MODULE -1(PSP)

Induction cup relay is one type of induction disc relay. Induction disc relays and
induction cup relays both operate on the same principles. This relay’s basic design is
similar to that of a four- or eight-pole induction motor. The protective relay’s pole
count is determined by the number of accommodating windings.

Construction of Induction Cup Relay

An induction cup relay is built similarly to an induction motor. The following elements make up the
induction cup relay:
1. Stationary iron core – stator :-The stationary iron core performs the function of a stator, which has
two, four, or more poles. Typically, it is built to accommodate 4 or more poles.
2. Hollow cylindrical cup – rotor :-Similar to a disc relay, the hollow cylindrical cup functions as a rotor.
In the space between the stationary iron core and the electromagnets, it can freely rotate.
3. Electromagnet :-Magnetic fields are created by electromagnets. It consists of two pairs of coils,
which produce flux when they are powered. Even if they are separated from one another by an angle,
these fluxes will have the same frequency.
4. Coils:-Coils will energise the iron core, creating a revolving flux in the air gap.

Working of Induction Cup Relay:

Eddy currents are created to flow in the rotor as a result of fluxes energised by coil. As a result, a force
that affects the rotor will be created. As the induction motor’s rotor, the hollow cup revolves in the
direction of the magnetic field created by the magnets and the stationary iron core .As a result, the
trip circuit’s fixed contacts close and the breaker receives a trip signal to open the circuit. To prevent
the rotor from rotating constantly, a control spring backstop is attached to the cup’s spindle.

Advantages of Induction Cup Relay:

1. The torque to weight ratio of induction cup relays is extremely high.
2. A more effective magnetic system results in less magnetic leakage in the induction cup relay.
3. Because of the light rotor, they operate very quickly; the working duration is less than 0.10 seconds.
4. Induction cup relays are extremely sensitive relays.
5. Induction cup relays produce constant, vibration-free torques.

Disadvantages of Induction Cup Relay:

Induction cup relays are intrinsically less sensitive to DC transients. Additionally, it is sensitive to
transients when compared to disc relay.
Application of Induction Cup Relay:
1. Directional and distance relays in transmission and distribution lines use induction cup relays.
2. Induction cup relays work best for protection in situations where normal and abnormal
circumstances are barely different.
Relays are electrically operated switches that open and close the circuits by receiving
electrical signals from outside sources. Some people may associate “relay” with a
racing competition where members of the team take turns passing batons to
complete the race.

What is operating force in relay?

In other words, the relay operates only if the operating force is greater than the
restraining force. In electromechanical relays, the operating torque is produced by
electromagnetic attraction/electromagnetic induction/thermal effects of electric
current. The restraining torque is given by springs.
These are called the “pickup” and the “time delay.” The “pickup” of a device is the
minimum level of current at which the device will initiate a trip or a fuse may blow.
In circuit breakers and fuses, the thermal or long-time pickup is usually about the
same as the current rating of the device.

A power-on reset is a circuit that watches voltage levels and holds circuit operation
until voltage levels reach suitable levels.

What do you mean by current setting?

Current setting is the setting of current(pick-up current) in a relay at which we want
to operate that relay. Current Setting=Pick up Current/CT secondary *100% Suppose
If we want to operate an over current relay when the system current just crosses
110% of rated current.

Automatic Reclosure:
Purpose: Quickly restores power after a brief fault.
Operation: Circuit breaker automatically re-closes after a time delay.
Time Delay: Allows for fault clearance; multiple attempts may be coordinated.
Applications: Common in high-voltage transmission lines and substations.
Coordination: Integrated with protective schemes for optimal performance.
Considerations: Not suitable for persistent faults; safety features are crucial.
Monitoring: Performance analyzed for system optimization.
Safety: Settings chosen to prevent re-energizing during hazardous conditions
MODULE -2 (PSP)
Earth Fault Relay:
Detects ground faults in power systems.
Operates based on current imbalance.
More sensitive to low-level currents.
Common in grounded systems for safety.
May not precisely locate the fault.
Overcurrent Relay:
Protects against overcurrent conditions.
Operates based on current magnitude.
Responds to high current thresholds.
General protection against overloads and short circuits.
Coordinates with other relays for selective fault protection.
 MODULE -3 (PSP)

What are the important operating principles which are used in wire pilot scheme?
With schematic diagram explain the circulating current principle.

What is a pilot protection scheme?

A pilot protection scheme uses a set of forward-looking protection elements to detect line faults.
For dependability, these elements must overreach the remote line terminal(s). Typical applications
use overreaching phase and ground distance elements and zero- and negative-sequence
directional overcurrent elements.

LIST THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF WIRE pilot protection scheme

circulating current principle.

Explain balanced (opposed) voltage differential protection.

The neutral point of an 11KV an alternator is earthed through a resistance of 12Ω the relay is said to
operate when there is out of balance of a 0.8A. The CT’s have a ratio of 2000/5.What percentage of
the winding is protected against earth fault? What must be the minimum value of earthing resistance
required to give 90% of protection to earth phase.
With a neat sketch the working of frame leakage protection used for bus-zone protection.

Explain the working principle of Buchholz relay used for the protection of transformer.
MODULE -4 (PSP)
Non puffer type SF6 circuit breaker
This type of SF6 circuit breaker is widely used, hence we will discuss the construction and working in
detail.
Construction

 The non-puffer type sf6 circuit breaker has an Interrupter part, the arc quenching process is
performed in this part.
 It consists of two contacts, the fixed contact and the moving contact. Both these contacts are
hollow cylinders.
 The fixed contact has arc horns connected with it as shown in fig. below. These arc horns
prevent the switching components during flashover.
 The moving contact has rectangular gas outlets as shown in the fig. below. The gas after the
process of arc extinction moves out from these rectangular holes.
 The tips of arc horn and both contacts are coated with the copper-tungsten arc resistant
material.
 The main arcing process is done in arc chamber as shown in fig. A SF6 gas reservoir is connected
with the arc chamber with a valve connected.
 The valve is synchronized with the moving contact of the circuit breaker. It means, as soon as the
moving contact separates from the fixed contact during any fault, then the valve of SF6 gas tank
will automatically open and flow of gas will inlet to the arc chamber.

WORKING

Initially the contacts are in closed position surrounded by the Sulphur hexafluoride gas (SF6) at a
pressure of around 2.8 kg/

When there is a fault in the system then the moving contact begin to separate from the fixed contact.

According to the arc interruption theory, the surrounding medium will ionise and arc will be struck
between the contacts.

The valve connected with the SF6 gas tank will open and now the pressurised gas will come in the
arcing chamber, now the pressure in the chamber is around 14 kg/.

Now, SF6 gas will flow through the arc and it will quench the arc in very short time as explained
earlier.

After the extinction of arc and interruption of current, the gas moves out from the gas outlets and
with the suitable methods, the gas gets recombined and reconditioned for further use.
Synthetic testing of circuit breakers is a process that allows for the simulation of various faults in an
electrical system. This allows for the evaluation of circuit breaker performance under different fault
conditions and can help to identify any potential weaknesses in the breaker’s design.

Synthetic testing can also be used to help optimize breaker settings, and to ensure that the breaker
will perform as expected in a real-world situation. Synthetic testing is generally considered to be more
reliable than actual testing, as it allows for a greater number of tests to be performed in a shorter
amount of time.

It also eliminates the potential for damage to equipment or personnel during testing. Synthetic
testing is an important tool for ensuring the safety of electrical systems and can be used to ensure
that circuit breakers are both safe and reliable.

– Synthetic testing of circuit breakers is a process where the breaker’s performance can be analysed
under different fault conditions

– Synthetic testing also allows for optimization of breaker settings to ensure that it will work as
expected in real-life situations
– Synthetic testing is more reliable than actual testing as it allows for a greater number of tests in a
shorter amount of time

– Synthetic testing is an important tool to ensure safety in electrical systems. It can be used to test the
breaker’s reliability and safeness.

Every circuit breaker undergoes testing to make sure whether it is working properly or not. So now
we will learn about the testing of circuit breakers. Synthetic testing is one of the indirect testing
methods used. Synthetic testing is the popular method which permits testing of circuit breaker. It
consists of current source and voltage source with relatively low voltage and low current respectively.
The principle of synthetic testing can be explained from below figure.

The current source provides short circuit current. The voltage source provides restriking voltage and
recovery voltage. Synthetic testing conditions are given by L, r, C. The short circuit current IG is
supplied by closing switch S1. At final current zero, switch S2 is closed and voltage contains transient
as it contains L and C.

Context: Occurs during circuit breaker operation in fault conditions.

Cause: Interrupting a high current generates an electric arc between contacts.
Challenge: Contacts may open before current reaches zero, leading to residual current.
Risk: Increased potential for arc reignition and potential impact on equipment reliability.
Mitigation: Engineers use design improvements and advanced arc quenching techniques to minimize
current chopping.
Importance: Addressing current chopping is crucial for ensuring effective fault current interruption
and maintaining system reliability.
 MODULE -5 (PSP)

What is HRC fuse

Definition: HRC fuse is an abbreviation of a high rupturing capacity cartridge fuse. In
high rupturing capacity fuse, the fuse link carries a short circuit current up to a
certain limit. If the limit exceeds the link blows off and it disconnects the faulty
circuit.
It has the advantage over normal rewirable fuse as it has high accuracy and reliable
operation.
HRC fuse is normally used to protect distribution systems and electrical motors.

Construction of HRC Fuse

HRC fuse construction is done using the cylindrical body of ceramic material. The
fuse element is fitted inside the body and surrounding area filled with pure
powdered quartz.

The two ends of the fuse element are connected to the metal end caps which are
screwed to the ceramic body to withstand the pressure developed under short
circuit conditions. The contact blade is welded to metal end caps.
The fuse element is made of either pure silver or bimetallic material. The fuse
element is generally constructed with two or more sections of the joint which are
joined by means of a tin joint.

The long cylindrical wire is not used for fuse elements because after a short circuit, it
will melt and will form a string of droplets and an arc will form between each droplet.
Later on, these droplets will also evaporate and a long arc will be struck between
droplets.

Due to this tin is used between joints, the purpose of the tin joint is to prevent the
formation of long arc during short circuit conditions as the melting point of tin metal
is low i.e 230 degrees as compared to silver fuse element 960 degrees. Hence tin
melts first under fault conditions and prevents the silver link from attaining a high
temperature.
Working Principle Of HRC Fuse

Under normal working conditions, the HRC fuse link carries a normal rated current,
the heat energy developed is not sufficient to melt the fuse element.
But under short circuit conditions or when the fault occurs, a high fault current starts
flowing through the fuse link and it melts before the fault current reaches its first
peak.
As the element melts it vaporizes and scatters, as an arc forms the chemical reaction
between element vapor and quartz powder, forming a high resistance substance
that helps in quenching the arc thus fault current interrupts.

 Advantages Of HRC Fuse:-

 Fast operation
 Has the capacity to clear the high-fault current
 Not deterioration for a long period
 No maintenance
 Reliable operation
 Consistence performance
 HRC fuse is cheaper compared to other circuit breakers
 Disadvantages
 high rupturing capacity fuse has the following

 Disadvantages:-

 It required replacement after each operation

 Interlocking is not possible

 Application HRC Fuse:-

 Protection of low voltage distribution system
 Protection of motor
 Protection of bus bar
 Protection of semiconductor devices
 Use as backup protection to the circuit breaker.
 Advantages of GIS Substation
 It occupies very less space (1/10th) compared to ordinary substations. Hence
these Gas Insulated Substations (GIS) are most preferred where area for
substation is small (eg: Cities)
 Most reliable compared to Air Insulated Substations, number of outages due to
the fault is less
 Maintenance Free
 Can be assembled at the shop and modules can be commissioned in the plant
easily

 Disadvantages of GIS Substation

 Cost is higher compared to Ordinary Conventional Substations
 Care should be taken that no dust particles enter into the live compartments
which result in flashovers
 When fault occurs internally, diagnosis of the fault and rectifying this takes very
long time (outage time is high)
 SF6 gas pressure must be monitored in each compartment, reduction in the
pressure of the SF6 gas in any module results in flashovers and faults.
The protective angle is a critical parameter in power system protection. It refers to the angle between
the fault current phasor and the system voltage phasor during a fault condition in an electrical power
system. Protective relays use the protective angle to determine whether a fault has occurred and to
initiate appropriate protective actions.

In simple terms, the protective angle helps the relay determine the location of a fault within the
power system. If the protective angle exceeds a predetermined threshold, it signals the presence of a
fault, and the protective relay takes action to isolate the faulty section and prevent damage to
equipment.

Understanding the protective angle is crucial for designing effective and reliable protective relay
schemes, ensuring the timely and accurate detection of faults to maintain the stability and integrity of
the power system.

As of my last knowledge update in January 2022, there isn't a widely recognized term or technology
known as "klydenograph." It's possible that the term may refer to a specific technology, instrument,
or concept that emerged or gained prominence after my last update.

If "klydenograph" is a term or concept that has been introduced or become more widely known after
2022, I recommend checking the latest and most authoritative sources, such as scientific journals,
technical publications, or reliable online databases, for up-to-date information on this subject. If it's a
specialized term within a certain field, you may find relevant information from experts or
practitioners in that particular area.
Working Principle of Arc horns:
In High voltage transmission system, insulator provides the physical separation between the
conductors with some distances. Here the air around the insulator become ionized due to the
electrical field caused by high voltages. The spark gap between the horn conductors are maintained to
avoid the arc Under Normal condition. During lightning condition, the voltage in the transmission
conductors are increased. Hence this high voltage ionizes further the air surrounding insulator. Due to
this ionization process, further free electron starts flows in the form of sparks through the air and it
forms a flashover. By the way, the high voltages are suppressed.