(CE 602)

Year: III Part: I

 Course Objective

• To provide the student with the Basic Concepts and Tools that can be used to
determine the Structure/ Foundation/ Soil Interactions.

• Courses include a Review of Soil Mechanics Principles and deal with a variety
of Foundations and Retaining Walls.
 SOIL MECHANICS
(CE 552)

[Year/Part: II/II]

Theory (20 + 80) & Practical (25) = 125

Do Not Forget: The Basic Concept of Soil Mechanics
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Solids-Water-Air Relations & Index Properties of Soils
3.0 Soil Identification & Classification
4.0 Soil Structure & Clay Minerals
5.0 Soil Compaction
6.0 Principles of Effective Stress, Capillarity & Permeability

7.0 Seepage Through Soils

8.0 Vertical Stresses Below Applied Loads
9.0 Compressibility of Soil
10.0 Shear Strength of Soil
11.0 Stability of Slopes 4
Do Not Forget: The Basic Concept of Soil Mechanics
 Foundation Engineering
Examination Scheme
Teaching Schedule Internal
Final Total
Hours/Week Assessments
Marks
Theory Practical Theory Practical
L T P Duration Marks Duration Marks
3 1 1 3 80 - - 20 25 125

6
 Course Contents: As per TU Syllabus
Chapter Marks
No.
Chapters Hours
Distribution
T/N
1.0 Introduction 1 2 T
2.0 Site Exploration 6 12 T+N
3.0 Lateral Earth Pressure Theories & Retaining Walls 10 16 T+N
4.0 Arching in Soils & Braced Cuts 3 4 T+N
5.0 Flexible Retaining Structures & Cofferdams 3 4 T+N
6.0 Bearing Capacity and Settlement of Shallow Foundations 6 12 T+N
7.0 Mat Foundations 3 6 T+N
8.0 Pile Foundations 6 12 T+N
9.0 Well Foundations 4 8 T+N
10.0 Foundation Soil Improvements 3 4 T

TOTAL 45 80
7
 Reference Books
1) “Foundation Analysis and Design”  Joseph E. Bowels, McGraw‐Hill International
Editions, 5th Edition, 1997
2) “Principles of Foundation Engineering”  Braja M. Das, 5th Edition, 2003.
Thomson/Brookscol
3) “Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics“  Gopal Ranjan and ASR Rao, 2nd Edition New Age
International publishers,2000
4) “Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering”  K. R. Arora, Standard Publisher
Distribution 1997
5) “A Text Book of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering in SI Unit “  V. N. S.
Murthy, UBS Publishers Distributors Ltd. 4th Edition 1993.
6) ”A Text Book of Foundation Engineering”  Dr. R. K. Poudel and R. Neupane, 1st
Edition, 2006.
7) “Pile Foundation Analysis and Design”  H. G. Poulos and E. H. Davis, John Wiley and
Sons, 1980
 Internal Evaluation Scheme

S.N. Criteria Weightage (%)

1 Attendance 10
2 Continuous Evaluation (Quiz/MCQ/Open Book Exam/ppt) 40
3 Assignments/Tutorials 25
4 Final Assessment 25
Chapters I am Going to Deal ……
1.0 Introduction (@ 2 Marks)
1.1 Foundation Engineering, Importance and Purpose

1.2 Classification and General Requirements

1.3 Factors Influencing the Choice of a Foundation

1.4 Selection of the Type

11
8.0 Pile Foundations (@ 12 Marks)
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Types and Uses of Piles
8.3 Construction of Piles
8.4 Selection of Pile Type
8.5 Types of Foundations to Suit Subsoil Conditions
8.6 Pile Driving
8.7 Static Pile Load Formulae
8.8 Load Test on Piles
8.9 Dynamics Pile Formulae
8.10 Pile Capacity from In-situ Tests
8.11 Group Action of Piles
8.12 Negative Skin Friction
8.13 Laterally Load Piles
8.14 Piles Subjected to Uplift Loads
12
9.0 Well Foundations (@ 8 Marks)
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Types of Wells or Caissons

9.3 Components of a Well Foundation

9.4 Shapes of Wells

9.5 Depth of a Well Foundation

9.6 Forces Acting on Well Foundation

9.7 Lateral Stability of Well Foundation

9.8 Construction and Sinking of a Well
13
 10.0 Foundation Soil Improvements (@ 4 Marks)

10.1 Introduction
10.2 Mechanical Compaction

10.3 Dynamic Compaction

10.4 Preloading
10.5 Sand Compaction Piles and Stone Columns

10.6 Soil Stabilisation by Use of Admixtures

10.7 Soil Stabilisation by Injection of Suitable Grouts
 Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
 1.0 Introduction
1.1 Foundation Engineering, Importance and Purpose

1.2 Classification and General Requirements

1.3 Factors Influencing the Choice of a Foundation

1.4 Selection of the Type

16
 What is a Foundation?

• Lowest Part of Any Structure that Supports and Transfers Load of Structure to
Continuum Earth (may be rock of any type or natural soil).

• Part of structure that supports weight of structure and transmits the load to
underlying soil or rock.

• Part of an engineered system that

transmits the loads supported by
foundation and its self-weight to,
and into the underlying soil or rock.
 What is a Foundation? … Contd.

• Substructure designed to support load of a

superstructure to underlying soil or rock.

• Interface between superstructure and underlying soil.

• Part of a structure which transfers load from

superstructure to soil on which it rests.

• Considered as a medium/device which receives load from superstructure

and transmits it to sub-soil/rock underneath.
 What is a Foundation? … Contd.
• It can be built by various types of materials – Generally
Brick, Stone, Concrete, Steel, Timber, etc.

• Type, Shape and Size of Foundation depends on type of

structure, type & magnitude of loadings and type of soil
on which structure ultimately rests.
 What is a Foundation? … Contd.
• It supports superstructure directly over it i.e.
Provides base for superstructure.

• Strength and Durability of Any Structure depends

upon Strength of its Foundation.

• Therefore, it is most important part of any

structure.
 What is a Foundation? … Contd.

• Most of the structures consist of Two Main Parts:

(a) Upper Part lies Above Ground Level  Called

Superstructure

(b) Lower Part Buried Underground  Called

Substructure or Foundation
What is a Foundation? … Contd.
Why Foundations are Generally Placed
Below the Ground Level?
 Why Foundations are Generally Placed Below
the Ground Level? … Contd.

• To provide stability to the structure so as to make it resistant to lateral

pressure or thrusts and to prevent it from tilting and overturning.
• Compactness of soil increases with its depth from ground level. So by
carrying foundations below ground level, we will be providing a firm and
hard base for structure.

• To prevent foundations and materials of construction from

weathering actions of atmosphere i.e. wear and tear.
• Soil particles provide a grip to foundations and make
structure stable and durable.
 Functions of Foundation
• To Transmit/ Distribute All Superimposed/Structural Loads (wind, vibration, seismic, dead
and live loads) over a larger area to prevent over loading of soil beneath.

• To Withstand Against All Kinds of Settlements (against failure of underlying soil).

• To Give Stability to Structure by resisting in firm base. i.e. To Increase Overall Stability;
prevent tilting or overturning of the structure

• To Prevent Lateral Movement/escape of supporting materials.

• To Provide a Leveled Base for the Superstructure.

• To Prevent Unequal Settlement of the soil and superstructure.

 Characteristics of a Foundation
• Wide Enough Section to Distribute Weight Over Larger Base Area within Safe
Bearing Capacity.

Mat Foundation
 Characteristics of a Foundation … Contd.

• Evenly Loaded Condition that Prevents Unequal Settlement.

 Characteristics of a Foundation … Contd.
• Deep Enough Preventing Overturning and Increasing Stability.
 1.1 Foundation Engineering, Importance and
Purpose
1.1.1 Foundation Engineering: Definition
• Branch of Civil Engineering/Engineering Science which Deals with Design,
Construction, Maintenance and Renovation of Various Types of Foundations such
as Footings, Pile Foundations, Well Foundations, etc. and All Other Structural
Members which form Foundations of Buildings and Other Engineering Structures
including Site Investigation for the Foundation Purpose.

• In general, It Applies Knowledge of Geology, Soil Mechanics, Rock Mechanics and

Structural Engineering to Design and Construction of Foundations for Buildings
and Other Structures.
 1.1 Foundation Engineering, Importance and
Purpose … Contd.
1.1.2 Foundation Engineering: Importance & Purpose

• Most Basic Aspect of Foundation Engineering deals with Selection of Type of

Foundation, such as using a Shallow or Deep Foundation System.

• Another Important Aspect of Foundation Engineering Involves Development

of Design Parameters, such as Bearing Capacity or Estimated Settlement of
Foundation.
 1.2 Classification and General Requirements

1.2.1 Classification of Foundations

1.2.2 General Requirements of Foundation

 1.2. Types/Classification of Foundations
𝑫𝒇
• On the basis of their depth in relation to their width , Foundations may be
𝑩
broadly classified as:
Foundation

(A) Shallow Foundations (B) Deep Foundations

𝑫𝒇 𝑫𝒇
≤𝟏 >𝟏
𝑩 𝑩
𝑫𝒇
> 𝟏 but < 15  Moderately Deep Foundations
𝑩

𝑫𝒇
> 𝟏𝟓  Deep Foundations
𝑩
 (A) Shallow Foundations
• According to Karl Von Terzaghi, a foundation is shallow if its Depth is less than or equal to
𝑫𝒇
its width, or ≤𝟏
𝑩

• Placed immediately below the lowest part of superstructure.

• Include Spread Footing, Combined Footing, Strap

Footing, Mat (Raft) Foundations.

• Also called Open Foundation, it is spread more horizontal than vertically.

• Most shallow foundations are Simple Concrete Footings.

 Requirements of Shallow Foundation

• Suitable Soil Bearing Capacity

• Undisturbed Soil or Engineered Fill

 Advantages of Shallow Foundation

• Cost (Affordable)

• Construction Procedure (Simple)

• Material (Mostly Concrete)

• Labour (Does not Need Expertise)

 Shallow Foundation Systems/ Basic Types or
Configurations of Shallow Foundations

• Shallow foundations are sub-divided into a Number of Types according to

their Size, Shape and General Configurations.
• They may be –

1) Footings

2) Grillage Foundations

3) Mat (Raft) Foundations

 Shallow Foundations

Footings Grillage Mat (Raft)

Foundations Foundations

Types of Shallow Foundation Timber

Grillage
Steel
Grillage Flat Plate

Continuous Flat Plate Thickened under

Spread Footings (Strip or Wall) Columns
Footings
Isolated or Column or Spot or 2-Way Beam and Slab
Inverted Arch Independent or Individual
Footings Footings/Pad Foundation Flat Plate with Pedestals or
Ribbed Mat

Cellular Construction
Square Circular Rectangular Ring
Footings Footings Footings Footings Basement Walls as Rigid
Frame

Piled Raft
Eccentrically Loaded Footings -- Offset and Strap (Cantilever) Footings
Or Balanced Footings

Rectangular Combined Footings

Combined Footings
Trapezoidal Combined Footings
Applicability of Various Types of Shallow Foundations
 1) Footings
• Footings are most widely used type among all foundations because they are usually
more economical than others. Least amount of equipment and skill are required for
construction of footings.
• A footing is a foundations unit constructed under the base wall or column.

• Footings may sub-divided into:

i) Spread Footings/Foundations
ii) Inverted Arch Footings
iii) Eccentrically Loaded Footings [Offset and Strap (Cantilever) Footings or
Balanced Footings]
iv) Combined Footings
 i) Spread Footings/Foundations
• Spread footings are those which laterally spread super-imposed (structural)
load of wall or column over larger area under the structures.
• Spread footing supports either column or wall.

• Also known as simply Footer or Footing.

• Base of a column/bearing wall is made wider
than the top so as to distribute load from
superstructure over a large area.
• Consists of Strips or Pads of concrete (or other materials) which transfer loads
from walls and columns to soil or bedrock.
• Consists of concrete slabs located under each structural column and continuous
slab under load-bearing walls.
 i) Spread Footings/Foundations …Contd.

• Most common type of foundation used due to

their low cost & ease of construction.

• Most often used in small to medium size

structure with moderate to good soil condition.

• Vast majority of one-and two-storey buildings use them, and if ground conditions
are good even much larger structures can be supported on them.
 i) Spread Footings/Foundations …Contd.

• Spread Footings may be further sub-divided into two categories.

a) Continuous (Strip or Wall) Footings

b) Isolated or Column or Independent or

Individual Footings/ Pad Foundation
 a) Continuous (Strip or Wall) Footings
• Used to support load bearing walls.
• Provide a continuous longitudinal bearing.
• Carry closely spaced columns or a continuous wall so
that load intensity is low and uniform on supporting soil
or rock.
• In such footings, load per unit length is considered accordingly
i.e. Load Intensity is given in terms of force per unit length of
footing.
• These footings are
L
also referred to as Strip Footings or Wall
Footings (for an > 5).
B
• A wall footing or strip footing is a continuous strip of
concrete that serves same function for a load bearing
wall.
• May be Simple or Stepped or Slopped.
 Forms of Continuous (Strip or Wall) Footings

1) Simple Wall Footing : It consist of concrete base without any

steps including masonry wall.

2) Stepped Wall Footing : It consist of masonry wall having

stepped footing with concrete base.
 Forms of Continuous (Strip or Wall) Footings
… Contd.

• Simple Wall Footings are used when

Bearing Capacity of Soil is High.

• Stepped Wall Footings are used when

Bearing Capacity of Soil is Low.
b) Isolated or Column or Independent or Individual
Footings/Pad Foundation
• Load is transfer through Column.
• Supports a single column.

• A column footing is a block of concrete, with or without steel

reinforcing, that accepts concentrated load placed on it from
above by a building column and spreads this load across an
area of soil large enough that allowable bearing stress of
soil is not exceeded.

• May be constructed using Bricks, RCC or Stones.

• May be Single/Simple, Stepped or Sloped.

 Various Forms of Isolated Footings
1) Simple Column Footing : In which loaded area of column has
been spread to large size through single spread. Base is
generally made of concrete.

2) Stepped Column Footing : Provided for heavily loaded column

which required greater spread with steps. Base is generally
made of concrete.

3) Sloped Column Footing : Concrete base does not have

uniform thickness but is made sloped.
Various Forms of Isolated Footings … Contd.

Single Stepped Sloped

Footing Footing Footing
 Various Forms of Isolated Footings … Contd.
• Base area of footing is governed by bearing capacity of
foundation soil.
• Plain Footing is usually reinforced cement concrete and is
used to support a reinforced cement concrete column.
• Mass Concrete Footing is used to support a steel column.
• Slopped Footing is usually of same material as that for
column or it can be of reinforced cement concrete.
• Stepped Footing is used either for a column or for a wall.
• All steps may be of concrete or bottom most step alone may
be of concrete and others being of same material as for
column.
• For mass concrete footing, sloped footing and stepped
footing, a 450 load distribution is commonly used,
which gives small tension on the underside.
 Different Shapes and Sizes of Isolated Footings
• Isolated Footings may be constructed in different shapes and sizes to
accommodate individual needs and depending upon space constraints
such as:

1) Square Footings

2) Circular Footings

3) Rectangular Footings

4) Ring Footings
 Different Shapes and Sizes of Isolated Footings
… Contd.
• Based on Plan View:
1) Square Footings
• Used to support a single centrally located
column.
• May be Simple/Single or Stepped or Sloped.

2) Circular Footings
• Round in plan view.
• Most frequently used as foundation for light
standards, flagpoles and power transmission
lines.
 Different Shapes and Sizes of Isolated Footings
… Contd.
𝐋
3) Rectangular Footings ( < 5)
𝐁
• Useful when obstructions prevent
construction of a square footing with a
sufficiently large base area and when
large moment loads are present.

4) Ring Footings
• Continuous footings that have been
wrapped into a circle.
• Commonly used to support the walls
above-ground circular storage tanks.
Different Shapes and Sizes of Isolated Footings
… Contd.
 ii) Inverted Arch Footings

• Used where bearing capacity of soil is very

poor and loads of the structure is
concentrated over columns or in case
where deep excavation is not possible.

• Depth of foundation in soft soil is greatly

reduced.
 iii) Eccentrically Loaded Footings
(Strap/Cantilever/Balanced Footings
• Provided when property line is so close to one
column that a spread footing would be eccentrically
loaded when kept entirely within the property line.

• By combining it with that of an interior column,

load is evenly distributed.

• If a Independent footing of two columns are

connected by a beam, it is called a Strap Footing.
 iii) Eccentrically Loaded Footings … Contd.
• Strap footings comprise two or more footings connected
by a Beam called ‘Strap or Strap Beam’.

• Used to mutually strengthen each other.

• Required when footing of an exterior column cannot

extend into an adjoining private property.

• Strap connects two footings such that they behave as one

unit.

• Individual footings are so designed that their combined

line of action passes through resultant of total load.
 iii) Eccentrically Loaded Footings … Contd.
• Strap simply acts as connecting beam and
does not take any soil reaction. Strap is
designed as a rigid beam. i.e. Strap does not
remain in contact with soil and does not
transfer any pressure to the soil.

• Used where distance between columns is so

great that trapezoidal footing becomes quite
narrow.

• More economical than combined footings

when allowable soil pressure is relatively high
and distance between columns is large.
Common Arrangements of Strap Footings
 iv) Combined Footings
• Two columns are supported by a Single Base (even with unequal loadings) in
a row into one footing.

• Base is made symmetrical along centerline of columns.

• For more than two columns it is known as

Continuous Footing.
 iv) Combined Footings …Contd.
• Combined footings are used under the following
circumstances:
o When bearing capacity of soil is so low that
individual column footing work out to be of
uneconomic size.

o When exterior column is close to adjoining

property line/ boundary line of an adjoining
private property or other similar restrictions.

o When columns are placed so closely that

separate footing would overlap.
 iv) Combined Footings …Contd.
• Rectangular Combined Footing: Combined
footings will be provide in rectangular in shape if
columns carry equal loads. Design of rectangular
combined footing should be done in such way
that center of gravity of column coincide with
centroid of footing area.
• Trapezoidal Combined Footing: If columns carry
unequal loads (or external columns close to
property lines is heavily loaded) footing is of
trapezoidal shape are provided.
 iv) Combined Footings …Contd.

• Combined Column - Wall Footing:

It may be required to provide a
combined footing for column and
wall.
 2) Grillage Foundations
• Special type of isolated footing generally provided for heavily loaded steel column
and bearing capacity of soil is poor.

• One or two tiers of I – Sections/Steel Joists (or Timber Battens) are laid at Right
Angles to each other over concrete base.

• Depth of such foundation is limited to 1 to 1.5 m.

• May be:
a) Timber Grillage Foundations

b) Steel Grillage Foundations

a) Timber Grillage Foundations
b) Steel Grillage Foundations
b) Steel Grillage Foundations … Contd.
3) Mat / Raft Foundations
 3) Mat / Raft Foundations … Contd.
• Type of shallow foundation.
• Typically formed by reinforced concrete
slabs that cover a wide area, often the
entire footprint of a building/structure.
• Spread load imposed by a number of
columns, walls, and so on, over a large
area, and can be considered to ‘float’ on
ground in a similar way to a raft floating on
water.

• Also known as mat foundations, they are often used for lightly-loaded
buildings/structures on weak or expansive soils such as clays or peat.
 3) Mat / Raft Foundations …Contd.
• Combined/ Continuous Footing that covers entire
area beneath a structure and support (carries
loads of individual walls and columns) all the walls
and columns.
• May be stiffened by ribs or beams incorporated
into the foundation.
• Made up of concrete and heavily reinforced with
steel, so entire foundation will act as a unit.

• Principal of any raft foundation is to spread load from a structure over a large area,
normally entire area of the structure.
• A raft is an alternative to piles as it can be less expensive.
 Where Mat/Raft Foundations are Used ?
• Where column/structural loads are heavy and thus
requiring spread footings with exceptionally large
bases. (Preferred over Spread Foundation)
• Where Bearing Capacity of Soil is Low i.e. Soil is Poor,
resulting in Need of Large Base. (Preferred over
Spread Foundation)

• Where subsoil is soft, loose, or compressible or soil is sufficiently erratic or non-

homogeneous soils & prone to excessive differential settlements such as soft clay
or peat (Structure continuity and flexural strength of a mat will bridge over these
irregularities and then helps to minimize/control differential settlement. Same is true
of mats on highly expansive soils prone to differential heaves.
 Where Raft Foundations are Used ? … Contd.
• Where bottom of structure is located below ground table
level, waterproofing is an important concern. Because mats
are monolithic, they are much easier to waterproof. Greater
weight and continuity of a mat also helps to resist hydrostatic
uplift forces from groundwater.
• Where area covered by spread footings is more than half (50%) of area covered by
structure, mat foundation will usually be more economical. (As a general rule of
thumb).
• Where columns and walls are so close that individual footings would overlap or
nearly touch each other.
• Where basement space is desired and pile is very expensive. (Preferred over Pile
Foundation)
 Types of Raft/Mat Foundations

• There are several different types of raft foundation, which are selected depending
upon structural system and loads to be supported.

a) Conventional Raft

b) Compensated Foundation
 a) Conventional Raft

• A concrete base with thickened beams laid directly on the base.

 b) Compensated Foundation

• Relief of stress due to excavation is

approximately balanced by applied stress
due to foundation.

• Net stress applied is therefore very small.

• A compensated raft foundation normally

consist of a deep basement.
 Compensated Foundations: Types

(i) Fully Compensated or Floating or Buoyant Foundation: FOS = Infinite

(ii) Partially Compensated: FOS = Finite

i) Fully Compensated Floating or Buoyant Foundation

• Where total load at base of mat is fully

compensated by weight of soil excavated.
• If a raft is placed at depth, Df such that
weight of excavated soil becomes equal to
gross applied load, factor of safety becomes
infinite.
𝑸
i.e. q = – 𝜸𝑫𝒇 = 𝟎
𝑨

• In practice, it is not possible to obtain a fully compensated mat possibly due to

the uncertainties involved in the estimation of the loads or in the action of
surcharge.
Floating or Buoyant Foundation
 Types of Mat Foundations
• Raft/Mat Foundation may be divided in to three types based on their Design and
Construction.
1) Solid Slab System
a) Flat Plate
i) Flat Plate Thickened Under Columns
ii) Flat Plate with Pedestals
b) Wide Toe
c) Slip Plane
d) Blanket
2) Beam Slab System
3) Cellular System
4) Piled Raft
 Common Types of Mat or Raft Foundations

Flat Plate

• Solid Slab Raft

• Raft which has flat concrete slab of uniform thickness

provided throughout entire raft area.
• A flat plate type of mat is suitable when soil is not too
compressible.
• Suitable for closely spaced columns, carrying small loads.
• Slab Thickness-- up to 30 cm
Common Types of Mat or Raft Foundations … Contd.
Flat Plate Raft
• Reinforced Concrete Slab of uniform thickness covering whole bearing area.
• Can be used when columns are positioned at equal distance with equal loads distributed on foundation.
• Two steel meshes are generally used as reinforcement: one placed at bottom of slab and other at top, to
counteract upward and downward bending forces.
• Commonly used for construction of small buildings or dwellings.
• Generally, top soil is removed and a 50-75 mm-thick blinding layer of concrete spread to provide a base.
• It is on this base that concrete raft is cast.
• With blinding dry, damp proof membrane is laid to protect raft from rising moisture causing damage.
• Reinforcement is positioned and concrete poured and consolidated.
• In terms of finishing, it can be poured to ground level or left just below the surface.
• A 50 mm-thick layer of concrete can be spread over raft to raise level, providing a smooth finish for floor
coverings to be laid.
• Alternatively, if floor needs to be raised above ground, a raised floor may be constructed on top of
raft surface.
Common Types of Mat or Raft Foundations … Contd.

Flat Plate Thickened Under Columns

• Constructed of uniform thickness over whole raft area.

• A raft in which a portion of slab under each column is

thickened to provide sufficient strength for relatively large
column loads.
• For columns subjected to very heavy loads usually flat
plate is thickened under columns to guard against
diagonal shear and negative moments.
Common Types of Mat or Raft Foundations … Contd.

Flat Plate with Pedestals

• A raft in which pedestals are provided under each

column above the slab.

• This is an alternative to arrangement shown in flat

plate thickened type and serves the same purpose.
Common Types of Mat or Raft Foundations … Contd.

• Wide Toe Raft

• Used where poor compressibility of
ground would necessitate an uneconomically
thick slab.
• To take load at external leaf of cavity walls, a
reinforced concrete toe extends as a base.
• This is cast from a stiffening edge beam and is
typically taken to a minimum depth of 750 mm.
• Shape of extended toe allows external
brick outer leaf of cavity wall to be finished below
ground.
Common Types of Mat or Raft Foundations … Contd.

Raft on Sloping Site

Common Types of Mat or Raft Foundations … Contd.
Slip Plane Raft
• Involves a slip plane layer (usually made of
Sand ) positioned between the raft and sub-
strata.

• Slip Plane Layer extends out beyond raft, and

Space between surface and slip plane is filled
with compressible material.

• Slip plane should be of sufficient

thickness to resist tensile or
compressive ground strains, as well
as accommodating potential frost
heave.
Common Types of Mat or Raft Foundations … Contd.

Blanket Raft
• Used to achieve a composite action that can
disperse edge loads or imbalanced loads.
• Involves a stone blanket layer being
built up from reduced sub-strata level.

• This can be built up in localized soft spots or depressions.

• Concrete slab is poured on top of blanket, interaction of raft and blanket
helps span loading over particularly weak areas.
Common Types of Mat or Raft Foundations … Contd.
2 Way Beam and Slab

• Alternatives to solid slab raft and are used where poor soils
are encountered.
• A raft in which beams are provided along column lines in
both directions and a slab is provided between the beams.
• Columns are located at the intersections of the beams.
• Beams are used to distribute the column load over area of
the raft, that results in reduction of slab thickness.
• Beams can be up stand or down stand depending upon
bearing capacity of soil near the surface.
• Suitable and provides sufficient strength when columns
spacing is large and column loads are unequal.
• Slab Thickness > 30 cm
Common Types of Mat or Raft Foundations … Contd.
Cellular Construction
• A raft in which a 2-way grid structures made of cellular
construction and of intersecting structural steel
construction (Teng, 1969).
• Used on soft compressible subsoil such as soft clay
or peat.
• Used on sites subject to severe mining activity or in
areas of poor ground where large bending moments
are to be resisted
• Slab Thickness > 90 cm
Common Types of Mat or Raft Foundations … Contd.

Basement Walls as Rigid Frame

• Represents a raft wherein basement walls have been

used as ribs or deep walls.
Common Types of Mat or Raft Foundations … Contd.
• Piled Raft
• A raft foundation usually rests directly on soil
or rock.
• Where a raft foundation may not satisfy
design requirements (if hard stratum is not
available at a reasonably small depth), it can
be enhanced by resting on piles called Piled Raft
Foundation.
• This can improve performance of foundation in
reducing amount of settlement and differential
settlement, as well as improving ultimate load
capacity.
• Increasingly popular choice for high-rise building.
Piled Raft
 B) Deep Foundations
• Deep foundations are those founding too deeply below finished ground
surface for their base bearing capacity to be affected by surface conditions,
this is usually at depths >3 m below finished ground level.

• Used when there are weak (“bad”) soils near surface or when loads are very high,
such as very large skyscrapers.

• Derive their support from deeper soils or bedrock.

𝑫𝒇 𝑫𝒇
• > 1 for deep foundations. Usually > 4 to 5.
𝑩 𝑩
 B) Deep Foundations …Contd.
• There are different terms used to describe different types of deep foundations
including piles, drilled shafts, caissons and piers.

• The naming conventions may vary between engineering disciplines and firms.

• Deep foundations can be made out of timber, steel, reinforced concrete and pre-
tensioned concrete.

• Deep foundations can be installed by either driving them into the ground or drilling
a shaft and filling it with concrete, mass or reinforced
 Why Use Deep Foundations ?
• To carry concentrated loads

• To resist lateral loads

• To resist uplift

• To minimize differential settlements

• Where a competent soil layer only occurs at depth

• When the water table is high limiting excavation for spread footings etc.
 Types of Deep Foundation Systems

1) Deep Footings

2) Pile Foundations

3) Pier Foundations or Drilled Caissons or Drilled Shafts

4) Well Foundations or Caissons

 1) Deep Footings

• May be Continuous or Isolated.

• Foundations are constructed in Open

Excavations where disturbance of soil is minimal.

• Possible to inspect construction visually

2) Pile Foundations
 Chapter # 08 Contents
8.1 Introduction

8.2 Types and Uses of Piles

8.3 Construction of Piles

8.4 Selection of Pile Type

8.5 Types of Foundations to Suit Subsoil Conditions

8.6 Pile Driving

 What is a Pile?
• A Pile is a Load-Bearing long Slender Structural/foundation Member, Made
either of Timber, Steel, Concrete, or a Combination of These Materials, to
transfer load of structure to deeper soil or rock of high bearing capacity
avoiding shallow soil of low bearing capacity.
 What is a Pile Foundation?
• Group of Piles that Supports a
Superstructure.

• Deep Foundation System that Carry and

Transfers Loads of structure to a Deeper
and Competent Layer.

• Main Components are Pile Cap and Piles.

• Pile Caps are thick slabs used to tie a group

of piles together to support and transmit
column loads to the piles.

• Df/B > 15 (usually)

Piles + Pile Cap = Pile Foundation
Functions/Uses of Piles
Functions/Uses of Piles … Contd.
Functions/Uses of Piles … Contd.
 Functions/Uses of Piles … Contd.

To transfer loads through water. e.g. Offshore Oil

Drilling Platform, Bridge Pier, Water Front Structures,
etc.
 8.2.2. Uses of Piles … Contd.
To Improve Ground Condition/To Compact Granular Soils
 Functions/Uses of Piles …Contd.

To Function as an Earth Retaining Structures/as a Soil Stabilizer.

 Types of Pile
1) Large Displacement Piles

2) Small or Low Displacement Piles

3) Non-Displacement or Replacement Piles

 8.2.1 Types of Piles
1) Large Displacement Piles

• Displace large volume of soil, produce large noise and

vibrations in the surroundings while driving. Hence not
suitable for the busy or crowded/densely populated
areas.

• Include all solid driven piles including precast concrete

piles, steel or concrete tubes closed at the lower end.
 8.2.1 Types of Piles … Contd.
2) Small or Low Displacement Piles

• Displace less volume of soil, produce less noise and

vibrations in the surroundings while driving.

• Include rolled steel sections such as H-pile and open-

end tubular piles
 8.2.1 Types of Piles … Contd.

3) Non-Displacement or Replacement Piles

• Do not displace soil, produce noise and

vibrations. Hence suitable for the busy or
crowded/densely populated areas.

• Formed by machine boring, grabbing or

hand-digging.

• Eg. Bored and cast-in-situ piles

Types of Piles … Contd.
Types of Piles
… Contd.
S.N. Classification Basis Examples
Material Used/ Pile Concrete, Steel, Wood/Timber, Composite,
1
Material or Composition Sand Piles
Load Transfer End/Point/End/Tip/Base Bearing, Friction,
2 Mechanism/ Mode of Cohesion, Combination of Point Bearing and
Load Transfer Friction Piles
Driven, Bored, Cast-in-situ, Jetted, Excavated,
3 Method of Installation
and Augered Piles
Skin/Shaft Bearing/Friction,
Point/Toe/End/Tip/Base Bearing, Sheet Piles,
4 Use or Function or Action Tension Piles or Uplift Piles, Anchor Piles,
Batter Piles, Fender Piles, Compaction Piles
113
 Displacement of
Displacement, Small/Low-displacement, and
5 Soil/Effect of Installation
Non-displacement/Replacement Piles
of Pile on the Soil
Square, Round/Circular, Hexagonal, Octagonal,
6 Cross-section
and H-section Piles
Prismatic, Cylinder/Uniform, Tapered, Bulb,
7 Shape
Under-reamed Piles
8 Method of Forming Precast, Pre-stressed, Cast-in-situ Piles
9 Capacity High, Moderate, and Low Piles
10 Environment Land, Marine, and Off-shore Piles
11 Length Long and Short Piles
12 Inclination Vertical and Battered/Raker/Inclined Piles
Bridges, Buildings, Platforms, Towers,
13 Structure
Machinery, etc. 114
 3) Pier Foundations
• Underground Cylindrical Structural Members of Relatively Large-diameter Massive
Struts Constructed and Placed in a Pre-excavated Hole.
• Drilled shaft of varying in diameter and depth.
• After pier hole is drilled, it is filled with concrete and steel reinforcement is
sometimes utilized for a portion of length of pier.

• Also simply called as Piers or Drilled Shafts or Drilled Piers or Drilled Caissons.
• Carry heavy structural load and is constructed in-situ in a deep excavation.
• Provide a massive foundation for heavy loads and high horizontal thrusts.
• Df/B > 5
 Pier Foundations …Contd.
• Belong to the same category as pile foundations.
• No sharp deviations can be made between piers and piles because both of them
serve similar purpose.
• Distinctions are based on method of installation.
• A pile is installed by driving, whereas a pier is installed by excavating.
• Piers are Large Bored Piles or Piles May be Regarded as Small Piers.
• If Diameter is Less than 2 m then they are termed as Piles else they are regarded
as Piers.
• Piers are Often Solids.
• Shafts can be enlarged at the base, resulting in belled or under-reamed piers.
 Pier Foundations …Contd.
• A foundation unit installed in a drill hole may also be called a Bored Cast-in-
situ Concrete Pile.
• Distinction is made between a small diameter pile and a large diameter pile.

• A Cast-in-situ Pile, with a diameter < 0.75 m (or 2.5 ft) is sometimes called a
Small Diameter Pile.
• A Cast-in-situ Pile, with a diameter > 0.75 m (or 2.5 ft) is called a Large
Diameter Bored-cast-in-situ Pile (used in most non-American countries).

• In USA, such Large Diameter Bored Piles are called Drilled Piers, Drilled
Shafts, and sometimes Drilled Caissons.
 Pier Foundation: Purpose

• To Transmit Loads to a Stratum Capable of Supporting it without Shear Failure of

Foundation Soil or Excessive Settlement.
 Pier Foundation: Uses
• In areas where pile penetration is difficult, piers can be provided.
• Vibration and heave of soil are not caused as in installation of a driven pile.
• Equipment used in construction of drilled piers produces less noise and hence, is
quite suitable for areas near hospitals and similar institutions.
• There is a possibility of inspection and physical testing of the soil or rock
conditions at the bottom of the pier.
• During construction of piers, there is no displacement of volume of soil, and
problems of shifting and lifting are eliminated.
• Generally require light construction equipment.
• Can resist high lateral stresses.
 Pier Foundation: Types

• Straight-shafted Piers – Common type – such shafts are penetrated

through upper soil layers and the end is placed on a firm soil layer or
bed rock. In some instances, shafts are provided with casing.

• Belled Piers – Broad base is provided at bottom of straight shaft –

Bell may be shaped like a Dome or it may be Angled i.e. bottom of
caisson is "Flared" out to achieve required bearing area, and filling
hole with concrete. Under-reaming equipment is used to make the
bells.

• Extended Straight Piers/ Socketed Piers - Pier socketed or

extended into underlying rock layer - Bearing capacity comes from
end bearing on rocks and friction between caisson on soil or rock.
3) Well Foundations
 Chapter # 09 Contents
9.1 Introduction

9.2 Types of Wells or Caissons

9.3 Components of a Well Foundation

9.4 Shapes of Wells

9.8 Construction and Sinking of a Well

 What is a Well?
• Large size hollow open-ended watertight
prismatic or cylindrical or box like
shells/structures which are built deep into
ground to support heavy loads.

• Opened both at top and bottom during

construction.

• Made of Wood, Steel, RCC, or Masonry in

connection with excavation for the foundation of
Bridges, Piers in Rivers, Dock Structures, etc.
 What is a Well Foundation?
• Large size hollow open-ended watertight prismatic or
cylindrical or box like structure which is generally built
in parts and sunk through ground or water to its final
position, where it forms part of permanent foundation.
 What is a Well Foundation? … Contd.
• One of the types of deep foundation that provide a solid and massive foundation
typically for bridges and heavy structures below the water level also.
• Have been in use for foundations of bridges and other structures since Roman and
Mughal periods.
• Also useful for transmission line towers, where uplift loads are large.
• In earlier practice, well foundations were constructed with timber or stone or brick, but
today they are mostly of reinforced concrete or steel.
• Advantages of well foundations are that they are monolithic and rigid, being a massive
substructure
• Better lateral load resistance than pile foundations.
• Also be conveniently installed in a boulder stratum as well.
 What is a Well
Foundation? … Contd.
• Largest well used in the world in the early part of 20th
century is the 73.8 m deep caisson provided for the
7.18 km Long San Francisco Oakland Bay Bridge,
in California. Constructed in 1936.
 What is a Well Foundation? … Contd.
• Main towers of the 705
m Long Howrah
(Suspension Type
Balanced Cantilever)
Bridge were provided
with 31 m deep well
foundations. Constructed
in 1942.
 Caissons
• Word “CAISSON” > Derived from French word Caisse > Means Chest or Box or
Case.

• Large Piers or Prefabricated Hollow Box/structures or Cylinders with diameter over

4.5 m.

• Type of Deep foundation.

• Basically a Large Hollow Structure Having One or More Chambers/Cells.

 Caisson Foundation
• Watertight and Hollow prismatic or cylindrical or box structure and Constructed
at the Site or above the ground level, then sunk from the surface of either land or
water to the required depth on hard bearing stratum by excavating or dredging
material within the caisson and then filled with concrete to form a foundation for
the structure thus ultimately becoming an integral part of the permanent
structure.
• Mostly used in deep foundation construction where the foundation should be
extended up to or below the river bed so as to obtain the proper stability i.e.
Generally adopted/preferable in the underwater Construction.
• This is because Caissons can be Floated to the Working Site and Sunk into the
Place.
• Main functions of caissons are soil or water retention and transfer of
vertical and horizontal loads into the subsoil strata.
 Uses of Well or Caisson Foundation
• Often Caissons have High Construction Cost and Their Construction is Restricted
to Major Foundation Works Only.

• In general, They are recommended and constructed to be advantageous when (i)

large-size boulders are encountered and (ii) a massive substructure is required to
withstand large lateral stresses.

• Usually very suitable in deep sandy or soft soils.

• Used When Soil of Adequate Bearing Capacity is found below Surface Layers of
Weak Materials such as Fill or Peat.
 Uses of Well or Caisson Foundation … Contd.
• Used to:

 Support and Transfer Heavy Loads (Vertical and Horizontal) and Moments

 Retain water or soil

 Resist Uplift Forces

 Reduce Differential Settlement

 Uses of Well or Caisson Foundation … Contd.
• Support Heavy Structures  Permanent purposes as a foundation including

 High Rise Buildings, Chimneys, Towers

 Major Bridges on Rivers or Sea from Piers, Abutments of Bridges
 Foundations of Heavy Machinery
 High Tension Towers and Wind Mills
 Harbour Structures (Docks, Break Waters, etc.)
 Foundations for Turbine Support Structure
 Sea Shore Protection Works
 Foundations of Lighthouse, Pump house, etc.
Uses of Well or Caisson Foundation … Contd.
Uses of Well or Caisson Foundation … Contd.

Use of caisson foundation in bridges: the Rokko Island Bridge in Kobe,

Japan, a double-deck loose arch bridge of length 217m, constructed in 1992
 Uses of Well or Caisson Foundation … Contd.

High Tension Towers and Wind Mills

 Uses of Well or Caisson Foundation … Contd.

Foundations for Turbine Support Structure

 Uses of Well or Caisson Foundation … Contd.
• Docks are the area of water between or next to one or a group of human-made
structures that are involved in the handling of boats or ships (usually on or near
a shore) or such structures themselves.
 Uses of Well or Caisson Foundation … Contd.
Breakwater
• A structure protecting a shore area, harbor, anchorage or basin from wave
disturbance.

• A barrier that breaks the force of waves, as before a harbor.

 Uses of Well or Caisson Foundation … Contd.
Sea Shore Protection Works Lighthouses
 Advantages of Caisson Foundation
• It is strong enough to withstand the heavy loads and moments applied to the structure.
• Good in the lateral as well as vertical axial loading capacity.
• Economical as compared to traditional foundation.
• Excavation and the process of concreting can be done in dry conditions.
• Highly adaptable in different site conditions.
• Can be inserted at any place.
• Without caissons access to the underwater earth surface is impossible.
• Caissons are environment friendly, because of less noisy and vibratory.
• Have a large cross-sectional area which helps to resist the scouring effect.
• Can be extended up to the large depths in the ground.
• Less handling equipment are required to place a caisson in the water.
• Due to heavy weight caissons can be placed very deep.
• Quality control of pneumatic caisson is good, as it is built on dry conditions
 Disadvantages of Caisson Foundation
• Inspection and cleaning at the bottom of the caisson are difficult.
• Qualified workers and engineering staff are required for caisson constructions.
• Can not be construed in the contaminated sites or not suitable at polluted sites.
• Required to be constructed under the supervision of the experts.
• There may be a risk to the workers to get affected by the caisson diseases. So the
proper health control is essential.
• Limit for the depth of the penetration of the caisson is up to 35 m under water.
• As the concrete work is done underwater, therefore, lack of satisfaction exists.
• As it is highly technical work, therefore the risk of lives is likely in works associated
with caissons.
• Skillful labour is needed for caisson construction, which is not easily available.
 When Caisson/Well Foundation is Required

 Suitable conditions for the caisson/well foundation are:

 When the soil contains large boulders, which obstruct the penetration of piles.
 When a massive substructure is required to extend to or below the rear bed to
provide resistance against destructive forces due to floating objects and score etc.
 When the foundation is subjected to a large lateral load.
 When the depth of the water level in the river and sea is high.
 When there are river forces included in the load compositions.
 When the load is needed to carry at the end, caissons/wells are preferred.
 When the present groundwater level is aggressive inflow, caissons are suitable.
 Types of Wells or Caissons

• Depending on Method of Installation: 4 Types

(a) Open Caisson or Well Foundation • Standard Caissons

o Open Caisson
o Box Caisson
(b) Box Caisson or Floating Caisson
• Pneumatic Caissons
(c) Pneumatic Caisson
• Monolithic Caissons
(d) Monolithic Caisson
 Open Caisson or Well
• Top and Bottom are kept Opened during Construction.

• Install into the ground by excavation of soil within the

shaft so that it may sink into the ground either under
its own weight or by addition of surcharge load.

• Normally used on sandy soils or soft bearing stratum

and where no firm bed is available at a higher depth.

• Well foundation is the most common type of deep

foundation used for bridges in Nepal also.
 Open Caisson
Construction Procedure:

• Caisson is precast on shore or nearby ground and

moved to the location.
• As excavating proceeds and the caisson sinks,
additional sections are added to the shaft above.
• This process is continued until the caisson has sunk
to the required depth.
• A floor of tremie concrete, is laid to provide a bottom
seal.
• Dredging wells can then be filled with concrete to
complete the structure.
 Types of Open Caisson

• According to the shape of caissons, open caissons can be further classified into
three types as;

1) Single Wall Open Caisson

2) Cylindrical Open Caisson

3) Open Caissons with Dredging Wells

 Types of Open Caisson … Contd.

1) Single Wall Open Caisson

• Box type structure having no top or bottom (during

construction) and mainly consists of vertical walls.
• Wherever necessary the site is made dry by
dewatering the area by adopting suitable method (by
constructing cofferdam, sheet piling etc.).
• A pit of suitable size and about 3 to 4 m deep is
excavated at the site where the caisson is to be sunk.
• Cutting edge is then placed at the bottom of the pit.
 Types of Open Caisson … Contd.
1) Single Wall Open Caisson … Contd.

• Above the cutting edge, the wall reinforcements are suitably tied up and the
shuttering for casting the concrete wall is erected.
• Caisson walls are then concreted in lifts to a suitable height.

• When the freshly laid concrete has gained sufficient strength, sinking operation is
started.

• Caisson sinks due to its own weight when the soil from the space inside s removed
by use of clam shell or any other method.
 Types of Open Caisson … Contd.
1) Single Wall Open Caisson … Contd.
• As sinking proceeds, additional sections of the caisson walls are successively cast.
• Sinking is stopped while each section is concreted and it is resumed only after the concreted
section has gained sufficient strength.
• When the caisson is sunk to the required depth, its base is plugged by providing 15 to 45 m thick
layer of concrete (concrete seal).
• Concrete for the seal is placed by use of a tremie pipe or by a bottom dump bucket.
• After the concrete seal has set, the water inside the caisson is pumped out and the empty space
is filled with sand, gravel or concrete.
• Rate of sinking of the caisson is always slow because the downward moment of the caisson is
resisted by the skin friction of the ground on its walls.
• At times the skin friction becomes so great that the caisson does not sink even after all the earth
has been dredged out from the inside clean down to the cutting edge.
• In such situations, sinking is resorted to by loading the caisson with additional weights in the form
of rails, ingots etc. which are removed afterwards.
 Types of Open Caisson … Contd.
2) Cylindrical Open Caisson
• This may be defined as a cylindrical shell
made up of timber, masonry, steel or
reinforced concrete shod with a cutting
edge and which is sunk by excavating the
soil within the shell.
• Thickness of the caisson wall must be
adequate so that when the inside soil is
dredged out, it sinks under its own weight.
• To facilitate sinking of the caisson water
jets are sometimes used around the sides
which decrease the skin friction.
• Cylindrical open caisson is also known as
well foundation.
 Types of Open Caisson … Contd.

2) Cylindrical Open Caisson … Contd.

• This type of caisson is similar in all respect to the single wall open caisson except
that its wall is circular in plan.

• Method of construction of well caisson is exactly similar to that of a single wall open
caisson described earlier.

• After the well is sunk to the desired depth its bottom is sealed with concrete.

• This type of caisson is commonly adopted for providing foundation for bridges and
other structures to be built in rivers and waterways.
 Types of Open Caisson … Contd.

3) Open Caissons with Dredging Wells

• This type of caisson has the distinction of
being employed for the deepest foundation
for, bridge piers, abutments and other
similar structures.

• Caisson in this case is rectangular or

square in plan and is further sub-divided
into smaller sections from inside forming
open walls.

• Outside walls as well as the inside divider

walls are normally made up of reinforced
concrete.
 Types of Open Caisson … Contd.
3) Open Caissons with Dredging Wells … Contd.
• Caisson is sunk by excavating soil through the wells
by means of dredges.
• After the caisson is sunk to the required depth, its
base is plugged with a concrete seal and the walls are
filled with sand or concrete.
• From the point of view of control during sinking, this
type of caisson has definite advantage over the other
types described earlier.
• In this case, any tendency of the caisson to tilt or to
drift from its position during the process of sinking, can
be checked by dredging the soil from the appropriate
wells.
Types of Open Caisson
… Contd.

Open Caissons
(Double D-Shaped Type)
 Open Caisson … Contd.
Limitations/Disadvantages Advantages
• Cleaning and inspection of its bottom is not possible. • Could reach locations
• Concrete seal placed under water is not effective. deeper than other types i.e.
• Soil near the cutting edge may require hand excavation
driver.
can be constructed/sunk up
• Cutting shoe is subject to structural failure in case of to large depths.
cutting into firm soils. • Could be used in the middle
• Sequence of construction could carry high probabilities of the water or on the land.
of tilting the opened caisson . • Construction cost is
• Not suitable in frictionless soils.
relatively less on bed level
• Risky in uncertain soil conditions.
• Progress of construction in boulder deposits is very
or lower side.
slow.
 Box Caisson or Floating Caisson
• Consists of boxes with four sides and a bottom.
• Open at the Top and Closed at the Bottom before Floating.
• Used where bearing stratum is available at shallow depth.
• First built/fabricated on the ground  then pulled to the site where
it is be floated/sunk to a prepared foundation base/level at the
desired depth.
• Once placed in an appropriate place, the whole void space is then
filled with concrete or sand or gravel or water in such a way that it
becomes an integrated part of the previously prepared base & also
help in sinking.
• Usually used for the construction of the Bridge pier.
• Relatively less costly.
• Used where loads are not very heavy & a bearing/hard stratum is
available at shallow depth.
• When it is not feasible to construct on-site types of caissons or
economy is required, box caissons serves the purpose.
 Box Caisson … Contd.
Construction Procedure:

• Dredge the resting surface and place new sand

layer.

• Simultaneously, prefabricate the first part of the RC

caisson on the shore or nearby ground.

• Float the caisson to the required location.

• Immerse the caisson by filling it with aggregates or

by pouring concrete blocks.
Box Caisson or Floating Caisson … Contd.
Box Caisson or Floating Caisson … Contd.
Box Caisson or Floating Caisson … Contd.
Box Caisson or Floating Caisson … Contd.
 Box Caisson … Contd.
Limitations/Disadvantages Advantages
• Bearing strata should be level or made • Easy construction & used where other
level. types of caissons cannot be
• Only feasible when suitable bearing stratum constructed.
is available at shallow depth.
• Not preferable for sites where high water
currents can erode the foundation. • Faster than opened caissons.
• Provision should be made for scour
protection. • Minimum risk of tilting in construction.
• It couldn’t be used when the construction
location is in the land as it couldn’t cut • Relatively less costly.
through the soil like the opened caissons.
 Pneumatic Caisson
• Closed at Top and Open (during construction) at Bottom.
• Working chamber at the Bottom which is kept Dry
Conditions to facilitate skilled persons to work in the
chamber by maintaining a High/Compressed Air Pressure
to prevent water from entering into the chamber during
sinking operations.
• Air locks are provided at the top.
• Sink under complete controlled conditions by skilled
persons and supervisory staff in the working chamber.
• Working chamber is filled with concrete after the final
depth is reached and sinking of the caisson is completed.
• Generally used in underwater construction projects.
 Pneumatic Caisson … Contd.
Construction Procedure
• Surface leveling.
• Construction of working chamber that is
pressurized at the same ground water pressure
in order to make it watertight.

• Shafts are used to enter or exit the pressurized

chamber and to remove excavated earth.
• Excavation is done in a 3 - 4 m interval.
• Check the depth and bearing capacity, remove
the equipment from the pressurized chamber
and then filling it with concrete.
Pneumatic Caisson … Contd.
Pneumatic Caisson … Contd.
Pneumatic Caisson …Contd.
 Pneumatic Caisson …Contd.
• Components of Pneumatic Caisson:
1. Air Shaft:
• A passage which connects the working chamber and air lock is termed as ‘air shaft’
• This passage or air shaft is generally used to get out or to reach to the working
chamber to ground surface.
• In case of too big caisson, the separate chamber of air shaft may be provided for
workers and material.
• Constructed from steel material. Any joint in the construction of air shaft is sealed
by rubber gasket airlock is provided on each air shaft at the top.
• During the sinking process of the caisson, the air shaft is extended above the water
level.
 Pneumatic Caisson …Contd.

2. Working Chamber
 Airtight chamber which is made up of structural steel having a height of 3 m.
 Air inside it is kept at a pressure just more than atmospheric pressure to prevent
the entry of air and water into the chamber.

 External face of chamber is kept thick.

 Generally made smooth and leak proof to reduce skin friction.
 For easy sinking process, cutting edges provided at the bottom.
 Pneumatic Caisson …Contd.
3. Air Lock:
• An Airtight chamber construction at the upper end of the air shaft above the water level made of steel material is called ‘Air Lock’.

• Provide the facility of easy entry and exit of workers or workmen from the caisson without releasing the air pressure in the
working chamber.

• Air lock chamber generally consist of two air tight doors, one door opens into shaft and another door opens to the atmosphere.
So, when workers enter into the airlock chamber from outside door, then pressure in the chamber is kept at atmospheric level.

• Then the air lock chamber pressure is increased gradually till it becomes equal to the working chamber. When pressure becomes
equal then workmen is allowed to go into the air shaft. Reverse process is done when workmen comes out of the air shaft to air
lock.

• Also, there is facility to send fresh air inside the shaft by opening fresh air valve which circulate fresh air for workers or workmen
and which allows to work into the working chamber up to 2 hrs.

• Workers can only work for 2 hrs. inside the shaft.

 Pneumatic Caisson …Contd.

4. Miscellaneous Equipment:
• Different types of miscellaneous equipment’s used in pneumatic caisson are as
follows:
o Pumps
o Motors
o Air Compressors
• These equipment are normally placed above the bed level. By using a compressed
air pipe, can be utilized in the working chamber.
 Pneumatic Caisson … Contd.
Limitations Advantages
• High hazard of caisson disease • Fastest method.
• Limited to a maximum depth of 35 m below • Suitable for nearly any type of soil.
water surface to place it from consideration • Can be used in land or in water.
of health of the workers to maintain the • Bottom of the chamber can be sealed effectively
limiting air pressure (3.5 kg/cm2) under as it is maintained under dry conditions.
which a man can work.
• Lowest construction-related risks.
• Can be used for the depths of water • Obstructions to sinking, such as boulders, can
ranging from 12 m to 35 m.
be removed easily.
• Most mechanized method.
• Complete control over the sinking of the
• Highly skilled and highly fit labor required. caisson, so that tilts and shifts can be detected
• Most expensive method. immediately by the staff in the working chamber
and corrective measures can be taken
effectively.
 Pneumatic Caisson … Contd.

• Caisson Disease  (Decompression Illness; The

Bends)

• Symptoms can include fatigue and pain in muscles

and joints.

• In the more severe type, symptoms may be similar to those of stroke or can include
numbness/emotionless, tingling/burning, arm or leg weakness, unsteadiness,
vertigo (spinning), difficulty breathing, and chest pain.
 Selection Criteria
Boxed Opened Pneumatic
Suitable Location Only in the waters In land or in water In land or in water
Load Transfer Skin friction and/or end Skin friction and/or end
Only end bearing
Mechanism bearing bearing
Suitable Soil Type Dense soils Sandy soils Suitable for most soils
Cost Medium Lowest Highest
Level of
Moderately mechanized Moderately mechanized Highly mechanized
Mechanization
Needed Labor Semi-skilled Semi-skilled Highly skilled and highly fit
Constructability Easiest Moderate Demanding
Construction
Medium Slowest Fastest
Speed
Attainable Depth Lowest Largest Up to 35 m
Construction Risk Medium Highest Lowest
Quality Low – medium Low – medium Highest
Safety Safest Less safe Hazardous 174
 Monolithic Caisson
• Simply a monolith is larger size
compared to other types of caissons, but
similar to open caissons.
• Often found in quay walls (an earth
retaining structure which is used to dock
floating vessels and transfer goods),
where resistance to impact from ships is
required.
Types of Caissons: For Just Glance
 Types of Caissons: Others

Excavated Caissons
• These kinds of caisson are used to excavate. Cylindrical shaped, these caissons
are filled with concrete.

Compressed Air Caissons

• This type of caissons is suitable for dehydrated working conditions where other
methods might seem inconvenient.
 Types of Wells or Caissons … Contd.
According to the Material Used
• Concrete
• RCC
• Steel
• Masonry
• Timber

According to the Cross-sectional Shape

• Circular
• Square
• Rectangular
• Round-ended
• Hexagonal
• Octagonal, etc.
 Types of Wells or Caissons …Contd.
According to the Number of Cells/Chambers

• Single-celled

• Double-celled

• Multiple-celled
 Different Shapes of Cross-section of a
Caisson/Well
• Wells or Caissons are constructed into two basic shapes and combination of basic shape.
• Shapes of Wells or Caissons:
(i) Basic Shape
(ii) Combination of Basic Shape

(i) Basic Shapes:

(I) Circular
(II) Rectangular
(III) Square
(IV) Octagonal
 Different Shapes of Cross-section of a
Caisson/Well … Contd.
(II) Combination of Basic Shapes
• Double Circular Well
• Double Rectangular Well
• Double Hexagonal Well
• Double-D Well
• Double D-Well
• Double Octagonal Well
• Multiple Celled or Multiple Dredge Hole Well
• Broad Necked Twin Well with Circular Dredge Holes
• Double Octagonal with Circular Dredge Hole Well
 Different Shapes of Cross-section of a
Caisson/Well … Contd.

Dump-well

Rectangular Well with Multiple Dredge Holes

 Different Shapes of Cross-section of a
Caisson/Well … Contd.
1. Circular Wells
• Simple in construction, easy to sink, and require minimum steining thickness due to
lower flexural stresses than in other types.
• Has the minimum surface area for a given weight (minimum perimeter of a given
dredge area and is equidistant at the points from the centre of dredge hole, the
sinking is more uniform than the other shapes), leading to greater sinking effort
available.
• Possess high strength and are subject to low bending stresses due to the absence
of sharp corners.
• Require only one dredger for sinking.
• As every point on the cutting edge is at a constant distance from the center of the
dredge hole, chances of tilting of wells during sinking are less.
• Can be used for piers of single-line railway or road bridges.
 Different Shapes of Cross-section of a
Caisson/Well … Contd.

1. Circular Wells … Contd.

• Disadvantages
• If the length of the pier is long, the use of circular wells will become uneconomical,
and also cause excessive obstruction to the flow.

• Offer less resistance to lateral loads.

• Maximum diameter of circular wells is generally limited to 9 m.

 Different Shapes of Cross-section of a
Caisson/Well … Contd.

2) Square/Rectangular Wells:

• A Square/rectangular section is used for well foundations of small depth, of up to 8

m.

• For large-size piers or abutments, double rectangular wells with two dredge holes
are used.
• Bending stresses are, however, very high in the steining due to sharp corners.
• A rectangular section is more economical than a square section.
 Different Shapes of Cross-section of a
Caisson/Well … Contd.
3) Hexagonal/Octagonal Wells:

• Have the advantage that the sharp corners present at the junction wall between the
two dredge holes of a double-D well are eliminated, reducing the bending stresses
in the steining.

• However, the surface area is more than that in a double-D section well, which
increases the resistance to sinking.
• Concreting is also more difficult in steining.
• Double hexagonal/octagonal sections accommodate the full width of the bridge
more economically than single sections.
 Different Shapes of Cross-section of a
Caisson/Well … Contd.

4) Twin Circular Wells:

• Advantageous when the depth of the foundation is small and the foundation soil
has high bearing capacity.

• However, the main disadvantage is that there will be a differential settlement and
tilting between the two wells with the loosening of sand between them or due to
unequal sinking, even though the two wells are rigidly connected by a heavy top
cap, unless the soil/rock is uniform.
 Different Shapes of Cross-section of a
Caisson/Well … Contd.
5) Double-D Section Wells:
• Double-D shape wells are an improvement over twin rectangular and twin circular wells
and have two dredge holes each in the shape of the letter D.
• Main advantage of double-D wells is their high lateral stability.
• When the size of the pier or abutment is large and cannot be accommodated on a single
circular well economically, double-D wells will become the most economical and commonly
used alternative shape.
• Easier to sink than double rectangular or octagonal wells but require larger sinking effort.
• Dimensions of the double-D section wells are so determined that the length and width of
the dredge holes are almost equal.
• Disadvantage of the double-D wells is that the bending moments are large on the steining,
particularly on the junction wall between the two dredge holes.
• Well is prone to more tilting due to unequal width and length of the section.
 Selection of Shape of Well/Caisson
Choice of a particular shape of well depends upon:

• the size (dimension of the base) of the pier or abutment,

• the ease and cost of sinking,

• the considerations of tilt and shift during sinking and

• the vertical and horizontal forces to which well is subjected.

• Most commonly adopted section of a well is the Circular Section which has least perimeter
for a given base area.
 Components of Well Foundation

1. Cutting Edge
2. Well Curb (Fabrication & Reinforcement)
3. Well Steining
4. Bottom Plug
5. Filling (Sand)
6. Top Plug
7. Well Cap
Components of Well Foundation … Contd.
 Components of Well Foundation … Contd.
1) Cutting Edge

• Lowest part of the well foundation

and facilitates penetration of the
bottom of the well during sinking by
cutting the soil.
• Thickness of the cutting edge and
the slope angle of the inside edge
should be such that it should be
sharp enough for easy sinking, and
at the same time should not break
when penetrating through hard soil • Outer edge of the cutting edge is kept
or rock. vertical, while the inner edge has a slope of
1H:2V.
 Components of Well Foundation … Contd.
2) Well Curb
• R.C.C. ring beam with steel cutting edge connected with it below.
• Its cross- section is wedge shaped which facilitates the sinking of the well.
• Supports well stening and weight of the well.
• Kept slightly projected from the stoning to reduce the skin friction.
• Additional loads that need to be considered in the design of a well curb are sand
blows and blasting, which may be resorted to, for sinking of the well.
• Should be of reinforced concrete of minimum M25 grade, with a minimum
reinforcement of 72 kgf/m3.
• In case blasting is anticipated during sinking, the inner faces of the well curb should
be protected with steel plates of minimum thickness of 1 cm up to the top of the well
curb.
 Components of Well Foundation … Contd.
3) Well Steining

• Walls of the well foundation are called steining.

• Steining earlier used to be constructed with stone or brick, but today it is mostly
made of concrete or R.C.C.
• Transfer the load to the well curb.
• Acts as a enclosure for excavating the soil for the penetration of well.
• Also reinforced suitably to withstand the stresses developed during sinking of
the well as well as the design stresses.
• Thickness of steining is generally about one-fourth of the diameter for railway
bridges, and one-tenth of the diameter for road bridges.
 Components of Well Foundation … Contd.

• Thickness of steining is decided on the basis of the following considerations:

a) It should not be too thick so that excessive resistance is avoided during sinking
of the well.
b) It should not be too thin so that it gets damaged either during sinking of the well,
or under design loads. Stresses induced in the steining should be within
permissible limits under design loads.
c) Steining should withstand the additional stresses induced, when corrective
measures are taken for tilting and shifting of the well.
 Components of Well Foundation … Contd.

• As per IRC:78, the minimum

thickness of well steining for road
bridges is 0.5 m. The thickness of
steining for road bridges should be
determined using:

Where, ts = thickness of steining in m, K = coefficient depending on steining material

and well type as shown in Table, and l = depth of the well below the top of the well
cap or lowest water level (LWL), whichever is more, in m.
 Components of Well Foundation … Contd.
4) Bottom Plug

• After sinking of the well is completed to the required depth, the hollow dredge hole at the
bottom is concreted up to some depth, which is known as the bottom plug.
• Bottom plug which is confined by the well curb acts as a raft against soil pressure from
below.
• Enhance the bearing resistance of the well considerably, and provides long-term
stability to the well foundation.
• Surface of the bottom plug is made bowl shaped so as to have an inverted arch
action.
• Generally designed as a thick plate subjected to uniform bearing pressure under maximum
design loads.
• It has to extend for a minimum height of 30 cm above the top of the well curb.
• Concreting should be completed at one stretch for the bottom plug.
 Components of Well Foundation … Contd.
• Thickness of the bottom plug maybe determined as:
• For Circular Wells:

• For Rectangular Wells:

Where, tb= thickness of the bottom plug, W = total design load on the base of the
well, σf = flexural strength of the bottom plug material, µ = Poisson’s ratio, D =
diameter of the well, q = bearing pressure at the base, b = width of the rectangular
well and a = ratio of the width to the length of the rectangular well.
 Components of Well Foundation … Contd.
5) Sand Filling

• Well is dewatered after setting of the bottom plug and dredge hole between the top
and the bottom plug is then filled by sand (or excavated material) after sinking is
completed, to increase the self-weight of the well, to increase its stability, and
to ensure that no tensile bending stresses are developed at the base of the
well foundation.

• Sand filling, however, is not assumed to carry any design loads and the entire
design load is assumed to be carried by the steining.
 Components of Well Foundation … Contd.

6) Top Plug

• It is a concrete plug provided over the filling inside the well.

• M15 cement concrete of 30 cm thickness above the sand filling.

 Components of Well Foundation … Contd.
7) Well Cap

• Reinforced cement concrete (RCC) slab provided at the top of the well to
transmit the load of superstructure to the stening is known as the well cap .
• Provides the required surface for placing the pier or abutment and transfers
its loads safely to the well foundation.
• Minimum thickness of the slab is about 750 mm.
• Bottom of the well cap is generally kept at the LWL.
• Minimum reinforcement in the well cap is about 80 kgf/m3.
• Longitudinal bars from well steining, as many in number as possible, should be
anchored into the well cap.
Construction of Well Foundation
 Construction of Well Foundation … Contd.
Following steps are required to be followed:

1) Layout

2) Fabrication of cutting edge

3) Well curb, construction and pitching

4) Construction of steining

5) Making od island if required

6) Well sinking

7) Plugging, sand filling and casting of well cap

Layout
Fabrication of Cutting Edge
Fabrication of Cutting Edge … Contd.
Well Curb Fabrication
Well Curb Reinforcement
Well Steining
Well Sinking
Well Sinking … Contd.
Well Sinking … Contd.
Well Excavation
Well Excavation … Contd.
Well Excavation Using Grab Buckets
Well Excavation Using Grab Buckets … Contd.
Well Excavation Using Grab Buckets … Contd.
Bottom Plugging Using Tremie Pipe
Top Plugging
 1.2 Classification and General Requirements
… Contd.
1.2.2 General Requirements of Foundation

Q. What are the major criteria/requirements to be satisfied in the design of a

foundation?

 As far as possible, foundations should be located on a firm ground having stable

strata.
 This would not always be possible and, therefore, the foundations must be
designed adequately against any expected failures.
 While considering a foundation for a given loading system, the foundation
(shallow or deep) must meet certain design requirements.
 1.2 Classification and General Requirements
… Contd.
1.2.2 General Requirements of Foundation

 While considering a foundation for a given loading system, the foundation (shallow or
deep) must meet certain design requirements.
 Three basic requirements are as follows:

1) Location and Depth Criteria

2) Shear Failure Criteria or Bearing Capacity Criteria

3) Settlement Criteria
 1.2 Classification and General Requirements
… Contd.
1.2.2 General Requirements of Foundation

1) Location and Depth Criteria

• Foundation placement, which involves location and depth of foundation, requires a careful
investigation of past usage of site and detailed information of sub-surface stratum.

• Foundation placement should be such that any future influence should not affect its
performance adversely.

• A foundation should be provided with adequate depth so that it functions properly.

 Depth of Footings
Depth of Footing or Foundation Depth

• Adequate depth so that it functions properly.

• Many factors affects the depth of foundation such as type of soil, ground water
table, loads from structure, bearing capacity and density of soil and other factors.

• Minimum depth of foundation is calculated by Rankine’s formula when the bearing

capacity of soil is known by soil investigation report.
 Depth of Footings …Contd.
Depth of Footings or Foundation Depth Governing Factors
1) Depth of Top Soil
2) Local Erosion of Soil Due to Flowing Water
3) Underground Defects such as Root Holes, Cavities, Mine Shafts, etc.
4) Filled Unconsolidated Soil
5) Adjacent Structures, Property Lines, Excavation and Future Construction Operation
6) Ground Water Level
7) Depth of Frost Penetration
8) Depth of Volume Change
9) Desiccation (Drying) Due to Heat of Boilers and Furnaces
10) Desiccation Due to Water Drawn by Roots of Trees
11) Scouring
224
Explanation May be Optional
 Depth of Footings …Contd.

1) Depth of Top Soil

• Footing should be located below the top soil consisting of

organic matters, which is likely to decompose
eventually.

• Footings should be taken below miscellaneous fill, debris

or muck.

226
 Depth of Footings …Contd.
1) Depth of Top Soil

• If the thickness of the top soil is large, two

alternatives are available:
(a) Removing the top soil under the footing
and replacing it with lean concrete
(b) Removing the top soil in an area larger
than the footing and replacing it with
compacted sand and gravel; the area of
this compacted fill should be sufficiently Fig. Alternatives when top soil is of
large to distribute the loads from the large thickness (After Teng, 1976)
footing on to a larger area.
• Choice between these two alternatives, which are shown in Fig. (a) and (b) will
depend upon the time available and relative economy. 227
 Depth of Footings …Contd.
2) Local Erosion of Soil

• This is particularly important in hilly area where the

rainfall is heavy.
• Soil in such situation is likely to wash away to a
considerable depth.
• Foundation should be placed below the zone of
local erosion.
• Footings should be taken below the possible depth
of erosion due to natural causes like surface water
run off. Minimum depth of footings is usually taken
as 30 cm for single and two-storey constructions,
while it is taken as 60 cm for heavier construction.
228
 Depth of Footings …Contd.
3) Underground Defects

• If some underground defects are suspected in an area,

it should be investigated well in advance of the
construction of foundation.

• No footing should be located above the underground

defects like root holes, cavities, buried old vaults,
mining shafts, old wells, sewers, cables, etc.
229
 Depth of Footings …Contd.
4) Unconsolidated Filled Up Soil

• Man made or other kinds of fills are under-consolidated

and they have not attained full shear strength.

• If foundation is laid on such soils they undergo large total

and differential settlements leading to severe damage or
even collapse of the structures.

• Before deciding the depth of foundation in such soil, the

strength characteristics should be thoroughly assessed.
230
 Depth of Footings …Contd.
5) Adjacent Structures, Property Lines, Excavation & Future Construction
Operation
A) Footing on the Level Ground

• Footing should be so located that no damage

is done to the existing structure.
• Damage to the old footing could be due to
shocks, vibration, undermining of soil beneath
the footing of old foundation and lowering of
the water table.
• In such case new footing should be kept sufficiently away from the old. 231
 Depth of Footings …Contd.
5) Adjacent Structures, Property Lines, Excavation & Future Construction
Operation …Contd.
A) Footing on the Level Ground
• Foundation arrangement should be made as
shown in Fig.1 below in the horizontal plane.
• Adjacent edge of new footing must be at
least at a distance ‘S’ from the edge of
existing footing and ‘S’ should be greater
than the width of the larger footing.
• Further, in order to avoid interference, the minimum horizontal distance ‘S’ should
be greater than the difference in elevation between the adjacent footings.
232
Depth of Footings …Contd.
A) Footing on the Level Ground

233
 Depth of Footings …Contd.

B) Restrictions of Footings at Different

Elevations

• Difference in elevation between footings should not

be so great as to introduce undesirable overlapping
of stresses in soil.
• Guideline used for this is that the maximum difference in elevation should be
maintained equal to the clear distance between two footings in the case of rock
and equal to half the clear distance between two footings in the case of soil.
• This is also necessary to prevent disturbance of soil under the higher footing due
to the excavation for the lower footing.
234
 Depth of Footings …Contd.
5) Adjacent Structures, Property Lines, Excavation & Future Construction
Operation …Contd.
C) Footing on Sloping Ground
• For Footing on Granular Soil, the
line joining the lower adjacent
edges of footings should not
have a slope steeper than two
horizontal to one vertical (2H :
1V) as shown in Fig.2.
• For Footing on Clay Soils, the slope of the line joining the lower adjacent edge of
the upper footing and upper adjacent edge of the lower should not be steeper than
two horizontal to one vertical (2H : 1V).
235
Depth of Footings …Contd.
C) Footing on Sloping Ground

236
 Depth of Footings …Contd.

C) Footing on Sloping Ground …Contd.

• Footings on sloping ground be constructed with a

sufficient edge distance (minimum 60 cm to 90 cm)
for protecting against erosion.

Edge distance for floating on

sloping ground
237
 Depth of Footings …Contd.
6) Ground Water Level

• As far as possible, footings are to be placed above the ground water table.
• Presence of water table may create some problem to the foundation.
• If depth of foundation is to be provided below water table, quick sand condition
often create problem.

• Water table drastically reduces the soil supporting power.

• Drainage of basement floors, water proofing of basement, resistance against
uplift pressure become serious considerations.
238
 Depth of Footings …Contd.
7) Frost Action
• If footing is placed at insufficient depth, it will be subjected
to frost damage due to formation of ice lenses and
consequent frost heave.
• Due to frost heave, footing is lifted and gets settled down
when thawing takes place.
• During this process, there will be a significant reduction in
the shear strength of the soil and damage to the foundation.
• To prevent from frost damage, the footing should be placed
below the frost depth or depth of frost penetration, which
could be 1 m or more depending upon the severity of
coldness. 239
 Depth of Footings …Contd.
7) Frost Action …Contd.
• Footings should be taken below the depth of frost penetration. Interior footings in heated
buildings in cold countries will not be affected by frost.
• Minimum depths of footings from this criterion are usually specified in the load building
codes of large cities in countries in which frost is a significant factor in foundation design.
• Damage due to frost action is caused by the volume change of water in the soil at freezing
temperatures.
• Gravel and coarse sand above water level, containing less than 3% fines, cannot hold
water and consequently are not subjected to frost action.
• Other soils are subjected to frost-heave within the depth of frost penetration.
• In tropical countries, frost is not a problem except in very few areas like the Himalayan
region. 240
 Depth of Footings …Contd.
8) Depth of Volume Change

• Especially clay soils of high plasticity undergo large change in

volume during wetting and drying.
• They shrink upon drying and swell during Wetting.
• Volume changes are generally greater near the ground surfaces
and decrease with the increasing depth.
• Significant volume change under a footing may cause alternate
lifting and dropping.
• Footing should be placed below the soil strata susceptible to
large volume changes.
241
 Depth of Footings …Contd.
9) Desiccation Due to Heat

• Desiccation is the shrinking of soils due to removal of moisture

from the soils.
• It causes severe settlement of structures.
• Desiccation occurs in soils located close to the plants like
boilers, ovens, and furnaces etc., which are not insulated
adequately from ground.
• Heat from sun also causes desiccation and soil like silts and
clays are particularly vulnerable to this phenomenon.
• These soils become very soft when subjected to water during
rainy season.
242
 Depth of Footings …Contd.
10) Desiccation (Drying) Due to Roots

• Desiccation can also occur in soils located close to the

large trees or shrubs.
• These trees remove moisture from soils and cause
soils to desiccate.

• As a result, large settlement can occur in structures

located close to the root system of such trees.
• It is therefore essential that such trees are to be
removed from the construction site. 243
 Depth of Footings …Contd.
11) Scouring

• Causes severe damage to the structures located

close to the rivers.

• In such case, foundation should be placed to such

depth that the effect of scouring would not have any
influence to the structure.
244
 How to Determine Depth of Footing?
• General Factors to be considered for determining depth of foundation are:
• Load applied from structure to the foundation

• Bearing capacity of soil

• Depth of water level below the ground surface

• Types of soil and depth of layers in case of layered soil

• Depth of adjacent foundation 245

 1.2 Classification and General Requirements
… Contd.
1.2.2 General Requirements of Foundation … Contd.
2) Shear Failure Criteria or Bearing Capacity Criteria  Safety Against Strength Failure

 Safety against bearing capacity is a requirement that involves suitable proportioning of

footing to avoid a catastrophic collapse/failure of the soil beneath the foundation
exceeding the “Bearing Capacity” of foundation soil.
 It is basically the strength failure of the supporting soil mass.
 This requirement makes it essential to have a complete knowledge of the geotechnical
properties of the soils and rocks involved.
 There must be an adequate factor of safety against collapse (plastic yielding in the soil
and catastrophic settlement or rotation of the structure).
 1.2 Classification and General Requirements
… Contd.
1.2.2 General Requirements of Foundation … Contd.
3) Settlement Criteria  Safety Against Deformations & Differential Settlements
 Foundation should deform within acceptable limits of total and differential settlements.
 These acceptable limits depend on the type of structure and sub-strata involved and
should be decided judiciously.
 Settlement shall not normally exceed 25 mm after the end of the construction period for
bridges with simply supported spans.
 Larger settlement may be allowed if adjustment of the level of girders is possible so as to
eliminate infringements to track tolerances.
 In case of structures sensitive to differential settlement, the tolerable settlement limit has
to be fixed based on conditions in each case.
 1.2 Classification and General Requirements
… Contd.
1.2.2 General Requirements of Foundation … Contd.
3) Settlement Criteria  Safety Against Deformations & Differential Settlements

• Tolerable foundation settlement involves keeping a check on excessive settlement

of a structure.

• Excessive settlement is caused due to the distortion of soil mass as a result of

applied shear stresses and due to consolidation of supporting soil.

• This again requires a complete knowledge of geotechnical properties of soils to

assess anticipated settlement of structure and time required for completion of the
same.
 1.2 Classification and General Requirements
… Contd.
• Allowable Bearing Pressure:
• Allowable bearing pressure for foundation supported by soil mass or rock, based on the
above two criteria (2) & (3) , shall be taken as Lesser of the following:
(i) Net ultimate bearing capacity divided by factor of safety of 2.5, or
(ii) Allowable pressure to which the foundation of the structure may be subjected without
producing excessive settlement or excessive differential settlement of the structure.

• In case of open/shallow foundation, the resultant of all forces on the base of

foundation (for rectangular foundation) shall fall within the middle third if the structure is
founded on soil.
• Depth of foundations in soil strata shall not be less than 1.75 m below the anticipated
scour level.
• Foundation shall not normally rest on compressible soils
1.3 Factors Influencing the Choice of a Foundation

A) Primary/ Main Factors

• Subsurface Conditions/Soil
• Ground Water Conditions
• Structural Requirements
• Function of the Structure
• Type and Magnitude of Loading the Foundation Carries
• Cost of Foundation in Comparison to the Cost of Superstructure
 1.3 Factors Influencing the Choice of a Foundation
…Contd.
B) Secondary Factors / Other Factors
• Construction Access, Methods & Site Conditions
• Environmental Factors/ Considerations
• Structural Codes & Regulations • Constructability
• Impact on Surrounding Structures • Service Life/ Time
• Construction Schedule • Need of Client or Owner
• Construction Risks/ Risk Level • Types of Superstructure
• Margin of Safety
• Constraint – Vibration, Noise
• Logistic
 1.4 Selection of the Type

Selection of a particular type of foundation is often based on a number of factors,

such as:

• Adequate Depth
• Bearing Capacity Failure
• Settlement
• Quality
• Adequate Strength
• Seismic Forces
• Adverse Soil Changes
 1.4 Selection of the Type … Contd.
Adequate Depth
• It must have an adequate depth to prevent frost damage/heave and scour.
• Frost heave occurs when water in the ground freezes to form ice lenses.
• Scour occurs when flowing water removes supporting soil from around a
foundation (like a pier supporting a bridge over a river).
• For such foundation as bridge piers, the depth of the foundation must be sufficient
to prevent undermining by scour.
 1.4 Selection of the Type … Contd.

Bearing Capacity Failure

• Foundation must be safe against a bearing capacity failure.
• It is necessary that a foundation is not loaded beyond its bearing capacity or
the foundation will "fail".

254
 1.4 Selection of the Type … Contd.
Settlement
• Foundation must not settle to such an extent that it damages the structure.
• When considering settlement, total settlement and differential settlement
is normally considered.
• Differential settlement occurs when one part of a foundation settles more than
another part.
 1.4 Selection of the Type … Contd.

Quality
• Foundation must be of adequate quality so that it is not subjected to
deterioration, such as from sulphate attack.

256
 1.4 Selection of the Type … Contd.

Adequate Strength
• Foundation must be designed with sufficient
strength so that it does not fracture or break
apart under the applied superstructure loads.

• Must also be properly designed as per design

specifications.
 1.4 Selection of the Type … Contd.
Seismic Forces
• Foundation must be able to support structure
during an earthquake without excessive
settlement or lateral movement.

114
 1.4 Selection of the Type … Contd.
Adverse Soil Changes
• Foundation must be able to resist long-term adverse soil changes. e.g. expensive
soil which could expand or shrink, causing movement of the foundation and
damage to the structure.
• Changes in soil moisture can cause expansive clay to swell and shrink. This
swelling can vary across the footing due to seasonal changes or the effects of
vegetation removing moisture. The variation in swell can cause the soil to distort,
cracking the structure over it.
 Steps to be Performed to Select a Foundation
An engineer must perform the following five steps to select a foundation.

• Obtain at least tentative information about the nature of the super structure and the
loads to be transmitted to the foundations.

• Determine the subsurface conditions of the site.

• Tentatively check each normal foundation type whether they could be appropriate
under the existing conditions, whether they would be capable of carrying the
required loads, and whether they might experience detrimental settlement.
Eliminate the unsuitable foundation types.
Steps to be Performed to Select a Foundation …Contd.

• Conduct detailed study and even tentative design of most promising foundation
types. These studies may require additional information about the loads and
subsurface conditions and must be carried far enough to determine approximate
footings or piers or the approximate length and numbers of piles required. It may
be necessary to make more refined estimates of settlement in order to predict the
behavior of the structure.

• Prepare an estimate of the cost of each promising type of foundation, and choose
the type that represents the most acceptable compromise between performance
and cost.
 Selection of Foundations Based on Different
Types of Soil
• Commonly, selection of appropriate foundation type for a given structure is controlled by number
of factors:
o Soil type/Subsoil characteristics
o Nature of the structure
o Loads exerted by the structure
o Allotted cost of foundations
o Past site usage
o Adjacent construction
o Size of development process
o Contraints/Limitations.

• Among these factors, Types of Soil play significant role.

 Soil

Soil is a mixture of minerals, organic matter, gases, liquids and countless

organisms that together support life on Earth.

• Original Minerals
• Climate
• Relief (Elevation, Orientation, Slope of Terrain)
• Organisms

All influence the type of Soil

 Characteristics of Soil
• Characteristics of soil that affects its behavior and which are considered
while designing foundations are:
• Cohesion of particles
• Internal friction
• Permeability

• These characteristics are further classified depending on quantity of

following components:
Rock, Gravel, Sand, Silt
Chalk, Clay
Peat
 Different Types of Soils
• Alluvial Soils: Formed by deposition of sediments by rivers
• Black Soils: Formed by Chemical weathering. Minerals in the rocks are decomposed,
resulting in chemical alteration. Made up of volcanic rocks and lava-flow
• Red Soils: Formed by weathering of old crystalline igneous and metamorphic rocks. It is
rich in iron and hence appears red in colour.
• Laterite Soils: Formed under conditions of high temperature and heavy rainfall with
alternate wet and dry periods. Formed due to intense leaching (Removal of soluble
components of soil )
• Mountain Soils: Formed due to mechanical withering caused by snow, rain, temperature
variation, etc.
• Dessert Soils: Generally sandy and deficient in organic matter
 Selection of Foundations Based on Different
Types of Soil … Contd.

• Foundations are recommended based on the different soil types :

o Rocks
o Gravel and Sand
o Silt
o Clay: Uniform Firm & Stiff Clay and Soft Clay
o Loam
o Chalk
o Peat
 Different Types of Soil and Selection of
Foundation … Contd.
Rock

• Rocks such as limestone, bedrock, granite, sandstone, shale and

hard solid chalk have a high bearing capacity.

• Rock can be impervious, so top soil is likely to require drainage as

it is not possible to build soak pits to dispose of rainwater or
surface water.

• It’s crucial that a rock surface is a level before constructing a

foundation, otherwise, foundation must be held into place with
anchors.
 Rocks: Recommended Foundation Types
• Following types of foundations
are suitable for this type of soil:

1) Strip Foundation

2) Pad Foundation

3) Raft Foundation
 Rocks: Factors Need to be Considered
o Following factors shall be considered while foundation type is selected:

• Minimum depth of 450 mm shall be used for foundation if the area prone to frost so
as to protect the foundation.
• Strip or trench base shall be kept above groundwater table if possible.
• Engineer shall be aware of running sand conditions.
• Sand slopes possibly eroded by surface water, so protect foundation by perimeter
drainage.
• Weathered rock needs to be evaluated upon inspection
• Engineer shall be aware of swallow holes in chalks
 Gravel and Sand
• Dry compact gravel, or gravel and sand sub soils are most
suitable for foundations when well drained and well confined.

• Sand and gravel have largest particles of various soil types,

which is why it does not retain moisture but drains easily.

• They have good bearing value and are adequate for Strip Foundations. Depth of 700 mm
is acceptable, as long as ground has adequate bearing capacity.
• If water table is high, bearing capacity is halved  In such cases a Shallow, Reinforced,
Wide Strip Foundation may be suitable.
 Sand

• Under load sand is slightly compressed due to

discharge of water.

• Because of its high permeability rate, compression is

rapid.

• Sand has negligible cohesion between particles thus does not have plasticity.

• Thus weight of structure on sand causes rapid compression with little disturbance to
the surrounding soil.
 Silt
• Silty soil is made of smaller particles, which is why it is
able to retain water longer.

• However, because of its tendency to retain moisture,

soil is moist and drains poorly.

• This causes silty soil to expand, putting pressure against foundation and weakening it,
making it not ideal for supporting a foundation.
 Clay

• 900-1,200 mm layer of clay is subjected to movement due to

expansion and shrinkage
• Clay is very compressible but due to high cohesiveness compression
takes place slowly and it also affects the surrounding surface.

• Excavation is done till a depth where moisture content of clay remains stable.
• Strip foundation is sometimes acceptable but over digging should not be done as it leads to
more stress on softer clay below
• Strip foundations with steel reinforcement are used at times
• Minimum depth of 1m is required for foundation
 Uniform Firm and Stiff Clay
 There are three cases:
Case I: Where foundation is not close to vegetation or existing vegetation is not
important.
Recommended Foundations
1) Strip Foundation
2) Pad Foundation
3) Raft Foundation
Factors to be Considered in this Case are as follows:
• Minimum depth to underside of foundation shall be 900 mm.
• When strip foundation is construction in dried clay in dry soil, then foundation shall
be loaded with building prior to the return of rains.
 Uniform Firm and Stiff Clay … Contd.

Case II: Where trees, hedges and shrubs are close to foundation location, or
there is a plan to plant these trees near structure in the future.

Recommended Foundations
 One of the following types of foundation may be selected:
• Concrete Piles Supporting Reinforced Concrete Ground Beams and Precast
Concrete Floor
• Concrete Piles Carrying In-situ Concrete Slab
• Specially Designed Trench Fills in Certain Clay Soil Based on Foundation
Location Relative to Trees
• Raft Foundation
 Uniform Firm and Stiff Clay … Contd.
Factors to be Considered
• Engineer should be aware that size and type of pile foundation is controlled by
economic factors.
• When in-situ concrete ground slab is utilized, avoid must be created under the slab
if it is laid in dry weather in dried clay.
• If distance between recently planted tree and foundation position is at least one to
two times mature tree height, then it might be suitable to construct strip foundation.
• In few cases, reinforced trench fill could be employed. For example, in clay of low
to medium shrinkage potential, or in perimeter zone of the tree root system.
 Uniform Firm and Stiff Clay … Contd.

• Case III: Where trees are cut down shortly before foundation construction
begin

• Recommended Foundations
1) Reinforced Concrete Pile in Previously Tree Root Zone

2) Strip Foundation

3) Raft Foundation
 Uniform Firm and Stiff Clay … Contd.
• Factor Needed to be Considered
• Piles shall be tied properly into suspended reinforced concrete slabs or ground
beams.
• Sufficient length of slab shall be provided to withstand clay heave force. Added to
that, top section of pile may be sleeved to decline friction and uplift.
• Special pile design may be needed for clay slopes greater than 1 in 10 because
creep possibly occur. Consequently, lateral thrust and cantilever effect shall be
taken into consideration in the pile design.
• In few cases, reinforced trench fill could be employed. For example, in clay of low
to medium shrinkage potential, or in perimeter zone of the tree root system.
 Soft Clay
• This category includes Soft Clay, Soft Silty Clay, Soft Sandy Clay and Soft
Silty Sand.

• Recommended Foundations
• Following types of foundations are valid option for this type of soil:
1) Wide Strip Footing
2) Raft Foundation
3) Pile to Firmer Strata Below
4) For Smaller Projects Use Pier and Beam Foundation to Firm Strata
 Soft Clay … Contd.
• Factors to be Considered

 Wide strip footing is used when bearing capacity is sufficient and predicted
settlement is acceptable.
 Strip footing shall be reinforced based on the thickness and projection beyond wall
face.
 Services entries to the buildings should be flexible.
 Frequently, Sub-soil can be improved using vibro treatment, and it would an
economical solution if employed in conjunction with strip or raft foundation.
 Loam
• When it comes to ideal soil type for foundations, loam may be the
best option.
• Generally, loam is a combination of clay, silt, and sand.
• Loam is dark in color and soft, dry, and crumbly to the touch.
• Loam is great for supporting foundations due to its evenly balanced
properties, especially how it handles moisture in an evened way and
will generally not expand or shrink enough to cause damage.

• Loam is good soil for supporting a foundation and building, as long as there are no
miscellaneous soils that find their way onto the surface.
• Type of foundation selected for a structure is controlled by numerous factors including earlier site
usage, adjacent construction, soil type, size of development process, etc.
• While considering these factors, type of soil and its properties play a very crucial role.
 Chalk
• It is a soft, white, porous sedimentary
carbonate rock

• Strip foundations are commonly used in chalk.

• Depth of the foundation must be below 700 mm

• If chalk is soft it will need to be excavated until firm chalk is reached.

• Chalk soils can be prone to erosion

 Peat
• Peat and loose waterlogged sand are poor
subsoils.
• If peat can be stripped back to find suitable load-
bearing ground of at least 1.5 m depth, strip
foundations may be suitable.

• Reinforced Raft foundation for the case where firm strata are not available at reasonable
depth but there is hard surface crust with 3 – 4 m thick of suitable bearing capacity.
• For small projects, pad and beam foundation took to firm strata below.
• Concrete piles extended to the firm soil layer below.
 Peat … Contd.

• Recommended Foundations

1) Concrete Piles Extended to Firm Soil Layer Below

2) For Small Projects, Pad and Beam Foundation Taken to Firm Strata Below

3) Raft Foundation for the Case where Firm Strata is not Available at
Reasonable Depth but there is Hard Surface Crust with 3-4 m Thick of
Suitable Bearing Capacity
 Peat … Contd.
Factor to be Considered
• Pile types include bored cast in place with temporary casing, driven cast in place,
and driven precast concrete.
• Allow for peat consolidation drag on piles
• If raft foundation is used, entries to the building shall be flexible.
• Special high grade and protection is likely to be required in aggressive peats.
• If peat layer is shallow over firm layer of soil, dig it out and replace it with
compacted fill. For this, use raft or reinforced wide spread foundation dependent on
anticipated settlement.
• Frequently, Sub-soil can be improved using vibro treatment, and it would an
economical solution if employed in conjunction with strip or raft foundation.
Appropriate Foundation Types for Certain Soil
Conditions
Appropriate Foundation Types for Certain Soil
Conditions … Contd.
Appropriate Foundation Types for Certain Soil
Conditions … Contd.
Appropriate Foundation Types for Certain Soil
Conditions … Contd.
Appropriate Foundation Types for Certain Soil
Conditions … Contd.
Appropriate Foundation Types for Certain Soil
Conditions … Contd.
Appropriate Foundation Types for Certain Soil
Conditions … Contd.
Appropriate Foundation Types for Certain Soil
Conditions … Contd.
Appropriate Foundation Types for Certain Soil
Conditions … Contd.
Appropriate Foundation Types for Certain Soil
Conditions … Contd.
 Assignment – One
1) Compare between the Shallow and Deep foundations.
2) Compare between the Strap and Combined Footings.
3) Compare between Pile and Pier Foundations.
4) Compare between Pile and Caisson/Well Foundations.
5) Compare between Pier and Caisson Foundations.
6) Mention the suitability or applicability of the following footings or foundations with neat sketches:
a) Wall/Strip/Continuous Footings
b) Column/Isolated Footings/Pad Foundations
c) Strap/Eccentrically Loaded/Balanced/Cantilever Footings
d) Mat/Raft Foundations
e) Compensated Foundations
f) Spread Footings NOTES:
g) Grillage Foundations • Do Assignment One as Any TWO Questions from Q.N.1 to Q.2 and
h) Inverted Arch Footings Any TWO from Q.N.6 (a to l) by Each Individual Student.
i) Pier Foundations • Submit/Upload.
• Beyond the above mentioned Deadline, the Submission will be
j) Pile Foundations
INVALID and Not Consider in the Evaluation Process.
k) Well Foundations
l) Caisson Foundations
 TU Asked OLD Questions Collection
Chapter # 01: INTRODUCTION
• TU 2075 B: How would you select the suitable type of foundation according to soil
conditions?
• TU 2075 R/B: What are the various factors that influence the choice of a
foundation?
• TU 2074 R: Classify the shallow and deep foundation according to soil conditions.
• TU 2074 B: Classify the foundations according to their soil condition.
• TU 2073 R: Mention the factors that should be considered while selecting the
foundation.
• TU 2072 R: What are the major criteria to be satisfied in the design of a foundation?
• TU 2072 NB: What are the general requirements of building foundations?
• TU 2071 R: What are the factors influencing the choice of foundation?
• TU 2071 NB: Identify the factors influencing the choice of foundation.
 TU Asked OLD Questions Collection … Contd.
Chapter # 01: INTRODUCTION
• TU 2070 R: How do you select the type of footing?
• TU 2070 NB: What are different types of foundations?
• TU 2069 R: List out the factors affecting the type of foundation.
• TU 2067 R/B: Write short notes on: Classification of foundation according to their use and
applicable soil conditions
• TU 2065 B: Describe with sketches the various types of shallow foundations. Explain under
what circumstances they are used.
• TU 2065 R/B: Describe various factors that affect foundation selection. Explain the step by
step procedure for the selection of a suitable in a given situation.
• TU 2061 R/B: What are step by step procedures for a selection of suitable foundation in a
given situation?
• TU 2060 R/B: Describe with sketches the various types of foundation. Explain the step
by step procedure for designing a suitable foundation.
 TU Asked OLD Questions Collection … Contd.
Chapter # 07: MAT FOUNDATIONS

• TU 2069 R: What are the different types of mat foundations?

• TU 2064: Describe with sketches the various types of mat foundation. Explain the
condition at which the mat foundation is replaced by deep foundation.

• TU 2063 R/B: Describe with sketches the various types of mat foundations.

• TU 2062 R/B: Describe with sketches the different types of raft foundations.
 TU Asked OLD Questions Collection … Contd.
Chapter # 08: PILE FOUNDATIONS
• TU 2074 B: What are the conditions where a pile foundation is more suitable than a
shallow foundation?
• TU 2073 R: Classify the pile foundations according to their material, load transfer
and displacement of soil.

• TU 2066 B: Describe the various ways of classifying piles.

• TU 2065 B: Define pile foundation. Describe in brief with neat sketches the
construction techniques of driven and cast in place piles.
• TU 2065 R/B: Define pile foundation. Describe the classification of piles based on
the materials and mode of transfer of loads.
 TU Asked OLD Questions Collection … Contd.
Chapter # 08: PILE FOUNDATIONS
• TU 2064 R/B: Define pile foundation. What are the uses of pile foundation?

• TU 2062 R/B: What are the various factors that affect selection of pile type?

• TU 2061 R/B: How do you classify pile foundations on the basis of (i) materials (ii)
method of installation and (iii) load transfer?

• TU 2057 R/B: Explain the advantages and disadvantages (4 each) of driven and
cast-in-place piles to bored piles.
 TU Asked OLD Questions Collection … Contd.
Chapter # 09: WELL FOUNDATION
• TU 2073 R: What is the best suitability of well foundation? Showing the clear
sketch, explain about the different components of well foundation.
• TU 2072 NB: What is a well foundation? Show all components in a neat sketch.
• TU 2072 R: Explain with clear sketches the various components of well foundations.
• TU 2071 NB: Describe the various components of well foundation with neat sketch.
• TU 2070 R: Describe well foundation with a neat sketch. At what circumstances will
foundation is proposed?
• TU 2070 NB: What is well foundation?
• TU 2068 R/B: Explain the different types of caissons with their advantages and
disadvantages. Explain the different parts of well foundation with near sketch.
 TU Asked OLD Questions Collection … Contd.
Chapter # 09: WELL FOUNDATION
• TU 2067 R/B: What is caisson foundation? Explain the different types of caisson
foundation with neat sketches.
• TU 2067 R/B: Write short note on: Component parts of well foundation.
• TU 2065 R/B: Explain the conditions that are suitable for the selection of caisson
foundation. Briefly explain the different types of caisson foundation. Furnish your
answer with neat sketches.
• TU 2065 R/B: Write short note on: Component parts of well foundation & Differences
between pier and caisson
• TU 2064 R/B: Distinguish between pier foundation and well foundation. Draw a neat
sketch diagram of well foundation with its components and briefly explain them.
• TU 2061 R/B: What are the differences between piers and caissons?
 TU Asked OLD Questions Collection … Contd.

PIER FOUNDATION Related

• TU 2067 R/B: Explain the construction activities involved during construction of pier
foundation.

• TU 2068 R/B: What is pier foundation?

 Few MODAL Questions
• Answer the following questions.
1. Compare between the shallow and deep foundations.
2. Explain the general requirements of a foundation.
3. Compare between the strap and combined footings.
4. Describe the factors affecting the selection of foundation type.
5. Mention the suitability or applicability of the following footings or foundations with neat sketches:
(a) Pile foundations (b) Pad Foundations (c) Well Foundations (d) Pier Foundations
• (e) Strip Footings (f) Eccentrically Loaded Footings (g) Mat Foundations (h) Spread Footings
(i) Inverted Arch Footings (j) Grillage Foundations
6. Write the merits and demerits of shallow and deep foundations.
7. How do you select the type of footing?
8. Write the importance of foundation engineering to the civil/geotechnical engineers.
9. What are the different types of foundations?
10. List out the factors affecting the type of foundation.
 Few MODAL Questions
11. Describe various types of shallow foundation. Where and why you prefer strap footing? Describe
with necessary sketches.
12. Describe with sketches the various types of shallow foundations. Explain under what
circumstances they are used.
13. What are the purposes of foundation engineering?
14. Describe various factors that affect foundation selection. Explain the step by step procedure for
the selection of a suitable in a given situation.
15. Explain the step by step procedure for designing a suitable foundation.
16. What are the factors influencing the choice of foundation?
17. Define foundation and foundation engineering.
18. Why is the study of foundation engineering essential to the civil engineers?
19. Write the functions of a foundation.
20. Explain the characteristics of a foundation. What are the design considerations of a foundation?