• The ultimate net bearing capacity is evaluated after taking
into consideration of shape factor, depth factor & inclination
factor of the foundation in accordance with I.S. 6403-1981.
The net bearing capacity worked out using the following
equation.
• For General Shear Failure :
Q = C Nc sc dc ic + q (Nq -1) sq dq iq + 0.5 B  Nr sr dr ir W’
• For Local Shear Failure :
Q = C N’c sc dc ic+ q (N’q -1) sq dq iq+ 0.5 B  sr N’r dr irW’
Where,C = Cohesion, q = Overburden Pressure
 = Density, B = Width of the Footing
Nc,Nq,Nr, N’c,N’q,N’r = Bearing capacity Factor
sc,sq,sr = Shape Factor & dc,dq,dr = Depth Factor
ic,iq,ir = Inclination factor

66
SBC Based on Shear :
IS (6403 – 1981) Shape Factors :

Depth Factors : Inclination Factors :

Effect of Water Table:

67
68
69
 CONCLUSION
• Information regarding type of structure and total loads coming on the
foundation should be given to the Agency carrying out Geotechnical
Investigation so that depth of exploration may be modified during course of
investigation if sufficient bearing capacity is not available at
required/estimated depth.

• No. of test bores should be adequate to get horizontal as well as vertical

profile of subsoil strata.

• For each strata encountered, following data should be available: N-value, Bulk
Density, Natural Water Content, Shear Parameters, Consolidation Parameters,
Swelling Parameters, Classification of Soil.

• Undisturbed samples and SPT should be staggered in test bores. i.e. If SPT is
conducted at 1M depth in Test Bore BH1, then Undisturbed Sample shall be
collected at 1M depth in Test Bore BH2 and so forth.

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 Allowable Bearing Pressure

• Industrial building in central India

• 3 storeyed structure
• Type of foundation : Raft
• Size of foundation : 12m X 7.5m
• Depth = 1.5m

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Soil Investigation
Bore Log Detail

72
 Influence zone below foundation level

Influence zone below foundation level = 7.5 X 1.5 =

11.25m

G. W. T = 5.5m below ground level

Strata below foundation level

C = 3 t/m2  = 80
3.5m CL
G = 2.65 w = 8.75%
1.5m ML – CL d = 1.6 gm / cc bulk = 1.749 gm/cc
4. 0 m SM Cc = 0.11, e = 0.656

2.25m CL

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 Bearing Capacity Factors
Φ(Degrees) Nc Nq Nγ
0 5.14 1.00 0.00
5 6.49 1.57 0.45
10 8.35 2.47 1.22
15 10.98 3.94 2.65
20 14.83 6.40 5.39
25 20.72 10.66 10.88
30 30.14 18.40 22.40
35 46.12 33.30 48.03
40 75.31 64.20 109.41
45 138.88 134.88 271.76
50 266.89 319.07 762.89
NOTE: For obtaining values of N’c, N’q and N’γ calculate Φ’=tan-1 (0.67 tan Φ).

74
 Method of Analysis Based on Relative Density

Sr.No Relative Density Method of

( Density Index) Void Ratio Condition Analysis

i Greater than 70 Less than 0.55 Dense General Shear

percent

ii Less than 20 Greater than 0.75 Loose Local Shear

percent (as well
punching shear)
iii 20 to 70 percent 0.55 to 0.75 Medium Interpolate
between
(i )and (ii)

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 Shape Factors
Sr
No. Shape of Base Shape Factor

sc sq sγ

i Continuous strip 1.00 1.00 1.00

ii Rectangle 1+0.2 B/L 1+0.2 B/L 1-0.4 B/L

iii Square 1.3 1.2 0.8

vi Circle 1.3 1.2 0.6

Note:- The net ultimate bearing capacity on fairly saturated homogeneous

cohesive soils (Φ = 0) shall be calculated by following relationship

(qd)net ult = cNc.Sc.dc.ic

Where c= qu/2 and Nc = 5.14 76

 Depth Factors
• The depth factors shall be calculated as under:
• dc = 1 + 0.2(Df/B) √NΦ
dc = dγ = 1 for Φ < 10°
dq = dγ = 1 + 0.1 (Df/B) √NΦ for Φ > 10°

Df = Depth of foundation below ground level

B = width of foundation
NΦ = tan2( 45 + Φ/2)

The inclination factor shall be as under :

ic = iq = [ 1 – ά/90]2
where ά = Inclination of load to the vertical (degrees)
iγ = [ 1 – ά/Φ]2

77
Bearing Values of bearing
Capacity capacity factors
Factors Interpolated values
Φ=8 ° Φ’ =
5.4 °
Nc 7.61 6.64 6.64 + 7.61 – 6.64 * 0.094 = 7.09
0.2

Nq 2.11 1.64 1.64 + 2.11 – 1.64 * 0.094 = 1.86

0.2

Nγ 0.91 0.51 0.51 + 0.91 – 0.51 * 0.094 = 0.70

0.2

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 General shear failure (e<0.55)

qnf = C Nc Sc dc ic + q (Nq -1) Sqdqiq + ½ BN S d i w’

Local Shear failure (e > 0.75)

qnf = 2/3 c Nc’ Sc dc ic + q (Nq -1) Sqdqiq + ½  BN S d i w’

Ultimate net bearing capacity on the basis of shear criteria as per IS 6403 –
1981
e0 = 0.656

eo > o.55 but less than 0.75

Interpolation General shear failure / Local shear failure

qnf = 25.34, F.S. = 2.5

qs = 10.14 t/m2

79
 Settlement Computations Criteria

A load placed on a soil mass causes stress changes within the soil below.
The stress distribution ( σz ) due to a concentrated load ( Q ) on the soil
surface can be computed using

( i ) Boussinesq equation, i.e.

σz = Q/Z2 .3/2π[1 + (r/z)2 ]5/2
( ii ) New mark chart ( Based on Boussinesq analysis )
( iii ) Influence factors

80
Settlement computation
TABLE

81
Stress distribution curve (Borehole)

82
 Excessive stress intensity computation
(p) at CL of first strip i.e. 0.5m depth below
foundation level

M = 2z / B n = L/B

2  0.5
m  0.133
7.5
Io  0.991
L 12
n   1.6
B 7.5
p1  10.14  0.991  10.05t / m 2

83
(i) p at centre of 2nd
strip i.e. at 2m
depth below
foundation level
2 2
m  0.533
7.5
L 12
n   1.6
B 7.5
Io  0.936
P2  10.14  0.936  9.49t / m 2

84
• S1 = 41.0mm
• S2 = 57.3 mm
• S3 = 36.1mm

HCc  0 
Sc= log10
l+ e0 0

85
 Settlement in 4m thick SM Soil

12 +16 +18 + 17+ 29 92

Avg. N cor =   18.4  18
5 5
12 +16 +18 +17
29 is more than 1.5 times of average Ncor =  15.75  15
4

Ncor = 15, B = 7.5m

Settlement per unit pressure from N Value

S = 23mm but ground W.T. table is above SM, 23/0.5 =
46mm

86
P3 = 7.66 t/m2,
P4t = 6.64 t/m2

P5 = 3.57 t/m2

P6 = 3.34 t/m2

P7 = 2.84 t/m2

87
Correction for Water Table
(Ref.: IS:8009 Part -1)

88
 Settlement per Unit Pressure from Standard
Penetration Test N-value (Ref.: IS:8009 Part-1)

89
Determination of Depth Factor
(Ref. IS:8009 Part-1)

90
S4 at 10 t/m2 – 46mm
S4 = 13.9mm for Average pf 6.74 & 3.57 t/m2
S5 = 6mm S6 = 6mm
S = S1 + S2 + S3 + S4 + S5 + S6 = 160.3mm

Applying Rigidity and depth factors S = 123mm

100 mm permissible settlement, the allowable bearing capacity is

computed as =

10.14  100
 8.2t / m2
123

91
 References
• IS:1892-1979: C.O.P. for site investigations for foundations.
• IS:1904-1978: C.O.P. for structural safety of buildings-shallow foundations.
• IS:6403-1981: C.O.P. for determination of bearing capacity of shallow
foundations.
• IS:8009 (Part 1)-1976: C.O.P. for calculations of settlements of foundations.
• J. E. Bowles: Foundation Analysis and Design, McGraw-Hill Companies Inc,
New York.
• Alam Singh: Soil Engineering in Theory and Practice, Asia Publishing House,
Mumbai
• N. V. Nayak: Foundation Design Manual, Dhanpat Rai and Sons, New Delhi
• Vora Mihir : Geotechnical Investigations for Various Structures, Structural
Engineering Digest.
• Vora Mihir : Bearing Capacity of Shallow foundations for Cohesionless
Soils, Structural Engineering Digest
• Mittal S : Soil testing for Engineers, Khanna Publishers

92
THANK YOU…

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