MOHAMED SATHAK A.J.

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, CHENNAI

Electrical and Electronics Engineering

EE 8602 PROTECTION AND SWITCHGEAR

UNIT – II ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAYS
Operating Principles of Relays
Protective relay work as a sensing device, it senses the fault, then known its
position and finally, it gives the tripping command to the circuit breaker. The circuit
breaker after taking the command from the protective relay, disconnect the faulted
element.
By clearing the fault fast with the help of fast-acting protective relay and
associated circuit breaker, the damage to the apparatus is reduced, and the resultant
hazards like fire, the risk of the life are reduced, by removing the particularly faulted
section.
But the continuity of supply is maintained, though remaining healthy section, by
clearing the fault fast, fault arising time is reduced, and therefore the system can be
restored to the normal state sooner. Hence the transient state stability limit of the system
is greatly improved, permanent damage to the equipment is avoided, and the possibility
of developing most simple fault such as single phase-to-ground into most severe fault
such as double phase-to-ground fault is reduced.

The fault can only be

reduced if the protective relay is reliable, maintainable and sensitive enough to
distinguish between normal and abnormal condition. The relay must come into action
whenever there is a fault and must not operate if there is no fault.  Some relays are used
for the protection of the power system.  
 Some of them are primary relay meaning that they are the first line of defence.
Such relays sense the fault and send a signal to the proper circuit breaker to trip and clear
the fault.
The fault may not be cleared if the circuit breaker fails to open or relay mall
operates. The relay failure is because of three reasons such as wrong setting, bad contacts
and open circuit in the relay coil. In such cases,  the second line of defence is provided by
the backup relays. The backup relay has longer operating time, even though they sense
the fault along with the primary relays.
To attain the desired reliability, the power system network is divided into two
different protection zones. The overall system protection is divided into different
protection zones. They are generator protection, transformer protection, bus protection,
transmission line protection and feeder protection. The relay employed for protection of
the apparatus and transmission lines are as follows
o Over current Relays
o Under-frequency Relays
o Directional Relays
o Thermal Relays
o Phase Sequence Relays
 Negative phase sequence Relays
 Positive sequence Relays
o Distance or impedance Relays
 Phase Impedance Relay
 Angle Impedance  Relay
 Ohm (or reactance ) Relay
 Angle Impedance Relay
 Mho’s  Relay offset or Restricted Relay
o Pilot Relays
 Carrier channel pilot or Microwave pilot Relays
The protective relays do not eliminate the possibility of fault occurrence on the
power system rather their circuit actions start only after the fault has occurred on the
system. The main features of a good protective relaying are its reliability, sensitivity,
simplicity, speed, and economy. For the sake of familiarity of protective relay, we have to
understand some important terms.
Energizing Quantity – It is an electrical quantity which is a merger of voltage or
current or either voltage or current alone, required for the operation of the relay.
Trip Circuit – It is the circuit that controls the circuit breaker for opening
operation and comprises of trip coil, relay contacts, auxiliary switch battery supply, etc.
 Characteristic Quantity – It is designed for determining the response of the
relay. Some relays have a graded response to one or more quantity called characteristic
quantity.
Operating Force or Torque – It is a force which tends to close the relay contacts.
Restraining Force or Torque – It is a force or torque, which opposes the torque
and tends to interrupt the closure of the relay contacts.
Setting – It is an actual value of the energizing quantity at which the relay is made
to operate under given conditions.
Power Consumption of a Relay – It is the value of power consumed by the relay
circuit at the rated current or voltage and expressed in VA for AC and watts for DC.
Reset time – It is given by the time which passes away between the instant when
the current or voltage (actuating quantity) becomes less than the reset value at the time
when the relay contacts are closed.
Seal-in-coil – This coil does not allow the relay contact to open when the current
flow through them.
Overshoot Time – This is the time during which stored operating energy is
dissipated after the characteristic quantity has been suddenly restored from a specified
value to the value which it had at the initial position of the relay.
Fault Clearing Time- It is the time between the existence of a fault and at the
time of final arc quenching in a circuit breaker is called the fault clearing time.
Breaker Time – It is the time between termination of fault and final arc
quenching in a circuit breaker is called the breaker time.
Relay Time – The interval between the existence of fault and closure of relay
contacts is called the relay time.
Operating Principle
The working of the relay is either depends on the electromagnetic attraction or
electromagnetic induction. The electromagnetic attraction type relay has a solenoid which
is attracted towards the poles of the electromagnet. This relays works on both the AC and
DC supply.
The electromagnetic induction type relay uses the induction motor inside which
the torque is generated by the process of electromagnetic induction. Such type of relays
works only on ac quantities.
Universal Relay Torque Equation
The universal torque equation explains the working of an electrical relay. The
relay has some arrangement of electromagnetic. These electromagnetic consist current
and voltage windings. The current through the winding produces magnetic flux. And the
torque is produced by the interaction of the flux of the same winding or between the flux
of both the windings.
 If both the current and voltage windings are used, the torque developed by the
interaction between the fluxes is given by the equation

Where θ is the angle between V and I and the τ is the relay maximum torque
angle.
If the relay has current, voltage and the torque angle, the torque will be developed,
and it will be given as

where K1, K2, K3  are the tap setting or constant of V and I. The K4 is the
mechanical restraint due to spring or gravity.
The operating characteristic of all types of relays is obtained by adding and
subtracting all the other constants and letting others be zero or by adding other similar
terms.
For example – In over current relay the K2 = K3= 0 because of the absence of the
voltage windings. The torque equation becomes

The negative sign attributes to K4 because the spring produces restraining torque.
Similarly, for directional relay K1 = K2 = 0 and the developed torque will be
given as

Electromagnetic Relays (K2) (ND 17, AM 17, ND 18, ND 14)

Most of the relays used in the power system operate by virtue of the current and/or
voltage supplied by current and voltage transformers connected in various combinations
to the system element that is to be protected. Through the individual or relative changes
in these two quantities, faults signal their presence, type and location to the protective
relays. Having detected the fault, the relay operates the trip circuit which results in the
opening of the circuit breaker and hence in the disconnection of the faulty circuit.
Most of the relays in service on electric power system today are of electro-
mechanical type.
They work on the following two main operating principles :
(i) Electromagnetic attraction
(ii) Electromagnetic induction
Electromagnetic Attraction Relays
Electromagnetic attraction relays operate by virtue of an armature being attracted
to the poles of an electromagnet or a plunger being drawn into a solenoid. Such relays
may be actuated by D.C. or A.C. quantities. The important types of electromagnetic
attraction relays are:
(i) Attracted Armature Type Relay. Fig. shows the schematic arrangement of an
attracted armature type relay.

It consists of a laminated electromagnet M carrying a coil C and a pivoted

laminated armature. The armature is balanced by a counterweight and carries a pair of
spring contact fingers at its free end. Under normal operating conditions, the current
through the relay coil C is such that counterweight holds the armature in the position
shown. However, when a short-circuit occurs, the current through the relay coil increases
sufficiently and the relay armature is attracted upwards. The contacts on the relay
armature bridge a pair of stationary contacts attached to the relay frame. This completes
the trip circuit which results in the opening of the circuit breaker and, therefore, in the
disconnection of the faulty circuit.
The minimum current at which the relay armature is attracted to close the trip
circuit is called pickup current. It is a usual practice to provide a number of tapings on the
relay coil so that the number of turns in use
and hence the setting value at which the relay
operates can be varied.
(ii) Solenoid Type Relay. Fig. shows
the schematic arrangement of a solenoid type
relay.
It consists of a solenoid and movable
iron plunger arranged as shown. Under
normal operating conditions, the current
through the relay coil C is such that it holds
the plunger by gravity or spring in the
position shown.
 However, on the occurrence of a fault, the current through the relay coil becomes
more than the pickup value, causing the plunger to be attracted to the solenoid. The
upward movement of the plunger closes the trip circuit, thus opening the circuit breaker
and disconnecting the faulty circuit.
(iii) Balanced Beam Type Relay. Fig. shows the schematic arrangement of a
balanced beam type relay. It consists of an iron armature fastened to a balance beam.
Under normal operating conditions, the current through the relay coil is such that the
beam is held in the horizontal position by the spring. However, when a fault occurs, the
current through the relay coil becomes greater than the pickup value and the beam is
attracted to close the trip circuit. This causes the opening of the circuit breaker to isolate
the faulty circuit.

Induction Relays
Electromagnetic induction relays operate on the principle of induction motor and
are widely used for protective relaying purposes involving A.C. quantities. They are not
used with D.C. quantities owing to the principle of operation. An induction relay
essentially consists of a pivoted aluminum disc placed in two alternating magnetic fields
of the same frequency but displaced in time and space. The torque is produced in the disc
by the interaction of one of the magnetic fields with the currents induced in the disc by
the other.
 To understand the production of torque in an induction relay, refer to the
elementary arrangement shown in Fig. The two A.C. fluxes φ2 and φ1 differing in phase
by an angle α induce
E.M.F.S’ in the disc and cause the circulation of eddy currents i2 and i1
respectively. These currents lag behind their respective fluxes by 90o.
Referring to Fig. where the two A.C. fluxes and induced currents are shown
separately for clarity, let
φ1 = φ1max sin ω t
φ2 = φ2max sin (ω t + α)
where φ1 and φ2 are the instantaneous values of fluxes and φ2 leads φ1 by an
angle α.
Assuming that the paths in which the rotor currents flow have negligible self-
inductance, the rotor currents will be in phase with their voltages.

Fig. shows that the two forces

are in opposition.
∴ Net force F at the instant considered is

Where φ1 and φ2 are the R.M.S. values of the fluxes.

 The following points may be noted from exp. (i):
(a) The greater the phase angle α between the fluxes, the greater is the net force
applied to the disc. Obviously, the maximum force will be produced when the two fluxes
are 90o out of phase.
(b) The net force is the same at every instant. This fact does not depend upon the
assumptions made in arriving at exp. (i).
(c) The direction of net force and hence the direction of motion of the disc depends
upon which flux is leading.
This torque is opposed by the restraining torque provided by the spring. Under
normal operating conditions, restraining torque is greater than the driving torque
produced by the relay coil current.
Therefore, the aluminum disc remains stationary. However, if the current in the
protected circuit exceeds the pre-set value, the driving torque becomes greater than the
restraining torque.
Consequently, the disc rotates and the moving contact bridges the fixed contacts
when the disc has rotated through a pre-set angle. The trip circuit operates the circuit
breaker which isolates the faulty section.
The following three types of structures are commonly used for obtaining the phase
difference in the fluxes and hence the operating torque in induction relays :
(i) Shaded-pole structure
(ii) Watt-hour-meter or double winding structure
(iii) Induction cup structure
(i) Shaded-Pole Structure. The general arrangement of shaded-pole structure is
shown in Fig. It consists of a pivoted aluminum disc free to rotate in the air-gap of an
electromagnet.

One half
of each pole of
the magnet
is

surrounded by a copper band known as shading ring. The alternating flux φs in the
shaded portion of the poles will, owing to the reaction of the current induced in the ring,
lag behind the flux φu in the unshaded portion by an angle α. These two A.C. fluxes
differing in phase will produce the necessary torque to rotate the disc. As proved earlier,
the driving torque T is given by;
T ∝ φs φu sin α
 Assuming the fluxes φs and φu to be proportional to the current I in the relay coil,
T ∝ I2 sin α
This shows that driving torque is proportional to the square of current in the relay
coil.
(ii) Watt-Hour-Meter Structure. This structure gets its name from the fact that it
is used in watt hour meters. The general arrangement of this type of relay is shown in Fig.
It consists of a pivoted aluminum disc arranged to rotate freely between the poles of two
electromagnets.
The upper electromagnet carries two windings; the primary and the secondary.
The primary winding carries the relay current I1 while the secondary winding is
connected to the winding of the lower magnet. The primary current induces E.M.F. in the
secondary and so circulates a current I2 in it. The flux φ2 induced in the lower magnet by
the current in the secondary winding of the upper magnet will lag behind φ1 by an angle
α. The two fluxes φ1and φ2 differing in phase by α will produce a driving torque on the
disc proportional to φ1φ2 sin α.

An important
feature of this type of relay is that its operation can be controlled by opening or closing
the secondary winding circuit. If this circuit is opened, no flux can be set by the lower
magnet however great the value of current in the primary winding may be and
consequently no torque will be produced. Therefore, the relay can be made inoperative by
opening its secondary winding circuit.

(iii) Induction Cup Structure.

Fig. shows the general arrangement of an
induction cup structure. It most closely
resembles an induction motor, except
that the rotor iron is stationary, only the
rotor conductor portion being free to rotate. The moving element is a hollow cylindrical
rotor which turns on its axis.

The rotating field is produced by two pairs of coils wound on four poles as shown.
The rotating field induces currents in the cup to provide the necessary driving torque. If
φ1 and φ2 represent the fluxes produced by the respective pairs of poles, then torque
produced is proportional to φ1φ2 sin α where α is the phase difference between the two
fluxes. A control spring and the back stop for closing of the contacts carried on an arm
are attached to the spindle of the cup to prevent the continuous rotation.
Induction cup structures are more efficient torque producers than either the
shaded-pole or the watt-hour meter structures. Therefore, this type of relay has very high
speed and may have an operating time less then 0·1 second.
Functional Relay Types
Most of the relays in service on power system today operate on the principle of
electromagnetic attraction or electromagnetic induction. Regardless of the principle
involved, relays are generally classified according to the function they are called upon to
perform in the protection of elelctric power circuits. For example, a relay which
recognises overcurrent in a circuit (i.e. current greater than that which can be tolerated)
and initiates corrective measures would be termed as an overcurrent relay irrespective of
the relay design. Similarly an overvoltage relay is one which recognises overvoltage in a
circuit and initiates the corrective measures. Although there are several types of
specialfunction relays, only the following important types will be discussed in this
chapter :

(i) Induction type overcurrent relays

(ii) Induction type reverse power relays

(iii) Distance relays

(iv) Differential relays

(v) Translay scheme

Directional Over Current Relays

When fault current can flow in both the directions through the relay, at its location.
Therefore, it is necessary to make the relay respond for a particular defined direction, so
that proper discrimination is possible. This can be achieved by introduction of directional
control elements.

These are basically power measuring devices in which the system voltage is used
as a reference for establishing the relative phase of the fault current.
  Basically, an AC directional relay can recognize certain difference in phase angle
between two quantities, just as a D.C. directional relay recognize difference in polarity
 The polarizing quantity of a directional relay
 It is the reference against which the phase angle of the other quantity is compared.
Consequently the phase angle of the polarizing quantity must remain fixed when other
quantity suffers wide change in phase angle.
 The voltage is chosen as the “polarizing” quantity in the current-voltage induction
type directional relay.
 Four pole induction cup constructions is normally used.
Induction Type Directional over current relay.
(K2) (ND 16, ND 18, AM 19, ND 15, AM 16)

The directional power relay discussed above is unsuitable for use as a directional
protective relay under short-circuit conditions.

When a short-circuit occurs, the system voltage falls to a low value and there may
be insufficient torque developed in the relay to cause its operation. This difficulty is
overcome in the directional over current relay which is designed to be almost
independent of system voltage and power factor.
Constructional details.

Fig. shows the constructional details of a typical induction type directional over
current relay. It consists of two relay elements mounted on a common case viz.

(i) Directional element ii) Non-directional element.

Directional Element.

It is essentially a directional power relay which operates when power flows in a

specific direction. The potential coil of this element is connected through a potential
transformer (P.T.) to the system voltage. The current coil of the element is energized
through a C.T. by the circuit current. This winding is carried over the upper magnet of the
non-directional element. The trip contacts (1 and 2) of the directional element are
connected in series with the secondary circuit of the over current element.

Therefore, the latter element cannot start to operate until its secondary circuit is
completed. In other words, the directional element must operate first (i.e. contacts 1 and 2
should close) in order to operate the over current element.

Non-directional Element.

It is an over current element similar in all respects to a non-directional over current

relay described in Art. 21.11. The spindle of the disc of this element carries a moving
contact which closes the fixed contacts (trip circuit contacts) after the operation of
directional element.

It may be noted that plug-setting bridge is also provided in the relay for current
setting but has been omitted in the figure for clarity and simplicity. The tapings are
provided on the upper magnet of over current element and are connected to the bridge.

Operation.

Under normal operating conditions, power flows in the normal direction in the
circuit protected by the relay. Therefore, directional power relay (upper element) does not
operate, thereby keeping the over current element (lower element) unenergized. However,
when a short-circuit occurs, there is a tendency for the current or power to flow in the
reverse direction. Should this happen, the disc of the upper element rotates to bridge the
fixed contacts 1 and 2.

This completes the circuit for over current element. The disc of this element
rotates and the moving contact attached to it closes the trip circuit. This operates the
circuit breaker which isolates the faulty section. The two relay elements are so arranged
that final tripping of the current controlled by them is not made till the following
conditions are satisfied:
o Current flows in a direction such as to operate the directional element.
 o Current in the reverse direction exceeds the pre-set value.
o Excessive current persists for a period corresponding to the time setting of
over current element.

Induction Type Non-Directional Over Current Relays.

(K2) (ND 19, ND 17)

This type of relay works on the induction principle and initiates corrective
measures when current in the circuit exceeds the predetermined value.
The actuating source is a current in the circuit supplied to the relay from a current
transformer. These relays are used on A.C. circuits only and can operate for fault current
flow in either direction.

Constructional details.
Fig. shows the important constructional details of a typical non directional
induction type over current relay. It consists of a metallic (aluminum) disc which is free
to rotate in-between the poles of two electromagnets.
 The upper electromagnet has a primary and a secondary winding. The primary is
connected to the secondary of a C.T. in the line to be protected and is tapped at intervals.
The tapings are connected to a plug-setting bridge by which the number of active
turns on the relay operating coil can be varied, thereby giving the desired current setting.
The secondary winding is energized by induction from primary and is connected
in series with the winding on the lower magnet. The controlling torque is provided by a
spiral spring.
The spindle of the disc carries a moving contact which bridges two fixed contacts
(connected to trip circuit) when the disc rotates through a pre-set angle. This angle can be
adjusted to any value between 0o and 360o.
By adjusting this angle, the travel of the moving contact can be adjusted and hence
the relay can be given any desired time setting.
Operation.
The driving torque on the aluminum disc is set up due to the induction principle.

Where φ1 and φ2 are the R.M.S. values of the fluxes.

The following points may be noted from exp. (i) :
(a) The greater the phase angle α between the fluxes, the greater is the net force
applied to the disc. Obviously, the maximum force will be produced when the two fluxes
are 90o out of phase.
 (b) The net force is the same at every instant. This fact does not depend upon the
assumptions made in arriving at exp. (i).
(c) The direction of net force and hence the direction of motion of the disc depends
upon which flux is leading.
This torque is opposed by the restraining torque provided by the spring. Under
normal operating conditions, restraining torque is greater than the driving torque
produced by the relay coil current.
Therefore, the aluminum disc remains stationary. However, if the current in the
protected circuit exceeds the pre-set value, the driving torque becomes greater than the
restraining torque.
Consequently, the disc rotates and the moving contact bridges the fixed contacts
when the disc has rotated through a pre-set angle. The trip circuit operates the circuit
breaker which isolates the faulty section.
Calculation of Relay Operating Time

In order to calculate the actual relay operating time, the following things must be
known :

 Time/P.S.M. curve
 Current setting
 Time setting
 Fault current
 Current transformer ratio

The procedure for calculating the actual relay operating time is as follows:

 Convert the fault current into the relay coil current by using the current
transformer ratio.
 Express the relay current as a multiple of current setting i.e. calculate the
P.S.M.
 From the Time/P.S.M. curve of the relay, read off the time of operation for
the calculated P.S.M.
 Determine the actual time of operation by multiplying the above time of the
relay by time setting multiplier in use.

Distance Protection Relay

Distance protection relay is the name given to the protection, whose action
depends on the distance of the feeding point to the fault. The time of operation of such
protection is a function of the ratio of voltage and current, i.e., impedance. This
impedance between the relay and the fault depends on the electrical distance between
them. The principal type of distance relays is impedance relays, reactance relays, and the
reactance relays.
 Distance protection relay principle differs from other forms of protection because
their performance does not depend on the magnitude of the current or voltage in the
protective circuit but it depends on the ratio of these two quantities.  It is a double
actuating quantity relay with one of their coil is energized by voltage and the other coil is
energized by the current. The current element produces a positive or pick-up torque while
the voltages element has caused a negative and reset torque.
The relay operates only when the ratio of voltage and current falls below a set
value. During the fault the magnitude of current increases and the voltage at the fault
point decreases. The ratio of the current and voltage is measured at the point of the
current and potential transformer. The voltage at potential transformer region depends on
the distance between the PT and the fault.
If the fault is nearer, measured voltage is lesser, and if the fault is farther,
measured voltage is more. Hence, assuming constant fault impedance each value of the
ratio of voltage and current measured from relay location comparable to the distance
between the relaying point and fault point along the line. Hence such protection is called
the distance protection or impedance protection.
Distance zone is non-unit protection, i.e., the protection zone is not exact. The
distance protection is high-speed protection and is simply to apply. It can be employed as
a primary as well as backup protection. It is very commonly used in the protection of
transmission lines.
Distance relays are used for both phase fault and ground fault protection, and they
provide higher speed for clearing the fault. It is also independent of changes in the
magnitude of the short circuits, current and hence they are not much affected by the
change in the generation capacity and the system configuration. Thus, they eliminate long
clearing times for the fault near the power sources required by overcurrent relay if used
for the purpose.
Application of Distance Protection Relay
Distance protection relay is widely spread employed for the protection of high-
voltage AC transmission line and distribution lines. They have replaced the overcurrent
protection because of the following reasons.
It provides faster protection as compared to overcurrent relay.
It has a permanent setting without the need for readjustments.
Direct protection relay has less effect of an amount of generation and fault levels.
Their fault current magnitude permits the high line loading.
Distance protection schemes are commonly employed for providing the primary or
main protection and backup protection for AC transmission line and distribution line
against three phase faults, phase-to-phase faults, and phase-to-ground faults.
Impedance Type Distance Relay
Definition: The relay whose working depends on the distance between the
impedance of the faulty section and the position on which relay installed is known as the
impedance relay or distance relay. It is a voltage controlled equipment.
 The relay measures the impedance of the faulty point, if the impedance is less than
the impedance of the relay setting, it gives the tripping command to the circuit breaker for
closing their contacts. The impedance relay continuously monitors the line current and
voltage flows through the CT and PT respectively. If the ratio of voltage and current is
less than the relay starts operating then the relay starts operating.
Principle of Operation of Impedance Relay
In the normal operating condition, the value of the line voltage is more than the
current. But when the fault occurs on the line the magnitude of the current rises and the
voltage becomes less. The line current is inversely proportional to the impedance of the
transmission line. Thus, the impedance decreases because of which the impedance relay
starts operating.
The figure below explains the impedance relay in much easier way. The potential
transformer supplies the voltage to the transmission line and the current flows because of
the current transformer. The current transformer is connected in series with the circuit.
Consider the impedance relay is placed on the transmission line for the protection
of the line AB. The Z is the impedance of the line in normal operating condition. If the
impedances of the line fall below the impedance Z then the relay starts working.
Let, the fault F1 occur in the line AB. This fault decreases the impedance of the
line below the relay setting impedance. The relay starts operating, and its send the
tripping command to the circuit breaker. If the fault reached beyond the protective zone,
the contacts of the relay remain unclosed.
Operating Characteristic of an Impedance Relay
The voltage and the current operating elements are the two important component
of the impedance relay. The current operating element generates the deflecting torque
while the voltage storage element generates the restoring torque. The torque equation of
the relay is shown in the figure below

The -K3 is the spring effect of the relay.

The V and I are the value of the voltage and current. When the relay is in normal
operating condition, then the net torque of the relay becomes zero.

If the spring control effect becomes neglected,

the equation becomes

The operating characteristic concerning

the voltage and current is shown in the figure below.
The dashed line in the image represents the operating condition at the constant line
impedance.

The operating characteristic of the impedance relay is shown in the figure below.
The positive torque region of the impedance relay is above the operating characteristic
line. In positive torque region, the impedance of the line is more than the impedance of
the faulty section. Similarly, in negative region, the impedance of the faulty section is
more than the line impedance

The impedance of the line is

represented by the radius of the circle.
The phase angle between the X and R
axis represents the position of the
vector. If the impedance of the line is
less than the radius of the circle, then it
shows the positive torque region. If the
impedance is greater than the negative
region, then it represents the negative
torque region.
 This type of relay is called the high-speed relay.
Differential Relays. (K2) (ND 19, AM 18)
Most of the relays discussed so far relied on excess of current for their operation.
Such relays are less sensitive because they cannot make correct distinction between
heavy load conditions and minor fault conditions. In order to overcome this difficulty,
differential relays are used.

A differential relay is one that operates when the phasor difference of two or more
similar electrical quantities exceeds a pre-determined value. Thus a current differential
relay is one that compares the current entering a section of the system with the current
leaving the section. Under normal operating conditions, the two currents are equal but as
soon as a fault occurs, this condition no longer applies. The difference between the
incoming and outgoing currents is arranged to flow through the operating coil of the
relay. If this differential current is equal to or greater than the pickup value, the relay will
operate and open the circuit breaker to isolate the faulty section.

It may be noted that almost any type of relay when connected in a particular way
can be made to operate as a differential relay. In other words, it is not so much the relay
construction as the way the relay is connected in a circuit that makes it a differential
relay. There are two fundamental systems of differential or balanced protection viz.

(i) Current balance protection

(ii) Voltage balance protection

Current balance protection

Fig. shows an arrangement of an over current relay connected to operate as a

differential relay.

A pair of identical current transformers is fitted on either end of the section to be

protected (alternator winding in this case). The secondaries of CT’s are connected in
series in such a way that they carry the induced currents in the same direction. The
operating coil of the over current relay is connected across the CT secondary circuit. This
differential relay compares the current at the two ends of the alternator winding.
 Under normal operating conditions, suppose the alternator winding carries a
normal current of 1000 A. Then the currents in the two secondary’s of CT’s are equal
[See Fig.]. These currents will merely circulate between the two CT’s and no current will
flow through the differential relay. Therefore, the relay remains inoperative. If a ground
fault occurs on the alternator winding as shown in Fig. the two secondary currents will
not be equal and the current flows through the operating coil of the relay, causing the
relay to operate. The amount of current flow through the relay will depend upon the way
the fault is being fed.

(i) If some current (500 A in this case) flows out of one side while a larger current
(2000 A) enters the other side as shown in Fig., then the difference of the CT secondary
currents i.e. 10 − 2·5 = 7·5 A will flow through the relay.

(ii) If current flows to the fault from both sides as shown in Fig. 21.24 (ii), then
sum of CT secondary currents i.e. 10 + 5 = 15 A will flow through the relay.

Disadvantages

(i) The impedance of the pilot cables generally causes a slight difference between
the currents at the two ends of the section to be protected. If the relay is very sensitive,
then the small differential current flowing through the relay may cause it to operate even
under no fault conditions.

(ii) Pilot cable capacitance causes incorrect operation of the relay when a large
through-current flows.

(iii) Accurate matching of current transformers cannot be achieved due to pilot

circuit impedance.
 The above disadvantages are overcome to a great extent in biased beam relay.

Biased Beam Relay. The biased beam relay (also called percentage differential
relay) is designed to respond to the differential current in terms of its fractional relation to
the current flowing through the protected section. Fig. shows the schematic arrangement
of a biased beam relay. It is essentially an over current balanced beam relay type with an
additional restraining coil. The restraining coil produces a bias force in the opposite
direction to the operating force.

The equivalent circuit of a biased beam relay is shown in Fig. The differential current in
the operating coil is proportional to i2 − i1 and the equivalent current in the restraining
coil is proportional to (i1 + i2)/2 since the operating coil is connected to the mid-point of
the restraining coil. It is clear that greater the current flowing through the restraining coil,
the higher the value of current required in the operating winding to trip the relay. Thus
under a heavy load, a greater differential current through the relay operating coil is
required for operation than under light load conditions.

This relay is called percentage relay because the operating current required to trip
can be expressed as a percentage of load current.

Negative Sequence Relay (K2) (AM 19, AM 18)

Definition: A relay which protects the electrical system from negative sequence
component is called a negative sequence relay or unbalance phase relay. The negative
sequence relay protects the generator and motor from the unbalanced load which mainly
occurs because of the phase-to-phase faults.
The negative sequence relay has a filter circuit which operates only for the
negative sequence components. The relay always has a low current setting because the
small magnitude over current can cause dangerous situations. The negative sequence
relay has earthing which
protects them from phase to
earth fault but not from
phase to phase fault. The
phase to phase fault mainly
occurs because of the
negative sequence
components.
The construction of
the negative sequence relay
is shown in the figure
below. The Z1, Z2, Z3, and
Z4 are the four impedance
of the circuit which is
connected in the form of the
bridge. The impedance is energized by the current transformers. The relay operating coil
is connected to the midpoint of the circuit as shown in the figure.
The Z1 and Z3 are purely resistive and the Z2 and Z4 are both resistive and
inductive in nature. The impedance Z2 and Z4 are adjusted in such a manner that the
current flowing through them is always lagging by an angle of 60º than those current
which is flowing through Z1 and Z3. The current flowing through the junction A is split
into two parts i.e. I1 and I4. The I4 lagging by an angle of 60º regards I1.

Similarly, current from phase B split at junction C into two equal components

I3 and I2, I2 lagging behind I3 by 60º.

The current I4 lags by an angle of 30º concerning IB and I3 leads IB by 30º. The current
passing through the junction B is equal to the sum of I1, I2, and IY.
 The flow of Positive Sequence Current – The phasor diagram of positive
sequence components is shown in the figure below. When the load is in balanced
conditions, then there is no negative sequence current. The current flows through the
relay is given by the equation

So the relay remains operative for a balanced system.

The flow of Negative Sequence Current – The figure above shows that the
current I1 and I2 are equal. Thus, they cancel each other. The current IY flows through
the operating coils of the relay. The current setting value of the relay is kept less than the
normal full load rating current because the small overload current can cause the serious
conditions.

The flow of Zero Sequence Current  – The current I1 and I2 are displaced from
each other by an angle of 60º. The resultant of the current is in phase with the current IY.
The total current twice of the zero sequence current flows through the operating coil of
the relay. The relay can be inoperative by connecting the CTs in the delta. In delta
connection no zero sequence current flows through the relay.

Induction type Negative Sequence Relay

The construction of induction type negative phase sequence relay is similar as that
of an induction type over current relay. This relay consists of a metallic disc usually made
up of an aluminum coil, and this is rotating between two electromagnets the upper and
the lower electromagnets.

The upper electromagnet has two winding; the primary winding of the upper
electromagnet is connected to the secondary of the CT connected in the line to be
protected. The secondary winding of the upper electromagnet is connected in series with
the windings on the lower electromagnet.

The primary winding of the relay has three terminals because of the centre
tapping. The phase R energized the upper half of the relay by the help of CTs and
auxiliary transformer while the lower half is energized by the phase Y. The auxiliary
transformer is so adjusted that their output is lagged by an angle of 120º instead of 180º.
 The operation for Positive Sequence Currents – The current IR and IY flow
through the primary windings of the relay. The current flows in the opposite direction.
The current I’R and I’Y are equal in magnitude. The balanced current kept the relay
inoperative.

The operation for Negative Sequence currents – The negative sequence current

I flow in the primary winding of the relay because of the fault current.

The relay starts operating when the magnitude of the fault current is more than that of
the relay setting.

Reactance Relay
The reactance relay is a high-speed relay. This relay consists of two elements an
overcurrent element and a current-voltage directional element. The current element
developed positive torque and a current-voltage developed directional element which
opposes the current element depending on the phase angle between current and voltage.

Reactance relay is an overcurrent relay with directional limitation. The directional

element is arranged to develop maximum negative torque when its current lag behinds its
voltage by 90°. The induction cup or double induction loop structures are best suited for
actuating reactance type distance relays.

Construction of Reactance Relay

A typical reactance relay using the induction cup structure is shown in the figure
below. It has a four-pole structure carrying operating, polarizing, and restraining coils, as
shown in the figure below. The operating torque is developed by the interaction of fluxes
due to current carrying coils, i.e., the interaction of fluxes of 2, 3 and 4 and the restraining
torque is produced by the interaction of fluxes due to poles 1, 2 and 4.

The operating torque will be proportional to the square of the current while the
restraining torque will be proportional to VI cos (Θ – 90°). The desired maximum torque
angle is obtained with the help of resistance-capacitance circuits, as illustrated in the
figure. If the control effect is indicated by –k3, the torque equation becomes
 where Θ, is defined as positive when I lag behind V. At the balance point net
torque is zero, and hence

The spring control effect is neglected in the above equation, i.e., K3 = 0.

Operating Characteristic of Reactance Relay

The operating characteristic of a reactance relay is shown in the figure below. X is

the reactance of the protected line between the relay location and the fault point, and R is
the resistance component of the impedance. The characteristic shows that the resistance
component of the impedance has no consequence on the working of the relay, the relay
reacts solely to the reactance component. The point below the operating characteristic is
called the positive torque region.

If the value of τ, in the general torque equation, expressed below is made any other
90º, a straight line characteristic will still be obtained, but it will not be parallel to R-axis.
Such a relay is called an angle impedance relay.

This type of relay is not capable of selecting whether the fault has taken place in
the section where the relay is located, or it has taken place in the adjoining section when
used on the transmission line. The directional unit used with the reactance relay will not
be same as used with the impedance type relay because the restraining reactive volt-
ampere, in that case, will be nearly equal to zero.

Therefore the reactance type distance relay needs a directional unit that is
inoperative under load conditions. Reactance type relay is very suitable as a ground relay
for ground fault because its reach is not affected by fault impedance.

Mho Relay
A mho Relay is a high-speed relay and is also known as the admittance relay. In
this relay operating torque is obtained by the volt-amperes element and the controlling
element is developed due to the voltage element. It means a mho relay is a voltage
controlled directional relay.

A mho relay using the induction cup structure is shown in the figure below. The
operating torque is developed by the interaction of fluxes due to pole 2, 3, and 4 and the
controlling torque is developed due to poles 1, 2 and 4.
 If the spring controlling effect is indicated by –K3, the torque equation becomes,

Where Θ and τ are defined as positive when I lag behind V. At balance point, the
net torque is zero, and hence the equation becomes

If the spring controlled effect is neglected i.e., k3 = 0.

Operating Characteristic of Mho Relay

The operating characteristic of the mho relay is shown in the figure below. The
diameter of the circle is practically independent of V and I, except at a very low
magnitude of the voltage and current when the spring effect is considered, which causes
the diameter to decrease. The
diameter of the circle is expressed by the
equation as ZR=  K1 / K2 = ohmic setting
of the relay
 The relay operates when the impedance seen by the relay within the circle. The
operating characteristic showed that circle passes through the origin, which makes the
relay naturally directional. The relay because of its naturally directional characteristic
requires only one pair of contacts which makes it fast tripping for fault clearance and
reduces the VA burdens on the current transformer.

The impedance angle of the protected line is normally 60º and 70º which is shown
by line OC in the figure. The arc resistance R is represented by the length AB, which is
horizontal to OC from the extremity of the chord Z. By making the τ equal to, or little
less lagging than Θ, the circle is made to fit around the faulty area so that the relay is
insensitive to power swings and therefore particularly applicable to the protection of long
or heavily loaded lines.

For a given relay the τ is

constant, and the admittance phasor
Y will lie on the straight line. The
characteristic of mho relays on the
admittance diagram is, therefore, a
straight line and is shown in the
figure below.

Mho relay is suitable for

EHV/UHV heavily loaded
transmission lines as its threshold
characteristic in Z-plane is a circle
passing through the origin, and its
diameter is ZR.  Because of this, the
threshold characteristic is quite
compact enclosing faulty area compactly and hence, there is lesser chance to operate
during power swing and also it is directional.
Important Terms
Calculation of Relay Operating Time

Under Frequency Relay

Under Frequency Protection is used to protect the transformer/generator/alternator
when the frequency drops below the operating frequency.

It is a backup protection for over fluxing (V/F) protection. Under frequency occurs
due to turbine low speed, AVR failure, diode failure, grid frequency fluctuation etc. The
generator can tolerate moderate under frequency operation provided voltage is within an
acceptable limit.

Under frequency causes over fluxing in the generator/transformer, speed drops in

the motors, output voltage dropping etc. The abnormal under frequency on the machine
may be due to improper speed control adjustment or disoperation of the speed controller.