CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK

Exam-style questions and sample answers have been written by the authors. In examinations, the way marks are awarded
may be different.

Coursebook answers
Chapter 1
Science in context guidance 6  or example, attach a card to a weight and
F
drop it through a light gate. Alternatively,
• To calculate speed you are going to need to attach ticker-tape to the falling mass.
know both displacement and time.
7 a 
Displacement
• To measure displacement you would need
to include an object of known length (for b Speed
example, a meter ruler) in the photograph. c Velocity
This would allow you to convert a
displacement measured on the photograph d Distance
into a real-life distance. 8 distance s = v × t = 1500 × 0.2 = 300 m
• The stroboscope would provide you with the (Remember: the 0.4 s total time is that taken
time period between photographs. for the sound waves to travel out and be
• However, calculating the speed is not as simple reflected back from the surface of the water.)
as using the equation speed= distance
time
. Think 9 t ime taken for orbit is one year = 1 × 365.25 ×
about the vertical motion of the ball; once the 24 × 60 × 60 = 31 557 600 s.
ball has left the hand it starts to decelerate
distance travelled = circumference of orbit =
(due to gravity). As it reaches the top of its
2 × π × 1.5 × 1011 = 9.425 × 1011 m
motion it is momentarily stationary, before
accelerating downwards again. The speed so, the Earth’s speed = 29.9 km s−1 ≈ 30 km s−1
is never constant. Realistically the best you As the Earth orbits the Sun, its direction of
could measure would be the average speed motion keeps changing. Hence, its velocity
between photographs. keeps changing. In the course of one year, its
displacement is zero, so its average velocity is
zero.
Self-assessment questions 10 Sloping sections: bus moving; horizontal
10000
1 average speed = 1625.17
= 6.15 m s−1 sections: bus stationary (e.g., at bus stops)
2 a 
mm s−1 11 O
 A: constant speed; AB: stationary; BC:
reduced constant speed; CD: running back
b km h-1
to gate
c km s−1 s
C
d m s−1

3 distance = 12 cm = 120 mm A B
so, average speed = 120
60
= 2.0 mm s −1`

0.05 m
4 average speed = 0.40 s = 0.0125 m s−1 ≈
0.013 m s−1
D
5 a Constant speed 0
0 t
b Increasing speed (accelerating)

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12 a 
85 m s−1 b 17.3 m s−1 ≈ 17 m s−1
b 
Graph is a straight line through the c 43.9° ≈ 44° to the vertical
origin, with gradient = 85 m s−1 18 a 
10 m s−1 North
13 a Graph is a straight line for the first 3 h;
then less steep for the last hour b 0 m s−1

b car’s speed in first three hours = 23 km h−1 c 7.1 m s−1 045° or N45°E
d 7.1 m s−1 315° or N45°W
84
c car’s average speed in first four hours = 4

= 21 km h−1 Exam-style questions

14 a total distance travelled = 3.0 + 4.0 = 1 A[1]
7.0 km 2 C[1]
b, c T
 he two parts of the journey are at 90° to 3 a distance = speed × time
each other, so the resultant displacement 120 × 2.0
is given by Pythagoras’ theorem. = [1]
60 
displacement2 = 3.02 + 4.02 = 25.0, so = 4.0 km[1]
displacement = 5.0 km
b  he car’s direction of motion keeps
T
angle = tan−1 ( )
4.0
3.0
= 53° E of N or 37° N changing. Hence, its velocity keeps
of E changing. In the course of one lap,
its displacement is zero, so its average
15 a, b 8.5 km; 48° W of S or a bearing of 228° velocity is zero.[1]
c  istance travelled in 1 minute =
d
A
0.5 × circumference but, displacement =
diameter of track[1]
48° 45° circumference
8.5 km 8.0 km =
π
4000 m
= = 1270 m[1]
π π
4 a 
By Pythagoras’ theorem, distance2
W π SE
12.0 km = 6002 + 8002 m2[1]

16 S
 wimmer aims directly across river; river flows = 1000 000 = 1000 m [1]
at right angles to where she aims. So, resultant
velocity is given by geometry: b angle at B = tan−1 ( 800
600 )
[1]
magnitude2 = 2.02 + 0.82 = 4.64 so magnitude = displacement = 1000 m at an angle 53° W
4.64 = 2.154 ≈ 2.2 m s−1 of N or a bearing of 307°[1]
( )
direction = tan−1 02.8 ≈ 22° to the direct route c velocity = 1000
60
(68° to the river bank)
17 a  = 16.7 m s−1[1]
44°
at an angle 53° W of N[1]
5 distance in car = 0.25 × 60 = 15 km[1]
a 
resultant
vertical 25 ms–1 total distance = 2.2 + 15 = 17.2 km[1]
18 ms–1

horizontal
17 ms–1

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b By Pythagoras’ theorem, displacement = At least two examples: 108 − 84 = 24,
84 − 60 = 24, 60 − 36 = 24 cm[1]
2.22 + 152
24
= 15 200 m[1] b speed = distance
time
= 0.1[1]
at an angle = tan−1 215.2 [1] ( ) = 240 cm s−1[1]
= 8° E of N or a bearing of 008°[1] c 108 + 2 × 24[1]
2200
c t ime for 2.2 km at 2.0 m s = −1
2 = 156 cm[1]
= 1100 s[1]
d distance = 240 × 0.001 = 0.24 cm[1]
total time = 1100 + 900 = 2000 s[1]
The smallest scale division on the ruler
d average speed = distance
time
is 2 cm and so each dot is blurred by about
17200 1/10th of a scale division. This might just be
= [1] observable but difficult to see[1]
2000
= 8.6 m s−1[1] 10 a 
Vector quantities have direction, and
scalar quantities do not.[1]
e average velocity = displacement
time One example of a vector, e.g., velocity,
15200
= [1] acceleration, displacement, force[1]
2000
One example of a vector, e.g., speed, time,
= 7.6 m s−1[1]
mass, pressure[1]
6 resultant velocity = 1.02 + 2.402
100 km h–1
= 2.6 m s [1] −1

at an angle of tan−1 12..04 [1]( )

N
= 23° E of N or a bearing of 023°[1]
7 a  Distance in a (particular) direction[1]
500 km h–1
resultant
b  hen athlete returns to his original
W
position or the start[1]
(direct) distance from original position
zero[1]
8 s / m 40 boy b Correct vectors drawn and labelled[1]
38
36 35
girl Scale stated and diagram of
30 sufficient size[1]
25
Resultant velocity 510 (±10) km h−1[1]
20
11° W of N or a bearing of 349° (±3°)[1]
15
10 c 0.25 × 510 = 128 ≈ 130 km 11° W of N[1]
5 11 a  velocity of aircr
0 B
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
t/s
Straight line from t = 0, s = 0 to t = 12,
a  7.5 m s–1
15 m s–1
s = 36[1]
b  traight line from t = 0, s = 0 to t = 5,
S A
s = 10[1] Correct vector diagram[1]
Straight line from t = 5, s = 10 to t = 12, Velocity of aircraft in still air in easterly
s = 38[1] direction or calculation[1]
c 10 s where the graphs cross[1] b t = 5000 = 333 s and 5000 = 370 s[1]
15 13.5
9 a 
Each second, it travels a constant
total time = 703 or 704 s or 703.7 s[1]
distance.[1]
average speed = 10000
703.7
= 14.2 m s−1[1]

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Exam-style questions and sample answers have been written by the authors. In examinations, the way marks are awarded
may be different.

Coursebook answers
Chapter 2
4 v
Science in context guidance
• In order to calculate the speed of the cheetah
you would need to measure both distance and
time. Video footage would be the easiest way
to measure both. The cheetah would have to
be running perpendicular to the camera (at a t
fairly constant distance). A known distance v /ms–1
5 a
would need to be included in the video, for 30
example the distance between two landmarks,
or even the length of the cheetah itself. Most 20
modern cameras have a timecode function
that would allow you to measure the time
intervals between distance measurements. 10

• It is worth noting that this process would give

you the average speed between measurements 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 t / s
(rather than instantaneous speed). However,
the frame rate of modern cameras is high
b, c During first 10 s, acceleration a = ∆∆vt = 30
enough that for all but the fastest objects the 10

average speed would be accurate enough. = 3.0 m s−2

d  uring last 15 s, acceleration a = ∆∆vt
D
= ((30 – 15)) = −30
0 – 30
= −2.0 m s−2
Self-assessment questions 15

e From area under graph: 525 m

1 change in velocity ∆v = (18 − 0) = 18 m s−1
6
time taken ∆t = 6.0 s
so, acceleration a = ∆∆vt = 18 = 3.0 m s−2 Dots evenly spaced, then getting steadily
6.0
closer together
2 change in velocity ∆v = (11 − 23) = −12 m s−1
7 If l1 = length of first section of interrupt card,
time taken ∆t = 20 s t1 = time when first section enters light gate,
so, acceleration a = ∆∆vt = −12 = −0.60 m s−2 t2 = time when first section exits light gate,
20
l2 = length of second section of interrupt card,
The magnitude of the deceleration is 0.60 m s−2 t3 = time when second section enters light gate,
3 Rearranging the equation a = v –t u gives
a  t4 = time when second section exits light gate,
v = u + at then:
l1
so, after 1 s, v = 0.0 + (9.81 × 1) = 9.81 ≈ initial velocity u = = 0.05
t2 − t1 0.20 − 0.0
= 0.25 m s−1
9.8 m s−1 l2
final velocity v = = 0.05
t4 − t3 0.35 − 0.30
= 1.0 m s−1
b After 3 s, v = 0.0 + (9.81 × 3) = 29.4 m s−1 ≈
29 m s−1 Δt = t3 − t1 = 0.30 − 0.0 = 0.30 s
so, acceleration a = ∆∆vt = 1.00−.300.25 = 2.5 m s−2

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8  or first ticker-tape section, length l1 = 10 cm,

F 13 We know v, a and s and we want to know u,
time taken t1 = 5 × 0.02 = 0.10 s so we rearrange the equation v2 = u2 + 2as
so, initial velocity u = l1 0.10
= = 1.0 m s−1 into u2 = v2 − 2as, so initial speed, u =
t1 0.10
v 2 − 2as = ( 0.0 )2 − 2 × ( −6.5 ) × 50 = 650
 or second ticker-tape section, length
F
= 25.5 m s−1
l2 = 16 cm, time taken t2 = 5 × 0.02 = 0.10 s
l2 0.16  his is just over the speed limit.
T
so, final velocity v = =
t2 0.10
= 1.6 m s−1
14 a  t = 7.5 s; v = 220 m s−1
 ections of tape are adjacent, so time between
S
start of first section and start of final section, b  raw a tangent to the curve at point
D
Δt = time taken by first section = 5 × 0.02 = P. Read off two sets of values from the
0.10 s tangent to find the gradient. For example:
so, acceleration a = ∆∆vt = 1.60.−101.0 = 6.0 m s−2 at time t1 = 0 s, v1 ≈ 60 m s−1
at time t2 = 12 s, v2 ≈ 300 m s−1
9 a We know u, a and t and we want to know
so, approximately, acceleration
v, so we use the equation
velocity v = u + at = 0.0 + (2.0 × 10) a = ∆∆vt = 300 − 60
12 − 0
= 20 m s−2
= 20 m s−1
15 a 
The car is slowing down with constant
b We know u, a and t and we want to know (uniform) deceleration.
s, so we use the equation
b initial velocity v1 = 20 m s−1; final velocity
distance s = ut + 1
2
at2 = 0.0 + v2 = 8 m s−1
1
× 2.0 × 10 × 10 = 100 m
2 c acceleration a = ∆∆vt = 8 − 20
30 − 0
= −0.40 m s−2
c We know u, v and a and we want to know
d  isplacement of car = area under graph
d
t, so we rearrange the equation v = u + at
= (area of rectangle with side 8 m s−1 and
so that
length 30 s) + (area of triangle with side
time t = v − u = 24 − 0 = 12 s
a 2.0 12 m s−1 and base 30 s)
10 a We know u, v and t and we want to know = (8 × 30) + ( 12 × 12 × 30) = 420 m
a, so we use the equation e displacement of car, s = ut + 1
at2
2
acceleration, a = v − u = 20 − 4.0 = 0.16 m s−2
t 100 = (20 × 30) + ( 12 × (−0.40) × 30 × 30)
b average velocity, vavg = v + u = 20 + 4.0
2 2 = 600 − 180 = 420 m
= 12 m s−1
1 16 a 
Calculate distance fallen for each time
c We could use s = ut + 2
at2 but given that
1
using s = ut + 2
at2, with u = 0
we have worked out the average speed,
it is simpler to use distance, s = vavg × t Time / s 0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
= 12 × 100 = 1200 m
Displacement / m 0 4.9 19.6 44.1 78.5
11 We know u, a and s and we want to know v, so
we use the equation
v2 = u2 + 2as
so, final velocity, v = u 2 + 2as

(8.0 )
2
= − 2 × 1.0 × 18 = 100 = 10 m s−1
12 We know u, v and a and we want to know s, so
we rearrange the equation v2 = u2 + 2as, so that
2 2 ( 0 )2 − (30 )2 900
distance, s = v 2−au =
2 × ( −7 )
=
14
= 64.3 m ≈ 64 m

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b Graph is a parabola through the origin. percentage uncertainty in g = 2 × 3 = 6%

or largest value of g = 9.94 m s−2 giving an
80 absolute uncertainty of 0.58 m s−2 and a
percentage uncertainty of 90..36
58
× 100 = 6%
70
19 a 
h/m
60
2.0
Displacement / m

50
1.5
40
1.0
30
0.5
20
0
10 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 t2 / s2

0 b Because s = 12 at2 the gradient is 12 g, the

0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
Time/ s acceleration of free fall, g ≈ 1.6 m s−2
c I n 2.5 s, stone falls 30.6 m ≈ 31 m. Check
c  his object is not falling on the Earth,
T
using
perhaps on the Moon
1
s = ut + at2 = 0 + ( 12 × 9.81 × 2.5 × 2.5)
2 20 Drop an object towards the sensor, but
≈ 31 m
take care not to break it. A better method
d time taken = 2.86 s ≈ 2.9 s is to use a sloping ramp with a trolley;
Check by rearranging, remembering that gradually increase the angle of slope.
u = 0, so that time t = 2.86 s ≈ 2.9 s Deduce the value of the acceleration when
the ramp is vertical.
We know s and a, and that u = 0, and we
17 a 
need to find t. Fx = 17.3 N ≈ 17 N; Fy ≈ 10 N
21 a 
Rearrange s = ut + 12 at2, remembering that b vx = 1.7 m s−1; vy = −4.7 m s−1
u = 0,
c ax = −5.2 m s−2; ay = −3.0 m s−2
so that time t = 2sa = 29×.81
0.8
≈ 0.40 s
b We know s and a, and that u = 0, and we d Fx = 77.3 N ≈ 77 N; Fy = 20.7 N ≈ 21 N
need to find v. 22 The stone’s displacement now is s = −25 m
Use v = u + 2as so that impact velocity, v
2 2
Substituting in s = ut + 1 at2 gives
2
= u 2 + 2as = ( 0 )2 + 2 × 9.81× 0.8 = 15.7 −25 = 20t + 12 × (−9.81) × t2
≈ 4.0 m s−1 so, 4.9t2 − 20t − 25 = 0 or approximately 5t2 −
18 a 
Using the method in the worked example, 20t − 25 = 0, which can be simplified to
calculate the average speed of the steel t2 − 4t − 5 = (t − 5)(t + 1) = 0
ball = s = 2.10 = 3.134 m s−1 so, time taken to reach the foot of the cliff = 5 s
t 0.67
(i.e. 1 s more). Accurate answer is 5.08 ≈ 5.1 s.
Then find the values of v and u In solving the quadratic equation, you
final speed, v = 2 × 3.134 m s−1 = 6.268 m s−1 will have found a second solution, t = −1 s.
initial speed, u = 0.0 m s−1 Obviously, the stone could not take a negative
time to reach the foot of the cliff. However,
Substitute these values into the equation
this solution does have a meaning: it tells us
for acceleration
that, if the stone had been thrown upwards
a = v − u = 6.268 = 9.36 m s−2 ≈ 9.4 m s−2
t 0.67
from the foot of the cliff at the correct speed, it
would have been travelling upwards at 20 m s−1
b Air resistance; delay in release of ball as it passed the top of the cliff at t = 0 s.
c  ercentage uncertainty in time = 0.02/0.67
p
× 100 = 3%

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Use v = u + at to calculate v, remembering

23 a   e know the vertical distance travelled
W
that a = −9.81 m s−2 when the projectile hits the ground = 0 m so,
rearrange s = ut + 12 at2 to find t
Velocity
30 20.19 10.38 0.57 −9.24 −19.05 0 = 28.3t + 12 × 9.81t2 = 28.3t + 4.905t2
/ m s−1
Time so, t = 0 (when the projectile is launched) or
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 t = 5.77 s (when it returns to the ground)
/s
Assume horizontal velocity is constant,
b uhor = 40 × cos 45° = 28.3 m s−1
30 so, horizontal distance s = ut = 28.3 × 5.77
25 = 163 m ≈ 160 m
20
15 Exam-style questions
Velocity / m s–1

10 1 A
 (Take care to change 200 km h−1 into m s−1
5 and 1.4 km into 1400m.)[1]
0 2 C[1]
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 Time / s
–5 3 C[1]
–10 4 Using v2 = u2 + 2as[1]
–15 (v 2 − u 2 )
distance s = 2a [1]
–20
(302 − 102 )
= [1]
2 × 4.0
c 3.1 s = 100 m[1]
24 a 
Horizontal speed remains constant after 5 Using v = u + at[1]
being thrown (ignoring air resistance), so:
final velocity = 50 − 0.50 × 100 [1] = 0[1]
horizontal velocity = st = 124..00 = 3.0 m s−1
Using s = ut + 12 at2[1]
b  or vertical distance, use s = ut + 12 at2,
F distance travelled =
remembering that u = 0 50 × 100 − 0.5 × 0.50 × 1002[1]
s = ut + 1
2
at2 = 0 + 1
2
× (−9.81) × 4.0 × 4.0 = 2500 m[1]
= −78.5 m, so height of cliff is 78.5 m Train slows to rest and covers a distance of
2500 m[1]
vertical component of velocity =
25 a 
8 × sin 40° = 5.14 ≈ 5.1 m s−1 6 a  Using s = ut + 12 at2[1]
s = 20t − 0.5 × 9.8t2 = 20t − 4.9t2[1]
b vertical component of velocity = 0 m s−1
v−u
b  ubstituting values of t in the equation
S
c Rearrange v = u + at, so that time t = a gives[1]
0 − 5.14 after 2.0 s, displacement = 20.4 m ≈ 20 m[1]
= = 0.524 ≈ 0.52 s
−9.81 after 6.0 s, displacement = −56.4 m ≈
d  orizontal component of velocity
h −56 m[1]
= 8 × cos 40° = 6.13 ≈ 6.1 m s−1 c Substituting s = 0 gives[1]
e  ssume horizontal component of velocity
A 0 = 20t − 4.9t2[1]
is constant and use
t = 20
4.9
[1]
distance s = ut + 12 at2 = 6.1 × 0.52 + 0
= 3.21 ≈ 3.2 m t = 4.08 s ≈ 4.1 s[1]
26 First, calculate the time taken for the projectile 7 a 
distance travelled at constant speed
to return to the ground. = speed × time[1]

initial vertical velocity, uver = 40 × sin 45° = 40 × 20 = 800 m[1]

= 28.3 m s−1

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change in speed b i   v2 = u2 + 2as leading to

b acceleration = [1]
time taken v2 = 2 × 9.81 × 1.2[1]
(50 − 25 ) v = 4.85 m s−1 ≈ 4.9 m s−1[1]
= = 1.25 m s−2[1]
20
distance travelled = average speed × time ii v2 = 2 × 9.81 × 0.8[1]
taken[1] v = 3.96 m s−1 ≈ 4.0 m s−1[1]
average speed = (25 +2 50 ) = 37.5 m s−1[1] iii v = u + at leading to
distance travelled = 37.5 × 20 = 750 m[1] 4.85 = −3.96 + a × 0.16[1]

c  must travel an extra 50 m; its additional

B a = 55.1 ≈ 55 m s−2[1]
speed is 10 m s−1[1] Upwards direction[1]
so, time required = 50
10
= 5 s[1] Tangent drawn at t = 0.7 s and gradient of
11 a 
graph determined[1]
d −1
 onsider car A: it travels at 40 m s for
C
25 s[1] a = 0.8 (±0.2) m s−2[1]
total distance travelled 40 × 25 = 1000 m[1] b  cceleration is constant from t = 0 to
A
8 vertical component of velocity = v sin 30°[1]
a  about t = 0.5 s[1]
= 5.6 sin 30° = 2.8 m s−1[1] Acceleration decreases from t = 0.5 s[1]
Using s = ut + 12 at2 with a = −g and s = 0[1] Gradient constant from t = 0 to t = 0.5 s
and decreases from t = 0.5 s[1]
t = 2.8
4.9
= 0.57 s[1]
c Area under the graph used[1]
b  orizontal component of velocity =
h
Correct method, e.g. trapezium rule or
v cos 30°[1]
squares counted[1]
= 5.8 cos 30° = 4.85 m s−1 ≈ 4.9 m s−1[1] distance = 0.20 ± 0.01 m[1]
horizontal distance = speed × time[1]
d  andom errors: the points are either side
R
= 4.85 × 0.57 = 2.77 m ≈ 2.8 m[1] of the line[1]
9 0.2 = 12 × 9.81 × t2[1]
a 
Systematic errors: the whole line is shifted
t = 0.202 s ≈ 0.20 s[1]
 up or down[1]
b v2 = u2 + 2as; 2.912 = 1.922 + 2a ×
i  v2 = u2 + 2as; 0 = v2 − 2 × 2 × 140[1]
12 a 
0.25[1] 23.7 ≈ 24 m s−1[1]
a = 9.56 m s−2 ≈ 9.6 m s−2[1] v 23.7
b t == = 0.39 s[1]
ii Air resistance[1] s 60
The reaction time is approximately 0.3 s,
Acts in the opposite direction to
so the driver was alert.[1]
the velocity and so reduces the
100000
acceleration[1] c 100 km h−1 = 60 × 60 = 27.8 m s−1
i  Ball travels upwards (or reverses
10 a  ≈ 28 m s−1[1]
direction) on bouncing.[1] The driver was not speeding, as the speed
ii In both cases, the ball is accelerating of 24 m s−1 is less than the speed limit.[1]
due to gravity only.[1] 13 a 
Constant gradient[1]
iii Initial height of the ball above the
b i 1.55 (±0.05) s[1]
ground.[1]
ii Area under graph calculated between
iv Ball does not bounce as high as initial
t = 0 and t = 1.55 s[1]
position. or (Kinetic) energy is lost
(as heat/internal energy) during the 1.55
= 15 × = 11.6 ≈ 12 m[1]
bounce.[1] 2
iii Area between t = 1.55 s and t = 4.1 s[1]
31.8 ≈ 32 m; accept error carried
forward from time in i[1]

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c i 
The initial speed of the ball or the v2 = u2 + 2as; 202 = 0 + 2 × 9.81 × s[1]
14 a 
hot-air balloon is 15 m s−1[1] s = 20.4 ≈ 20 m[1]
ii The acceleration is in the opposite
b v = u + at; 20 = 0 + 9.81 × t[1]
direction to the initial speed of the
ball. or The acceleration due to gravity t = 2.04 ≈ 2.0 s[1]
is downwards and the ball initially c distance = 80 × 2.04 = 163 m ≈ 160 m[1]
rises.[1]

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK

Exam-style questions and sample answers have been written by the authors. In examinations, the way marks are awarded
may be different.

Coursebook answers
Chapter 3
Science in context guidance c (0.025 kg), so weight = 0.25 N

There are a number of forces that act on an d (40 000 kg), so weight = 400 000 N
aeroplane, and some are more significant than 5  he greater the mass of the car, the greater
T
others. For example: the force needed to slow it down with a
• Weight (due to the gravitational field strength given deceleration. For large cars, it is less
of the Earth). There is very little variation in demanding on the driver if the engine supplies
gravitational field strength at the height an some of the force needed to brake the car.
aircraft will travel (for example at a height of 4 6  ue to inertia, the driver continues to move
D
miles g is only around 0.2% lower than at sea forward, although the car stops. A seat belt
level). However, the aircraft will get lighter as provides the force needed to overcome this
it consumes fuel. inertia.
• Lift. This is created by the aeroplane moving 7  he large one; its weight is greater, so it
T
through the air, and is essentially a (useful) reaches a greater speed before air resistance is
form of air resistance. As the aeroplane moves sufficient to equal its weight.
through the air the upper and lower surfaces
8 a 
Lubricate the skis to reduce friction.
deflect the flow of air, and lift is generated in
the opposite direction (Newton’s third law). b  ear tight-fitting, smooth clothing to
W
The size of the force (as with air resistance) is reduce air resistance.
related to the density of the surrounding air.
This is significant as air density reduces with c  evelop powerful muscles to provide a
D
height. For example, the space shuttle would large forward force.
not have experienced lift once it was outside d  he steeper the slope, the better to
T
the Earth’s atmosphere. maximise the effect of gravity.
9 a 
The lighter one: lower terminal velocity.
Self-assessment questions
b  urn head-first and pull in his arms and
T
1 force, F = ma = 800 × 2.0 = 1600 N legs to produce a streamlined shape and
2 acceleration, a = F
=
200000
= 40 m s−2 reduce air resistance.
m 5000
10 a 
Upthrust
3 acceleration, a = F
m
= (60200
+ 40 )
= 2.0 m s−2
 ike has zero initial velocity, so final velocity v
B b Friction
= at = 2.0 × 5.0 = 10 m s−1 c Weight (= force of gravity)
4 Estimated masses are shown in brackets. Note
d Contact force (normal reaction)
that g has been rounded appropriately to 10 m
s−2 in these estimates. e Tension
(1.0 kg), so weight = mg = 1.0 × 10 = 10 N
a  f Drag
b (60 kg), so weight = 600 N

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK

11 contact force 17 a 
Sides are 27.5 cm and 21.8 cm (note: your
drag or air coursebook may have a slightly different
resistance trimmed page size)
area = 27.5 × 21.8 = 599.5 ≈ 600 cm2 to 3
weight driving force between sig. figs = 0.0600 m2 to 3 sig. figs
tyres and road
b 27.6 × 21.9 = 604.4. The difference is 4.9
12 air resistance
cm2 which to 1 sig. fig. (the usual number
for an uncertainty) is 5 cm2.
Using a combination of uncertainties, the
weight final percentage uncertainty in the area
is 100 × ((0.1/27.5) + (0.1/21.8)) = 0.82%
air resistance weight
so the absolute uncertainty in the area =
0.082 × 599.5 = 4.9 or 5 cm2
a 
Going up
6 × 10−11 A
18 a 
b Going down
b 5 × 108 W
13 a 
Force up on your foot and down on the
foot that you tread on. Both forces are c 20 = 2 × 101 m
contact forces (normal reactions).
b  orce backwards on the car and forwards
F Exam-style questions
on the wall. Both forces are contact forces
1 D[1]
(normal reactions).
2 A[1]
c  ackwards force on car and forwards force
B
on ground. Both forces are frictional forces. 3 average acceleration = changetime
a  in velocity
[1]
70
d  pwards force on ball and downwards
U = = 140 × 103 m s−2[1]
force on your hand. Both forces are 0.0005
contact forces (normal reactions). average force = mass × acceleration[1]
14 A
 pples vary in mass; the acceleration due to = 14 000 × 0.046 = 6440 N or 6.4 kN to 2
gravity varies from place to place. sig. figs[1]
weight
b mass = [1]
pressure =
15 a  F ,F= ma, so pressure has g
A
kg m s −2
mass = 6440 ≈ 660 kg[1]
base units = kg m−1 s−2 9.8
m2 4 weight = mass × g[1]
a 
b energy = force × distance, so energy has weight = 70 × 1.6 = 112 N[1]
base units kg m2 s−2
b resultant force = force up − force down[1]
c density = mass , so density has base units
volume = 500 − 112 = 388 N upwards[1]
kg m−3
resultant force
base units of pressure = kg m−1 s−2
16 a  c acceleration = [1]
mass
base units of ρgh = (kg m−3) × (m s−2) × = 388
70 = 5.54 m s upwards[1]
−2
(m) = kg m−1 s−2
5 a 
At first, the only force is the weight,[1]
Since the base units are the same, the but as its speed increases viscous drag
equation is homogeneous. increases.[1]
b base unit of speed × time = (m s−1) × (s) = m When viscous drag equals weight, the
base unit of at2 = (m s−2) × (s2) = m acceleration is zero and the speed is
Since both sides of the equation have constant.[1]
base unit m, the base unit of distance, the b  ut rubber bands around the cylinder,
P
equation is homogeneous. the same vertical distance apart along
the cylinder.[1]
Time the ball between the bands.[1]

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK

When terminal velocity is reached, the F = ma = 1200 × 82 [1]

10 a 
time taken between successive bands
will be constant.[1] F = 4800 N[1]
Starting and stopping the stopwatch b i 
kg m s−2[1]
involves random error.[1] ii kg m−1[1]
3 × 10 −3 m
6 speed =
a  [1] iii 4800 = b × 502[1]
0.005 s
b = 1.92 (kg m−1 or N s2 m−2)[1]
= 0.6 m s−1[1]
6000 m iv drag force = 1.92 × 302 = 1728 N[1]
b speed = [1] acceleration = (4800 − 1728)/1200 =
3 × 10 −3 s
= 2 × 109 m s−1[1] 2.6 m s−2[1]
8 × 10 −12 m v Sketch graph showing increasing
c speed = [1] gradient and force values marked at
4 × 10 −9 s
speeds of 0 and 50 m s−1[1]
= 2 × 10−3 m s−1[1]
 esistive force increases with speed,
R
7 a i The Earth[1] so resultant force and acceleration
ii Upwards[1] decrease.[1]
iii Gravitational force[1] 11 a 
Mass is the amount of matter in a body.[1]
Weight is a force[1]
b i  he Earth or the ground under the
T
man[1] due to gravity acting on the body.[1]
ii Downwards[1] b For example, body moves to the Moon
or rises above the Earth[1]
iii Contact force[1]
Amount of matter is constant, but force
8 a i F = ma = 1100 × 1.5 = 1650 N[1] due to gravity is less on the Moon or at
altitude[1]
ii 1650 + 600 = 2250 N (so that
c Mass: kg[1]
resultant force is still 1650 N)[1]
1
Weight: kg m s−2[1]
b s = ut + 1 at2 = 2
× 1.5 × 102[1]
2 12 a 
For a body of constant mass, the
s = 75 m[1] acceleration is directly proportional to
9 a 
1.5 m s−1[1] the resultant or net force applied to it.[1]
b  onstant velocity is reached when weight
C Directions of the acceleration and the
= upward force due to air resistance[1] resultant force are the same.[1]
Air resistance increases with speed.[1] b i 
It increases the time.[1]
Air resistance is less than the weight of ii If time increases then acceleration
the metal ball even at 2.5 to 3.0 m s−1[1] decreases.[1]
c I nitial acceleration is acceleration due Since F = ma, when acceleration is less,
to gravity or 9.81 m s−2[1] the net force is less, and there is less
Initially, neither ball has any air force between the ground and the
resistance.[1] legs.[1]

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK

Exam-style questions and sample answers have been written by the authors. In examinations, the way marks are awarded
may be different.

Coursebook answers
Chapter 4
Science in context guidance so, R = 2.5 N
angle = tan−1 12..50 = 37° to vertical
On the underside of the boat is the keel. The keel
behaves like an underwater wing; it has a large b No, there is a net force acting upon it.
surface area, providing resistance against the water 4  ith rope horizontal, the force pulling the
W
and a counter-force to stop the boat from moving box is F. With the rope at an angle θ to the
sideways. This means that even if the wind is not horizontal, the horizontal component
directly behind the boat, sailors can angle the (= F cos θ) is less, since cos θ is less than 1.
sail to take advantage of the wind without being
blown in an inconvenient direction. 5 a  contact force

Self-assessment questions
1 a  force of parachute
= 2000 N 60°

30°
direction
of 500 N
travel
weight of parachutist b c omponent of weight down slope = 500
= 1000 N sin 30° = 250 N
c  he contact force of the slope is a normal
T
b force upwards = 2000 − 1000 = 1000 N
reaction, so it is at 90° to the slope.
upwards
d Friction; up the slope
c  he will accelerate upwards (i.e.,
S
decelerate). 6 a 
component of acceleration parallel to
slope = 9.81 × sin 25° = 4.1 m s−2
2 a 
Yes, the ship is in equilibrium, because
it travels at a constant velocity (not b  et force down slope = 40 × 9.81 ×
n
accelerating, so no resultant force acting sin 25° − 80 = 85.8
on it). acceleration = 8540.8 = 2.1 m s−2
7 sum of clockwise moments = sum of
a 
b  pthrust is equal and opposite to weight
U
anticlockwise moments
of boat, as it is floating, so = 1000 kN
400 × 0.20 = F × 1.20
c  ecause the velocity is constant, we know
B
so, force required is F = 4001.×200.20 = 67 N
that the drag is equal and opposite to the
force of the engines, so = 50 kN b s um of clockwise moments = sum of
anticlockwise moments
3 vertical component of force = weight −
a 
upthrust = 2.5 − 0.5 = 2.0 N downwards 400 × 0.20 = F × 0.50
horizontal component of force = 1.5 N so, force on legs of wheelbarrow is
so, resultant force is obtained from R2 = F = 4000×.500.20 = 160 N
(2.0)2 + (1.5)2 = 6.25

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8 Remember that weight = mg, and that

a  b c omponent of weight down slope
the acceleration g is the same for all the = weight × cos 70° or weight × sin 20°[1]
masses; in our moments equation, g = 1.5 × 9.8 × cos 70° = 5.03 N = 5.0 N

cancels out from both sides. to 2 sig. figs[1]
sum of clockwise moments = sum of
c  riction balances the component of
F
anticlockwise moments
weight down slope (as contact force is
(100 × 30) + (10 × 45) = M × 20 at 90° to slope)[1]
so, mass M = 300020+ 450 = 172.5 ≈ 173 g so, friction = 5.03 N up the slope = 5.0 N
b  y this method, weighing could be carried
B to 2 sig. figs[1]
out with a limited selection of relatively d uncertainty in angle = ±1°[1]
small masses.
Smallest and largest values of friction
c  pwards force at pivot = sum of the
U force are 4.79 N and 5.27 N[1]
weights of M, the 100 g and the 10 g mass so, uncertainty is (5.27 − 4.79)/2 =
= (0.1725 + 0.110) × 9.81 0.24 N or ±0.2 N[1]
= 2.77 N e The contact force balances the
component of weight at 90° to slope[1]
9 a, b F1 = 0 N m
so, contact force = weight × cos 20°[1]
F2 = 10 × 0.25 = 2.5 N m clockwise
 = 1.5 × 9.8 cos 20° = 13.8 N = 14 N to 2
F3 = 10 sin 30° × 0.50 = 2.5 N m clockwise sig. figs[1]
F4 = 5 × 1.0 = 5 N m anticlockwise 5 a horizontal component of tension in string
c sum of clockwise moments = 2.5 + 2.5 = 1 = tension × cos 60°[1]
5 N m = sum of anticlockwise moments
= 1.0 × cos 60° = 0.50 N to the left[1]
so, yes, the moments are balanced
horizontal component of tension in string
10 torque = force × radius, so 2 = tension × cos 30°[1]
force = torque = 0137 = 761 N ≈ 760 N = 0.58 × cos 30° = 0.50 N to the right[1]
radius .18
These components cancel, as there is no
resultant horizontal force.[1]
Exam-style questions b v ertical component of tension in string 1
1 C[1] = tension × cos 30°[1]
2 B[1] = 1.0 × cos 30° = 0.87 N upwards[1]
4000 N
vertical component of tension in string 2
3 a 

drag = tension × cos 60°[1]
= 0.58 × cos 60° = 0.29 N upwards[1]

4000 N c  eight is balanced by upward

w
[2] components of tensions[1]
b Correct diagram to scale[1] = 0.87 + 0.29 = 1.16 N = 1.2 N to 2 sig. figs
 [1]
= 6130 N (allow also calculation from
components)[1] d 
4 a contact force 1.0 N
weight

friction
0.58 N
 [1]
e By Pythagoras’ theorem,[1]
weight
[2]
weight = 1.16 N = 1.2 N to 2 sig. figs[1]

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK

6 component of F at 90° to lever = F sin 45°[1] ii net vertical force = 0

 oment of F about pivot = force × distance[1]
m vertical component of force at fixed end
= 2.0 × F sin 45° = 40 N m (from the question) + vertical component of T = weight
[1] vertical component of force at fixed
40 end + 294 sin 30° = 25 × 9.81[1]
so, F = = 28.3 N = 28 N to 2 sig. figs
2 sin 45ο vertical component of force ≈ 98 N[1]
[1]
10 a 
No net/resultant force[1]
7 Taking moments about the pivot[1]
No net/resultant moment[1]
3.3 × 0.100 + 7.6 × 0.060 = P × 0.080[1]
0.786 b i 
torque of the couple about the centre
P = [1] = 30 × 90 = 2700 N cm[1]
0.080
= 9.83 N = 9.8 N to 2 sig. figs[1] ii moment of force about the centre
8 a i  A couple is a pair of equal and = (T × 24) N cm[1]
opposite forces that act at different For equilibrium: 24T = 2700[1]
points.[1]
T = 113 ≈ 110 N[1]
ii The torque of a force about a point is 11 a 
The torque of a force about a point is
the product of the force and distance. the product of the force and distance.[1]
[1]
The distance is the perpendicular
The distance is the perpendicular distance of the force to the point.[1]
distance of the line of action of the
force to the point.[1] b t ension in string B = vertical component
of A = 8.0 sin 50°[1]
b i 
Rotation shown clockwise[1]
TB = 6.13 ≈ 6.1 N[1]
Force drawn forwards[1] tension in string C = horizontal
component of A = 8.0 cos 50°[1]
axle
force exerted
TC = 5.14 ≈ 5.1 N[1]
ground by road on wheels 12 a 
No rotation[1]
No movement/acceleration in any
ii Zero[1]
direction[1]
The car moves at constant speed. or
The wheel turns at a constant rate.[1] b Two tension forces in the cord[1]

iii force = torque = 200 = 690 N[1]

Closed triangle of forces or parallelogram
radius 0.29 of forces, including weight[1]
9 a 
The centre of gravity of an object is the
point where all the weight of the object[1] c i  vertical component = 45 sin 50° = 34.5
≈ 35 N[1]
may be considered to act.[1] ii weight = sum of vertical components
b i 
Taking moments about the fixed end = 2 × 34.5 = 69 N[1]
of the flagpole
tension in cord
sum of clockwise moments = sum of
anticlockwise moments weight of
picture
tension in cord
(25 × 9.81) × 1.5 = Tx[1]
where x = perpendicular distance of
the line of action of the tension from
the fixed end of the flagpole, given by
x = 2.5 sin 30° = 1.25 m[1]
(25 × 9.81) × 1.5 = T × 1.25[1]
25 × 9.81× 1.5
T= = 294 ≈ 290 N[1]
1.25

Cambridge International AS & A Level Physics – Sang, Jones, Chadha & Woodside
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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK

Exam-style questions and sample answers have been written by the authors. In examinations, the way marks are awarded
may be different.

Coursebook answers
Chapter 5
Science in context guidance 4  he crane does work to overcome the
T
downward force of gravity, so all that matters
• The vast majority of wasted energy in any is the vertical height through which the crane
machine comes from heat transferred to the lifts the load.
surroundings, either due to friction or the
 ork done, W = F × s = 500 × 40 = 20 000 J = 20 kJ
w
burning of fuel. Electrical energy transfers
tend to be far more efficient than mechanical 5 work done by force up slope, W = F × s = 100
or thermal energy transfers, so a move from × 0.50 = 50 J
steam engines to electrical generators made a  ork done by contact force = 0 J
w
significant improvement to efficiency during work done by force down slope, W = F × s =
the industrial revolution. −(30 × 0.50) = −15 J (note the movement is in
• Electrical power was first generated on a large the opposite direction to the force)
scale in London in 1882, with a power station work done by gravity, W = F × s = −(100 sin
that could power 3000 lamps. Coal was the 45° × 0.50) = −35 J
main power source for the Western world for 6 change in gravitational potential energy,
most of the 20th century, although nuclear Ep = mgh = 52 × 9.81 × 2.5 = 1275 J ≈ 1300 J
power became a significant player in the 1950s.
7 c hange in gravitational potential energy,
• The most significant growth in electrical Ep = mgh = 100 × 9.81 × 5500 = 5400 kJ or
energy generation has happened in China 5.4 MJ
where electricity production nearly tripled
in size between 2004 and 2016, reaching a 8 a 
Elastic potential energy
massive 6000 TWh, more than any other b  ork is done on the magnets in pulling
W
country in the world. them apart. The potential energy
transferred to the magnets has come from
chemical energy in the student.
Self-assessment questions 1 1
9  inetic energy of car, Ek =
k 2
mv2 = 2
× 500 ×
1 a 
Yes, work done against friction (15)2 = 56 kJ
b  es, gravity does work in making you go
Y  inetic energy of motorcycle, Ek = 12 mv2 = 12 ×
k
faster. 250 × (30)2 = 113 kJ
c  o, because the stone remains at a constant
N The motorcycle has more k.e.
distance from the centre of the circle. 10 change in kinetic energy = k.e. before − k.e.
after
d No, because you do not move. 1
= 1 × 0.200 × (15.8)2 − 2
× 0.200 × (12.2)2
2 work done, W = F × s = mg × s = 70 × 9.81 × 2

2.5 = 1720 ≈ 1700 J = 25 − 15 = 10 J

3 work done, W = F × s = 10 × 250 = 2500 J
a  11 C
 alculate the loss in g.p.e. as the sphere falls
from its highest position.
b 2 500 J (ignoring work done against air
Ep = mgh = 10.0 × 9.81 × 0.15 = 14.7 J
resistance)

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK

 he gain in the sphere’s k.e. is 14.7 J. Using

T b Kinetic energy → heat (in the brakes)[1]
this to calculate the sphere’s speed,
c  oss of gravitational potential energy →
L
Ek = 1
2
mv2 = 1
2
× 10.0 × v2 = 14.7 J gain in kinetic energy[1]
so, v2 = 14 .7
5.0
= 2.94 m2 s−2 and v = 1.7 m s−1, the 4 horizontal distance moved = 0.5 × 16
i 
a 
same as for the sphere of mass 5.0 kg. = 8.0 m[1]
The result is unchanged for any value of mass. horizontal component of force
12 reduction in gravitational potential energy, = 200 cos 30° = 173 N[1]
ΔEp = mgΔh = 80 000 × 9.81 × (10 000 − 1000)
work done = 173 × 8.0 =
= 7.1 × 109 J 1.39 × 103 J ≈ 1.4 kJ[1]
This energy becomes increased kinetic energy ii Weight acts at 90° to
of air molecules: the air temperature rises. displacement[1]
13 We can say that the change in g.p.e. from
so, work done = 0 J[1]
the top of the jump to the point just before
she enters the water is equal to the change in iii Contact force acts at 90° to
kinetic energy, so that mgh = 12 mv2 displacement[1]

 his means that her speed just before the

T so, work done = 0 J[1]
point where she enters the water is b 86.6 ≈ 87 W[1]
v = 2gh = 2 × 9.81× 10 = 196 = 14 m s−1
5 Truck: k.e. = 12 mv2 = 9.0 MJ[1]
14 a 
kinetic energy as stone reaches foot of
Dust particle: k.e. = 12 mv2 = 14 MJ[1]
cliff, Ek = 12 mv2 = 12 × m × (38)2 = m × 722 J
The dust particle has greater kinetic energy
gravitational potential energy change, Ep = than the truck.[1]
mgh = m × 9.81 × 80 = m × 785 J
6 a  gain in g.p.e. = mgh[1]
so, proportion of g.p.e. converted to k.e.
k.e. 722 = 950 × 9.8 × 50 = 4.66 × 105 J ≈ 4.7 × 105 J
= = 0.92 = 92% [1]
g.p.e 785 work done
b  he rest of the stone’s initial energy is
T b time = [1]
power
converted to heat (because work is done 4.66 × 105
against air resistance). t = = 116.5 ≈ 120 s[1]
work done 4000
15 Rearranging power = gives c wasted power = 2.9 kW[1]
time taken
work done = power × time taken = 50 000 W × wasted energy = power × time[1]
60 s = 3.0 × 106 J (or 3.0 MJ) = 2900 × 116.5 = 3.4 × 105 J[1]
W 4 200 000
16 power = = = 70 000 W = 70 kW 7 Rate at which work is done or work
a 
t 60 done/energy change per second[1]
17 a  work done in one second, W = Fs = 700 ×
W[1]
401 = 28 000 J (28 kJ)
b kinetic energy = 1 × mass × velocity2[1]
b 28 kW 2

 ork done against gravity, W = Fs = weight ×

18 w gain in k.e.
c power = [1]
height moved time taken
1
= mgh = 55 × 9.81 × 28 × 0.20 = 3020 J × 1100 × 182
W 3020 =2 = 7130 ≈ 7.1 kW[1]
so, her useful power = = = 560 W 25
t 5.4 8 i   vertical distance = 40 sin 5° = 3.49 m[1]
a 
Exam-style questions p.e. lost = mgh = 90 × 9.81 × 3.49[1]
1 B[1] = 3078 ≈ 3100 J[1]
1 1
2 B[1] k.e. increase = mv2 = × 90 × 122[1]
ii 
2 2
3 Loss of gravitational potential energy →
a  = 6480 J[1]
gain in kinetic energy[1]

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK

b energy produced by cyclist =

i  1
b k.e. = mv2 = × 800 × 202 = 160 000 J[1]
i 
6480 − 3078 = 3402 J [1] 2
energy energy 160 000
useful power output = = power = = = 2.67 × 10 4
time time 6
3402
[1] ≈ 2.7 × 104 W[1]
67
power = 50.8 ≈ 51 W[1] ii Air resistance increases (with speed).[1]
ii Energy is wasted[1] Net driving force less or more energy
as work done against friction in the (per second) wasted, so less available
axle/chain or against air resistance.[1] to increase k.e.[1]
9 a 
Work is the product of force and i   The potential energy of a body is the
11 a 
distance moved.[1] energy stored in the body by reason of
its position or shape.[1]
The distance moved is in the direction
of the force.[1] ii Gravitational p.e. is energy due to
position in a gravitational field.[1]
b i 
As he falls, his potential energy
decreases, his kinetic energy increases Elastic p.e. is energy contained in a
and internal energy (thermal energy/ stretched or squashed object. or When
heat) is produced as work is done an object is raised above the Earth’s
against friction.[1] surface its gravitational p.e. increases.[1]
decrease in p.e. = increase in k.e. When a positively charged object
+ internal energy produced[1] is brought near another positively
charged object its electric p.e.
ii 
Graph with axes labelled and Ep increases.[1]
decreasing linearly from 1000 J to 0[1]
(Maximum [2])
Ek increasing from 0 when h = 0[1]
Ek increases as a straight line to a b mass = density × volume
i 
value below 1000 J at h = 15 m[1] = 1030 × 1.4 × 106 × 10.0 = 1.442 × 1010
≈ 1.4 × 1010 J[1]
1000 ii Water falls an average distance of
5.0 m when released through turbines.
Ek p.e. lost = mgh =
Energy/ J

Ep
1.442 × 1010 × 9.81 × 5.0
(accept also use of h = 10 m)[1]
p.e. lost = 7.07 × 1011 ≈ 7.1 × 1011 J
(or 1.4 × 1012 J if h = 10 used)[1]
15 h / m
iii energy output = 0.5 × (value in ii)
k.e. = work done on body to increase
10 a 
= 3.5 × 1011 J (or 7.1 × 1011 J
speed from 0 to v = F × s[1]
if h = 10 used)[1]
since F = ma and v2 = u2 + 2as and u = 0, energy 3.5 × 1011 J
power = = (or
s= v2 time 6 × 60 × 60
2a 7.1× 10 J
11
v2 1 if h = 10 used)[1]
k.e. = ma × = mv2[1] 6 × 60 × 60
2a 2 power = 1.64 × 107 ≈ 1.6 × 107 W (or
3.3 × 107 W if h = 10 used)[1]

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Exam-style questions and sample answers have been written by the authors. In examinations, the way marks are awarded
may be different.

Coursebook answers
Chapter 6
Science in context guidance b momentum, p = mv = 25 000 × 20 = 5.0 ×
105 kg m s−1
• There are a number of safety features in
c momentum, p = mv = 9.1 × 10−31 × 2.0 ×
modern cars, but the most common ones
107 = 1.82 × 10−23 ≈ 1.8 × 10−23 kg m s−1
are all essentially underpinned by the same
physics (Newton’s second law). 3 momentum before = mAuA + mBuB = (0.50 ×
∆p 2.0) + (0.50 × (−3.0)) = 1.0 − 1.5 = −0.5 kg m s−1
F= (i.e., to the left)
∆t
• Or force = change in momentum / time. momentum after = mAvA + mBvB = (0.50 ×
In order to reduce the impact force, these (−2.0)) + (0.50 × 1.0) = −1.0 + 0.5 = −0.5 kg m
safety devices increase the time taken for the s−1 (i.e., to the left)
momentum to change (in effect, the vehicle / 4
passenger slows down gently).
Type of collision perfectly elastic inelastic
• Seat belts have two important properties.
They need to have enough resistance to stop Momentum conserved conserved
the passenger from being thrown through Kinetic energy conserved not conserved
the windscreen (or onto the dashboard) but
need to have enough “give” to increase the Total energy conserved conserved
time taken for the passenger to slow down
(reducing the impact force). 5 a 
Before collision:
• Modern cars have “crumple zones” built into momentum of ball A, pA = mAuA = 4.0 ×
the chassis. They are designed to crumple 2.5 = +10 kg m s−1
easily on impact, so that the vehicle takes momentum of ball B, pB = mBuB = 4.0 ×
longer to reduce its momentum, reducing the (−1.5) = −6 kg m s−1
impact force. This feature has also saved the
lives of many pedestrians. b After collision:
momentum of ball A, pA = mAuA = 4.0 ×
• Air bags are designed to temporarily inflate
(−1.5) = −6 kg m s−1
when sensors detect an impact. The passenger
hits the inflated airbag which cushions momentum of ball B, pB = mBuB = 4.0 ×
the impact. 2.5 = +10 kg m s−1
c t otal momentum before collision = pA + pB
= +4 kg m s−1
Self-assessment questions
total momentum after collision = pA + pB =
1 a 
Ball B has greater mass. +4 kg m s−1
b Trolley B has greater mass. so, momentum is conserved
2 momentum, p = mv = 0.50 × 20 =
a 
10 kg m s−1

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d kinetic energy before collision = 12 mAu2A + b  ou give downward momentum to the

Y
1 Earth; as you slow down, so does the
mBu2B
2 Earth. As you start to fall back down,
the Earth starts to ‘fall’ back up towards
= ( 12 × 4.0 × (2.5)2) + ( 12 × 4.0 × (1.5)2)
you. At all times, your momentum is
= 12.5 + 4.5 = 17 J equal and opposite to that of the Earth,
kinetic energy after collision = 1 mAv2A + so combined momentum is zero, i.e.,
2 conserved.
1 mBv2B
2 8 If u = initial velocity and v = final velocity,
change in momentum of ball
= ( 12 × 4.0 × (1.5)2) + ( 12 × 4.0 × (2.5)2)
Δ
 p = mv − mu = m(v − u) = 0.40 × (1.5 − (−1.2))
= 4.5 + 12.5 = 17 J = 1.08 kg m s−1
so, k.e. before = k.e. after change in k.e. ΔEk = 12 mv2 − 12 mu2 = 12 m(v2
e relative speed before = 2.5 − (−1.5) = 4.0 m − u2)
s−1 1
= 2
× 0.40 × ((1.2)2 − (1.5)2) = −0.162 J
relative speed after = 2.5 − (−1.5) = 4.0 m
s−1  he wall has gained momentum. The ball
T
has lost kinetic energy, which has become
6 a before after thermal energy (heat) of the ball and air.
The momentum given to the wall and Earth
2.0 m s–1 u= 0 v= ? 1.2 m s–1
is equal and opposite to this value but the
kinetic energy given to the Earth = the lost
A B A B
1.0 kg 2.0 kg 1.0 kg 2.0 kg
kinetic energy from the ball. So, 0.162 = 12 mv2,
where m is the mass of the Earth and v is the
velocity, with which it recoils. v is very low
b Call 1.0 kg trolley A. since the mass is very large indeed.
Call 2.0 kg trolley B. 9 Consider the movement of the moving ball
Conservation of momentum means before the collision. If we take its direction of
movement as the x-axis, and the perpendicular
momentum before collision = momentum
to its direction of movement as the y-axis,
after collision
then compare before and after the collision.
so, mAuA + mBuB = mAvA + mBvB
 efore collision: component of momentum
B
Rearrange to find speed of first trolley along x-axis only; no component along y-axis.
after collision, vA
After collision: the second ball has a
mAuA + mBuB − mBvB = mAvA component of momentum along the y-axis
vA = mA uA + mB uB – mBvB (as it moves away at an angle to the x-axis).
mA Therefore, to conserve momentum along the
(1.0 × 2.0 ) + ( 2.0 × 0.0 ) − ( 2.0 ×1.2 ) y-axis, after the collision, the first ball must
=
1.0 also have an equal and opposite component of
= −0.40 m s−1 momentum along the y-axis. So, the first ball
The minus sign indicates that the first must change direction.
trolley reverses direction. Before After
7 a 
If you consider the star to be stationary v1
before exploding, the star has zero
u
momentum. After the explosion, matter
flies off in all directions: equal amounts of
momentum are created in all directions, so
their (vector) sum is zero. Momentum is
conserved.

v2

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10 5.0 kg ms–1 Consider momentum conservation in the

y-direction (taking ‘upwards’ as positive):
36.9° 53.1°
0 = −m × 0.80 sin 20° + m × Vy
so, Vy = 0.80 sin 20° = 0.27 m s−1
c  agnitude of velocity of second ball, V,
M
4.0 kg ms–1
3.0 kg ms–1 is given by Pythagoras’ theorem:
V2 = (Vx)2 + (Vy)2
so, V = ( 0.25 )2 + ( 0.27 )2  = 0.37 m s−1
 
11 C
 onsider momentum changes in the direction of velocity of second ball, angle
y-direction. θ to the x-direction
 Vy   0.27 
Before collision: = tan−1   = tan−1   = 47°
 Vx   0.25 
momentum = 0
change in momentum, Dp = mv − mu =
13 a 
After collision: m(v − u)
component of momentum of particle 1 = 2.40
= 1000 × (24 − 10) = 1.4 × 104 kg m s−1
sin 60° = 2.08 kg m s−1 upwards
∆p 1.4 × 10 4
component of momentum of particle 2 = 2.40 b force, F = = = 933 N ≈ 930 N
∆t 15
sin 60° = 2.08 kg m s−1 downwards
Rearrange F = ∆∆pt to give change in
14 a 
These components are equal and opposite and
momentum
hence their sum is zero.
 p = F Dt = 240 × 0.25 = 60 kg m s−1 (or 60
D
Consider momentum changes in the
N s)
x-direction.
b In the direction of the kicking force
Before collision:
momentum = 2.40 kg m s−1 to the right 15 Force applied to water
∆p m( v − u )
After collision: = =
∆t ∆t
component of momentum of particle 1 = 2.40
cos 60° = 1.20 kg m s−1 to the right m
= (v − u )
∆t
c omponent of momentum of particle 2 = 2.40 = 10 × (0 − 5.0) = −50 N
cos 60° = 1.20 kg m s−1 to the right
(Negative because force applied to water is
total momentum = 1.20 + 1.20 = 2.40 kg m s−1 against the direction of water flow)
to the right
so, force of water on wall = 50 N
Hence, momentum is conserved in both the
x- and y-directions, so total momentum is If the water bounces, a greater force is applied
conserved. because of a greater change in momentum.
12 a  component of velocity of first ball in 16 force exerted by golf club,
x-direction = 1.00 m s−1 ∆p m( v − u ) 0.046 × (50 − 0 )
F= = =
component of velocity of first ball in ∆t ∆t 0.0013
y-direction = 0 1.77 × 103 N ≈ 1.8 kN

b  ssume that each ball has mass m and

A
that the second ball has velocity V Exam-style questions
at an angle θ to the x-direction (with 1 C[1]
components Vx in the x-direction and Vy
in the y-direction). 2 B[1]
Consider momentum conservation in the 3 D[1]
x-direction: 4  he law of conservation of momentum
T
m × 1.00 = m × 0.80 cos 20° + m × Vx applies if the Earth is considered to rise as
Cancel m from all terms, so Vx = 1.00 − the ball falls. The momentum of the Earth
0.80 cos 20° = 0.25 m s−1

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change in momentum
upwards equals the momentum of the ball b force = [1]
downwards.[1] time
26 400
 he weight of the ball has an equal and
T = = 1320 N ≈ 1300 N[1]
20
upwards force on the Earth due to Newton’s c average speed during braking = 12 m s−1[1]
third law.[1]
so, distance travelled in 20 s = 12 × 20 =
5 a  momentum of ball before striking wall 240 m[1]
= mass × velocity = 2 × 3.0 = 6.0 kg m s−1
towards the ball[1] 9 momentum = mass × velocity[1]
a 

momentum after striking the wall = 0.10 × 0.40 = 0.040 kg m s−1[1]

= 6.0 kg m s−1 away from the wall[1] b  or each marble, component of
F
change in momentum of ball = 12 kg m s−1 momentum in x-direction = half of
away from the wall[1] original momentum = 0.020 kg m s−1[1]
0.020
b  here is no change in kinetic energy as the
T so, momentum of one marble = cos 45°
ball’s speed and mass are unchanged.[1] = 0.0283 kg m s [1]
−1

6 linear momentum = mass × velocity[1]

a  and velocity = 00.0283
.10
= 0.283 m s−1 ≈
0.28 m s [1]
−1

b [units of mass] × [units of velocity] =

c k.e. before = 12 mv2 = 12 × 0.10 × 0.402 =
kg m s−1[1]
0.0080 J[1]
Using v2 = 2as,
c  k.e. after = 2 × 12 × 0.10 × 0.2832 = 0.0080 J
v = ( 2 × 3.5 × 40 ) = 280 = 16.7 m s−1[1] [1]
so, momentum = mass × speed initial momentum of ball = 0.16 × 25
10 a 
= 900 × 16.7, so momentum = 4.0 kg m s−1[1]
= 1.5 × 104 kg m s−1[1] change in momentum = 4.0 − (−4.0)

d c ombined momentum to left = 8.0 kg m s−1[1]
= 3.0 × 4.0 − 2.0 × 4.0 = 4.0 kg m s−1[1] b force = change intime
momentum 8
= 0.003 [1]
combined mass = 8.0 kg[1] = 2667 N ≈ 2700 N
so, velocity after collision (This is the force on the ball but is equal
4.0 and opposite to the force on the bat.)[1]
= = 0.50 m s−1 to the left[1]
8.0
c The bat slows down.[1]
7 i  In an elastic collision, both momentum
a 
and kinetic energy are conserved.[1] The law of conservation of momentum
requires that the change in momentum
ii In an inelastic collision, momentum is of the ball and of the bat are equal but in
conserved but not kinetic energy.[1] opposite directions.[1]
b c hange in momentum = Energy is neither created nor destroyed,
momentum after − momentum before[1] but thermal energy (heat/internal energy)
= 0.35 × 2.5 − 0.35 × (−2.8) = and sound are created from the drop in
1.855 kg m s−1 ≈ 1.9 kg m s−1[1] k.e. (of the bat).[1]
The impact is non-elastic.[1]
c  hen the table (plus the Earth) is also
W
considered, then the initial momentum of 11 a 
The total momentum before the collision
the ball is equal to the final momentum is equal to the total momentum after the
of the ball added to the momentum of interaction.[1]
the snooker table, and so momentum is The system is closed or there are no
conserved.[1] external forces acting.[1]
8 change in momentum =
a  b final momentum = initial momentum
i 
mass × change in velocity[1]
0.35v = 0.25 × 30[1]
= 1100 × (−24) = −26 400 N s ≈

v = 21.4 ≈ 21 m s−1[1]
−26 000 N s[1]

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ii change in momentum 13 a 

Momentum and kinetic energy[1]
= 0.25 × 30 − 0.25 × 21.4[1]
b momentum = 0.014 × 640 = 8.96 or
i 
change in momentum = 2.14 ≈ momentum ≈ 9.0 kg m s−1[1]
2.1 kg m s−1 or 2.15 ≈ 2.2 kg m s−1[1]
ii Bullets leave with momentum forwards
iii change in total kinetic energy = 1
2 and gun has equal momentum
1 backwards.[1]
× 0.25 × 302 − 2
× 0.35 × 21.42[1]
To stop motion/momentum of the gun,
change in total k.e. = 32.4 ≈ 32 J[1]
the soldier must provide a force.[1]
iv The arrow stops and the ball moves ∆p
iii F = ; 140 = n × 8.96[1]
off with a speed of 30 m s−1[1] ∆t
Relative speed remains unaltered in number of bullets per second = 15.6 or
an elastic collision, 30 m s−1[1] 15 or 16[1]
i   The total kinetic energy before the
12 a  14 a
collision is equal to the total kinetic
Change in Initial Final
energy after the collision.[1]
momentum / kinetic kinetic
ii In a completely inelastic collision, the kg m s−1 energy / J energy / J
maximum amount of kinetic energy is truck X 6.0 × 104 2.5 × 105 4.0 × 104
lost (subject to the law of conservation
of momentum, which must be truck Y 6.0 × 104 1.5 × 104 1.35 × 105
obeyed).[1] One mark for each correct change in
b i 
Momentum is conserved, as there momentum[2]
are no external forces / the system One mark for correct kinetic energy
is closed.[1] values for X[2]
Momentum of alpha-particle in one One mark for correct kinetic energy
direction must equal that of uranium values for Y.[2]
nucleus in the exactly opposite b t otal initial k.e. = 2.65 × 105 J and total
direction for the change to be zero.[1] final k.e. = 1.75 × 105 J[1]
ii 6.65 × 10−27 × vα + 3.89 × 10−25 × vx = 0 Collision is not elastic, because the total
[1] k.e. has decreased in the collision[1]
va
iii  = −58.5 ≈ −58 or −59[1] ∆p 6.0 × 10 4
vx c force = = [1]
∆t 1.6
3.75 × 10 ≈ 3.7 or 3.8 × 104 N[1]
4

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Exam-style questions and sample answers have been written by the authors. In examinations, the way marks are awarded
may be different.

Coursebook answers
Chapter 7
Science in context guidance 5  ressure at depth 0.8 m is p = ρgh1 = 1000 ×
P
9.81 × 0.8 = 7.85 × 103 Pa
• Generally bungee jumpers want to get as close Pressure at depth 2.4 m is p = ρgh2 = 1000 ×
to the ground / water as possible without 9.81 × 2.4 = 2.35 × 104 Pa
hitting it.
maximum total pressure, p = patm + pwater
• If the rope is too stiff, then the jump may = 1.01 × 105 + 2.35 × 104 = 1.25 × 105 Pa
reach its lowest point a fair distance above the p
6 Rearrange p = ρgh to give height h =
ground. Far more worrying, though, is the ρg
1.01× 105
potential for injury. A stiff rope could cause = = 7980 m ≈ 8000 m
the jumper to decelerate too rapidly, leading 1.29 × 9.81
to serious injury (not dissimilar to hitting the This figure is too small because it assumes the
ground at high speed, but a stretch rather than density of the air is constant. In fact, density
a compression). decreases with height. You may have sensibly
assumed a smaller value for the density of air,
• If the rope is too springy, the main risk is of
say half the value quoted.
the jumper continuing past the “sweet spot”
of close to the ground and colliding (at speed) 7 a  The ball displaces a lot of water and the
with the surface. upthrust is larger than its weight.
b I nitially, with the water inside the ballast
tanks, the upthrust was equal to the
Self-assessment questions weight of the submarine plus the water
1 volume of cube = 3.0 × 3.0 × 3.0 = 27 cm3 inside the tanks. When the water is pushed
out of the tanks the upthrust is still the
mass 240 same but the submarine without the water
density = = = 8.89 g cm−3 = 8890
volume 27 weighs less. The upthrust is now larger
kg m−3 than the weight.
4 4
2 volume of sphere, V = pr3 = × π × (0.15)3 8  ass of extra water displaced = 15 × 1200
m
= 0.0141 m3 3 3
= 18 000 kg
mass
rearrange: density = extra volume displaced = 18 000/1000 = 18 m3
volume
so, mass = density × volume = 7850 × 0.0141 = extra depth = 18/750 = 0.024 m
111 kg
F 80 9  easure the sides of the cube with the
M
3 pressure, p = = = 20 kPa
A 4 × 0 .0010 micrometer. Multiply the three sides together
4 Estimate weight = 600 N, area of feet = 500 to obtain the volume of the cube. Use mass
cm2 = 0.05 m2 = density of water × volume of cube to find
F 600 the mass of water displaced. The weight =
so, pressure p = = = 12 kPa
A 0.05 mass × g. Use the newton-meter to measure
the weight of the cube in air and when fully
submerged in water. The difference is the
upthrust. This should equal the weight of the
water displaced.

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 ass of hydrogen and fabric = 3000 × 0.09

10 m stress
17 Young modulus =
+100 = 370 kg strain
upthrust in air = 3000 × 1.2 × 9.81 = 35300 N stress
Rearrange so strain =
Young modulus
g reatest mass it can lift = 35300 ÷ 9.81 − 370 = x
3200 kg Then insert formulae for stress and strain
L
B
11 a  F πd 2
= and cross-sectional area, A =
b C A× E 4
4 FL
This gives extension = 2
12 a 
Spring D has the greatest value of force πd × E
constant (the graph has the steepest 4 × 10 × 1.00
=
gradient). π × ( 0.001) × 130 × 109
2

b  pring A is the least stiff (it extends the

S = 9.796 × 10−5 m
most for each unit of force applied). ≈ 9.8 × 10−5 m
c  pring C does not obey Hooke’s law:
S force 4F
18 stress = = 2
there is no section of the graph that forms cross-sectional area πd
a straight line. 4 × 1.00
= = 8.0 × 106 Pa
13 Metals from stiffest to least stiff: π × ( 0.0004 )2
extension 0.001
Metal  oung modulus /
Y strain = =
original length 0.800
GPa
= 1.25 × 10−3 (at most)
Most stiff steel 210 8.0 × 106
stress
Young modulus = =
iron (wrought) 200 strain 1.25 × 10 −3
copper 130 = 6.4 × 10 Pa (but could be more, because
9

extension may be less than 1 mm)

brass 90−110
stress 150 × 106
aluminium 70 19 a  Young modulus = = =
strain 0.003
50 GPa
tin 50
stress 100 × 106
Least stiff lead 18 b Young modulus = = =
strain 0.001
100 GPa
 tiffest non-metal is glass (Young modulus =
14 S
Note that the Young modulus is only
70−80 GPa)
found for the straight portion of the
15 For material A: stress−strain graph.
stress σ 15 × 106 stress 100 × 106
Young modulus, EA = = = = c Young modulus = = = 25
strain ε 0.001 strain 0.004
1.5 × 1010 Pa = 15 GPa GPa
1 1
For material B: 20 e lastic potential energy, E = 2
Fx = 2
× 12 ×
0.18 = 1.08 J ≈ 1.1 J
6
stress = σ = 12 × 10 = 5.0
Young modulus, EB = strain ε 0.0024  he rubber band is assumed to obey Hooke’s
T
× 10 Pa = 5.0 GPa
9
law; hence, the answer is an estimate.
force
16 stress = 21 elastic potential energy, E = 1 Fx = 1
kx2
cross-sectional area 2 2
50 = 1 × 4800 × (0.0020)2 = 9.6 × 10−3 J
= = 1.0 × 108 Pa 2
0.5 × 10 −6
22 a 
A has greater stiffness (less extension per
(Remember that 0.5 mm2 = 0.5 × 10−6 m2)
unit force).
extension 0.1
strain = =
original length 200.0 b  requires greater force to break (line
A
strain = 5.0 × 10−4 (0.05%) continues to higher force value).
stress 1.0 × 108 c  requires greater amount of work done
B
Young modulus = =
strain 5.0 × 10 −4 to break (larger area under graph).
= 2.0 × 10 Pa
11

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Exam-style questions 7 a 
For the point at the top of the straight line:
force 10.0
1 C[1] stress = = = 6.67 × 107 Pa
area 1.5 × 10 −7
2 D[1]  [1]
3 i   Density is the mass per unit volume
a  extension
strain =
of a substance.[1] original length
ii Base units kg m−3[1] 0.8 × 10 −3
 = = 0.4 × 10 −3 [1]
2.0
b i 
Pressure is the normal force acting stress
per unit cross-sectional area.[1] Young modulus = = 1.67 × 1011 Pa
strain
ii Base units given by N m−2 = ≈ 1.7 × 1011 Pa[1]
kg m s−2 m−2 = kg m−1 s−2[1] b energy stored = 1
× force × extension[1]
2
4 The y-axis should be labelled F / N and the = 0.5 × 10.0 × 0.8 × 10−3 = 4.0 × 10−3 J[1]
x-axis labelled extension / m.[1]
c work done = average force × extension[1]
 our graph should have a straight line from
Y
the origin to the point where force = 5 N and = 7.5 N × 0.4 × 10−3 m = 3.0 × 10−3 J[1]
extension = 0.25 m[1] 8 0.27 − 0.16 = 0.11 N[1]
a 
After the straight line, the graph continues b  ass of water displaced = 0.11/9.81 =
m
with a positive gradient but the gradient 0.0112 kg[1]
decreases.[1]
5 Your diagram should show the two springs volume = mass water displaced/density =
connected one below the other.[1] 1.1 × 10−5 m3[1]
load c  eight of liquid displaced =
w
extension of one spring = [1]
2.0 spring constant 1.12 × 10−5 × 800 × 9.81 = 0.088 N[1]
= = 0.10 m[1]
20 new reading = 0.27 − 0.088 = 0.18 N[1]
Each spring has the same force, so the same
extension[1] 9 a 
P has largest Young modulus.[1]
so, total extension = 0.20 m[1] P has steepest gradient or largest value of
stress/strain (before breaking).[1]
6 a  cross-sectional area = πr2 = 1.96 × 10−7 m2
or cross-sectional area ≈ 2.0 × 10−7 m2[1] b Labelled diagram showing wire and
weights used to stretch wire[1]
b weight = stress × area[1]
Method of viewing extension, e.g.,
weight = 2.0 × 108 × 1.96 × 10−7 = 39.3 N ≈ travelling microscope and marker[1]
39 N[1] Series of weights and extensions noted[1]
extension
c strain = [1] Diameter of wire measured[1]
length
0.050 Initial length of wire measured to
= = 0.050 or 5.0%[1] ‘marker’[1]
1.0
stress Graph of force (y-axis) against extension
d Young modulus = [1]
strain (x-axis) drawn[1]
2.0 × 108 FL
= = 4.0 × 109 Pa[1] Young modulus, E =
0.050 Ax
= gradient of force−extension graph ×
e percentage uncertainty in E = the %
uncertainty in the extension = ±2%[1] length
[1]
absolute uncertainty = 0.02 × 4.0 × 109 = area
±8.0 × 107 Pa[1] 10 a 
Tensile stress is the ratio of the force
to cross-sectional area in a wire.[1]
Tensile strain is the ratio of extension
to initial length.[1]

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60 b energy stored = 12 kx2 = 12 × 80 × 0.062

i 
b stress =
i  [1]
1.3 × 10 −6 [1]
stress = 4.62 × 107 ≈ 4.6 × 107 Pa[1]
= 0.144 ≈ 0.14 J[1]
stress 4.62 × 107
ii strain = = [1] ii The law of conservation of
E 2.1× 1011
momentum must be obeyed.[1]
strain = 2.2 × 10−4[1]
iii extension = strain × original length The momentum of each trolley
extension = 2.2 × 10−4 × 1.6[1] must be equal (but opposite) and, as
extension = 3.52 × 10−4 ≈ 3.5 × 10−4 m[1] momentum = mv and the masses are
equal, then speeds must be the same.[1]
11 a 
Tensile[1]
iii 2 × 1
2
mv2 = 0.144[1]
Railway line expands on heating, reducing
stress. or Railway line becomes unstressed v = 0.60 m s−1[1]
when line expands with temperature 14 a  mass = density × volume = ρAh[1]
i 
and stresses are less than for higher force or weight of liquid
temperatures.[1] ii pressure = [1]
F 2.6 × 105 area
b i  stress = = = 5.2 × 107[1] pAhg
5.0 × 10 −3 pressure = = ρhg[1]
A A
stress 5.2 × 107 b height difference in manometer =
i 
strain = = [1]
E 2.1× 1011 60 cm = 0.60 m[1]
= 2.48 × 10−4 ≈ 2.5 × 10−4 m (0.025 %)[1] pressure difference = ρhg =
2.48 × 10 −4 1000 × 0.6 × 9.81 = 5886 ≈ 5.9 × 103 Pa
ii temperature rise = [1]
1.4 × 10 −5 [1]
= 17.7 ≈ 18 °C[1]
ii force or weight = pressure × area force
12 a E = gradient of the graph[1] or weight = 5886 × 0.05[1]
1.2 × 109 force or weight = 294 ≈ 290 N[1]
= [1]
8.0 × 10 −3
p = ρhg = 1000 × 0.5 × 9.81[1]
15 a 
= 1.5 × 1011 Pa[1]
= 4905 ≈ 4900 Pa[1]
b From the graph, strain = 4.0 × 10−3[1]
x b  t the same depth in the same liquid.
A
strain =
L or If pressure is different, liquid would
x = 4.0 × 10−3 × 3.5 = 1.4 × 10−2 m (1.4 cm)[1] flow from X to Y (and there is no depth
breaking force difference).[1]
c breaking stress = [1]
cross-sectional area force down on base = pressure at X or Y
c 
breaking force = multiplied by area of base[1]
1.52 × 109 × [p × (0.42 × 10−3)2][1] The weight of the liquid is the downwards
= 842 ≈ 840 N[1] force on the base minus the upwards
force on the top horizontal surface in the
d At 0.6 GPa,
liquid. or Force down on base assumes
force = 0.6 × 109 × [π × (0.42 × 10−3)2] = 333 liquid is all of height 0.5 m above base but
N[1] container has some parts with water of
energy stored = 12 Fx = 12 × 333 × 1.4 × depth only 0.3 m.[1]
10−2[1] 16 a k = F/x = 2.0 × 9.81/(0.280 − 0.250)[1]
= 2.33 ≈ 2.3 J[1] = 650 N m−1[1]
13 a i  The spring constant or the stiffness
b Upthrust; causes a rise of 0.020 m[1]
of the spring[1]
= 650 × 0.020 = 13 N[1]
ii The energy stored in the spring or the
work done in extending the spring[1] c  ass of liquid displaced = upthrust/9.81 =
m
1.325 kg[1]

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v olume of liquid displaced = volume of d mass/volume[1]

metal = mass/density of liquid = 0.0011
m3[1] = 1800 kg m−3[1]

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Exam-style questions and sample answers have been written by the authors. In examinations, the way marks are awarded
may be different.

Coursebook answers
Chapter 8
Science in context guidance 6 a 
Current increases by a factor of 4,
therefore time decreases by a factor of 4,
There are a number of ways you can power small therefore time = 1 hour/ 4 = 14 hour
localised generators. More common examples = 15 minutes
include:
b ΔQ = I Δt = 200 × 15 × 60 = 180 000
• Fossil fuels. You can use these pretty much
anywhere, but you need access to a source of 7  umber of protons = total charge/charge on
n
fuel. For remote locations this can be difficult. each proton = 1 / 1.6 × 10−19 = 6.3 × 1018
Fumes produced can be harmful and CO2 8 8.0 × 10−19 C; it is the only one that is an exact
released can contribute to climate change. multiple of the elementary charge
9 I = n A q v = 5.9 × 1028 × 2.0 × 10−6 × 1.6 × 10−19
• Hydroelectric. A river or waterfall can be used
× 0.10 × 10−3 = 1.9 A
to generate hydroelectric power. Once built
5.0
these are very cheap to run and produce no 10 I =
pollution. However, good locations are hard to 8.5 × 1028 × π × ( 0.50 ×10 −3 )2 × 1.6 × 10 −19
find, and they can cost a lot to build. = 4.7 × 10 −4 ms −1
11 The speed will decrease because if all the other
• Wind turbines. These can be a cost-effective
variables are unchanged then the mean drift
way of providing power, but only run when
velocity will be inversely proportion to the
it is windy. Some people consider them to be
number density.
unattractive and noisy.
V 12
12 =
I = = 0.33 Ω
• Biofuel. This can be used very effectively in R 36
remote locations. Biological material (local 13 The 60 W lamp will have the higher resistance,
wood, the methane gas from human and it will have a lower current using V = I R the
animal excrement) can be burned, producing smaller R the higher I must be for the same p.d.
the heat required to power a steam turbine.
14 a  V = I R = 1.0 × 50 = 50 V
bpotential difference ∝ current, therefore
Self-assessment questions double the current therefore the p.d. must
1 towards the right a have been doubled, 50 V × 2 = 100 V
V 230
2 a b c, see diagram c = =
15 R = 575 Ω
I 0.40
3 ΔQ = I Δt = 0.40 × 15 = 6.0 C
V 6.0
∆Q 150 = =
16 R = 2.5 Ω
4 I = = = 5.0 A I 2.4
∆t 30
P 60
∆Q 50 17 =
I = = 0.26 A
5 I = = = 2.5 A V 230
∆t 20
b
18 P = V I = 25 × 103 × 40 × 103 = 1.9 × 109 W
(or 1000 MW or 1.0 GW)

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V2 3.02 7 a Q = It = 2.4 × 10 × 60[1]

19 P
 = = = 0.45 mW
R 20 × 103 = 1440 C[1]
20 a  Rearrange P = V I to give
b W = QV = 1440 × 6.0[1]
P 15
=
I = = 0.065 A = 8640 J[1]
V 230
V 230 8 W = QV = 1.6 × 10−19 × 50 × 103[1]
b R = = = 3500 Ω
I 0.065 = 8.0 × 10−15 J[1]
P 450
21 Rearrange P = I 2 R to give 9 current
 taken by the hairdryer= = [1]
P 100 V 120
R= 2 = = 540 Ω = 3.75 A[1]
I 0.432
22 Energy transferred W = IVΔt = 10 × 12 × s o, fuse taken is 5 A, the nearest above the
(5.0 × 60 × 60) = 2200 000 J, or 2.2 MJ supplied current[1]
23 a Charge through lamp ΔQ = IΔt = 10 × 20 10 a i   Arrow from left to right[1]
= 200 C ii Arrow (and label) from left-hand
b Per coulomb of charge energy = ΔW / ΔQ electrode to positive terminal or
= 400/200 = 2.0 J from negative terminal to right-hand
electrode[1]
c Rearrange energy transferred, W = IVΔt, to
give potential difference: V = ΔW / IΔt = 400 b charge = charge per ion × number of
i 
(10*20) = 2.0 V or use potential difference = ions = 1.6 × 10−19 × 3.6 × 1016[1]
energy/ charge = 400/200 = 2.0 V charge = 5.76 × 10−3 ≈ 5.8 × 10−3 C[1]
ii I = ΔQ/Δt = 5.8 × 10−3/(8.0*60)[1]
Self-assessment questions I = 0.000 012 A = 12 µA[1]

1  (Power =VI thus I = P/V = 100/12 Q = It
C 11 a Recognition that the current in the
= (100/12) ×150 =1250 C)[1] milliammeter = current in the tube[1]
2 C
 (to define e.m.f. you must state that it is Q = It = 4.5 × 10−3 × 3 × 60[1]
the energy transferred per unit charge)[1]
Q = 0.81 C[1]
3 Q = It[1] total charge 8.1×10 −1
b n= = [1]
= 0.150 × 40 × 60[1] charge per elctron 1.6 ×10 −19

= 360 C[1] = 5.06 × 1018 ≈ 5.1 × 1018[1]
Q
4 t=  [1] Correct powers of 10 throughout[1]
I
2000 [1] c W = VQ = 75 × 1.6 × 10−19[1]
= 50 s
40 W = 1.2 × 10−17 J[1]
5 Q = It[1] electron number density, n = number of
12 a 
atoms in 1 m3 = number of atoms in
= 30 × 103 × 2000 × 10−6[1] 8900 kg[1]
= 60 C[1]
= 8900 × 6.0 × 10 = 9.89 × 1028 ≈ 1029 m −3
26

V 4.5 54 [1]
6 a I= = [1]
R 15 
= 0.30 A[1] b drift
 velocityv = I / nAe [1]
V 230 = 3.5 × 10 −3 / 9.9 × 1028 × 5.0 × 10 −8 × 1.6 × 10 −19
b R= = [1]
I 6.5  [1]
= 35 Ω[1]
= 4.4 × 103 mm s−1[1]
c V = IR = 2.4 × 3.5[1] 13 a 
The potential difference across the terminals
= 8.4 V[1] of a cell is the work done per unit change of
charge in the external circuit.[1]

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The e.m.f. of a cell is the work done per 0.1

coulomb of charge in the complete circuit. 15 a percentage uncertainty = × 100%
2.4
[1] = 4.1% [1]
V 8.9
b Q = It = 100 × 3600 [1]
i  b R= =
I 2.4
= 360 000 C[1] = 3.7 Ω
W = VQ = 12 × 360 000 W[1]
ii  3.7
resistance per unit length =
80 ×10 −3
W = 4.3 × 106 J[1]
= 46 Ω m −1[1]
V 2 122
c =
R = [1] c  dd the percentage uncertainties = 2 +
A
W 27
4.1 + 5 = 11% (rounded)[1]
= 5.3 Ω[1]
absolute uncertainty = 46 ×11% = 5 Ω m −1

14 a Recognition that Energy = power × time[1] (rounded)[1]
= 1000 × 60 × 60 = 3600 000 J = 3.6 M J[1]
P 9.5 × 103
b i I= = [1]
V 230
= 41 A[1]
ii Very large current could cause heating
of wires or voltage drop on sockets[1]
iii 50 A (or any value up to 100 A)[1]
c W = Pt = 9500 × 5 × 60 [1]
= 2.9 MJ[1]

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Exam-style questions and sample answers have been written by the authors. In examinations, the way marks are awarded
may be different.

Coursebook answers
Chapter 9
Science in context guidance 6 a 
Choose the loop containing the 5 V cell
at the top, the 10 Ω resistor with current
Computers have had a massive impact on industry I, and the central 5 V cell, as the only
over the last 30 years. For example: current involved is I.
• The internet has revolutionised b s um of e.m.f.s of cells in loop = 5.0 + 5.0 =
communication, allowing engineers to send 10 V = p.d. across resistor
plans etc instantly to colleagues.
V = IR so I = V/R = 10/10 = 1.0 A
• 3D printers can now be used to manufacture 7 I n the loop, the sum of e.m.f.s = 30 − 10 = 20
basic items anywhere in the world. NASA V, which by Kirchhoff’s second law must equal
has designed spare parts and sent them the sum of the p.d.s across the resistors, given
electronically to the International Space by V = IR
Station where they could print them using a 3D
sum of p.d.s across resistors = (0.5 × R) + (0.5
printer
× 10) + (0.2 × 10) + (0.2 × 20)
• Computers have allowed automation of so, 20 = (0.5 × R) + 11, giving R = (20 − 11)/
increasingly complex routines. Networks 0.5 = 18 Ω
of sensors in machinery allow issues to be
8 In series, the 1 C charge passes through both
identified and dealt with early.
batteries and gains or loses 6 J in each. If
the batteries are connected so that both of
them move the charge in the same direction,
Self-assessment questions total e.m.f. = 6 + 6 = 12 V. If the batteries are
1 4.5 A connected back to front, the charge gains
2 1.5 towards P energy in one cell but loses it in the other, so
total e.m.f. = 0 V.
3 current towards junction = 1.0 + 2.5 + 3.0 = 6.5
In parallel, half the charge flows through one
c urrent away from the junction = 4.0 + 2.0 + battery and half through the other, so the
0.5 = 6.5 total energy gained is 6 J, meaning the total
Kirchhoff’s first law is satisfied. e.m.f. = 6 V.
4 current towards the junction = 3.0 + 2.0 9 Consider the circuit loop at the top,
containing the 10 V cell and a 20 Ω resistor.
c urrent away from the junction = 7.0 + I
7.0 + I = 3.0 + 2.0, I = 5.0 − 7.0 = −2 A  se Kirchhoff’s second law and V = IR to give
U
10 V = I1 × 20 Ω, so current through A1 is I1 =
Therefore, I is 2.0 A towards the junction, the
10/20 = 0.50 A
opposite direction to that shown in the diagram.
Consider the circuit loop at the bottom,
5 Sum of e.m.f.s around any loop in a circuit
containing the 5 V cell and a 20 Ω resistor. Use
is equal to the sum of the p.d.s around the
Kirchhoff’s second law and V = IR to give 5 V
loop. So, e.m.f. of power supply = Sp.d.s
= I1 × 20 Ω, so current through A3 is I3 = 5/20
across resistors, meaning p.d. across resistor
= 0.25 A
R = e.m.f. of power supply − p.d. across 20 Ω
resistor = 10 − (0.1 × 20) = 8.0 V; V = IR so
resistance R = VI = 8.0/0.1 = 80 Ω

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 ow use Kirchhoff’s first law at the circuit

N 2 00 Ω (two ways), 250 Ω, 300 Ω and 400 Ω
junction to the right of ammeter A2 to give I1 In detail:
= I2 + I3 so current through A2 is I2 = I1 − I3 =
• One 100 Ω on its own
0.50 − 0.25 = 0.25 A
10 total resistance = 5 + 5 + 10 = 20 Ω • One 200 Ω on its own
 se Kirchhoff’s second law to give e.m.f. =
11 U • Both 100 Ω in series, R = 200 Ω
V1 + V2
• 100 Ω + 200 Ω in series, R = 300 Ω
so, V2 = e.m.f. − V1 = 2.0 − 1.2 = 0.8 V
12 a  All five in series and pointing the same way, • All in series, R = 200 + 100 + 100 = 400 Ω
so e.m.f. = 1.5 + 1.5 + 1.5 + 1.5 + 1.5 = 7.5 V • Both 100 Ω in parallel, 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 =
b  ive in series, with two facing in the
F 1/100 + 1/100 = 2/100 so R = 50 Ω
opposite direction, so e.m.f. = 1.5 + 1.5 +
• 100 Ω and 200 Ω in parallel, 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 =
1.5 − 1.5 − 1.5 = 1.5 V or all five in parallel
1/100 + 1/200 = 3/200 so R = 67 Ω
c
 ive in series, with one facing in the
F
opposite direction, so e.m.f. = 1.5 + 1.5 + • 100 Ω and 200 Ω in parallel, plus 100 Ω in
1.5 + 1.5 − 1.5 = 4.5 V or two in parallel series, R = 67 + 100 = 167 Ω
to give e.m.f. of 1.5 V, connected in series • 100 Ω and 100 Ω in parallel, plus 200 Ω in
to two more in parallel (also giving e.m.f. series, R = 50 + 200 = 250 Ω
of 1.5 V), then connected in series to the
single remaining cell with e.m.f. of 1.5 V • 100 Ω and 100 Ω in series, connected in parallel
sum of e.m.f.s = 1.5 + 1.5 + 1.5 = 4.5 V with 200 Ω so 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 = 1/200 + 1/200
= 2/200 so R = 100 Ω
13 1/RTotal = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + 1/R4 = 4/10
so, RTotal = 10/4 = 2.5 Ω • 100 Ω and 200 Ω in series, connected in parallel
with 100 Ω so 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 = 1/300 + 1/100
R = R1 + R2 = 100 + 200 = 300 Ω
14 a  = 4/300 so R = 75 Ω
b 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 = 1/100 + 1/200 = 3/200,
• All in parallel, so 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
so R = 200/3 = 67 Ω
= 1/100 + 1/100 + 1/200 = 5/200 so R = 40 Ω
c esistance of the series combination is
R
given in part a, 300 Ω 17 10 Ω (remember for resistors connected in
parallel, their combined resistance is smaller
so, for full combination, 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 than any of the individual resistances)
= 1/300 + 1/200 = 5/600
18 T
 he p.d. across each resistor is the same as the
so, R = 600/5 = 120 Ω
e.m.f. of the battery.
Rearrange V = IR to give I = V/R = 12/500
15 a 
= 0.024 A Rearrange V = IR to give current, I = V/R =
10/20 = 0.50 A
total resistance R = R1 + R2 = 500 + 1000 =
b 19 Combined resistance of all resistors, R, is
1500 Ω given by:
Rearrange V = IR to give I = V/R =
1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 = 1/20 + 1/40 + 1/50 =
12/1500 = 0.008 A
19/200 so R = 200/19 = 10.5 Ω
c Total resistance R is given by 1/R = Rearrange V = IR to give current I = V/R =
1/R1 + 1/R2 = 1/500 + 1/1000 = 3/1000 10/10.5 = 0.95 A
so, R = 1000/3 = 333 Ω But an easier way to approach this is to
Rearrange V = IR to give I = V/R = (12 × calculate the current through each resistor
3)/1000 = 0.036 A using I = V/R, given that the p.d. across each
16 Total resistances possible are: 40 Ω, 50 Ω, 67 Ω, resistor is the same and equals the e.m.f. of
75 Ω, 100 Ω (two ways), 167 Ω, the battery. sum of currents = 10/20 + 10/40 +
10/50 = 190/200 = 0.95 A

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20 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 so 1/10 = 1/20 + 1/R2 so 1/R2 d c harge Q = It = 0.0082 × 60[1]
= 1/10 − 1/20, hence, R = 100 Ω    = 0.492 C[1]
21 T wo in parallel, connected in series with a Q 0.492
further two. For the parallel combination, n= = [1]
e 1.6 × 10 −19 
1/RP = 1/100 + 1/100 = 1/50 so RP = 50 Ω
= 3.1 × 1018[1]
Thus, the total resistance of the series
combination is RS = 100 + 100 + 50 = 250 Ω 7 a current in Y = 2.0 − 0.5 = 1.5 A[1]
22 Resistance of parallel combination is given by b p  .d. across Y = 0.5 × 6.0 = 3.0 V[1]
1/300 + 1/60 = 6/300 = 1/50 so Rp = 50 Ω 3
so, resistance of Y = = 2 Ω [1]
1.5
s o, total resistance of circuit R = 50 + 50 = 100 Ω
c p  .d. across X = 12 − 3 = 9.0 V[1]
Rearrange V = IR to give current, I = V/R 9.0
so, resistance of X = = 4.5 Ω [1]
current at A, I = 600/100 = 6.0 A 2.0
current at B is the same as at A = 6.0 A 8 a  The potential difference across the
p.d. across parallel combination = e.m.f. − p.d. terminals of a battery is the energy
across 50 Ω resistor = 600 − (6.0 × 50) = 300 V transferred per coulomb of charge in
the external circuit.[1]
current at C is V/R = 300/300 = 1.0 A
The e.m.f. of a battery is the energy
current at D is 300/60 = 5.0 A
transferred per coulomb of charge in the
current at E = current at A = 6.0 A complete circuit.[1]
23 a  current = V/R = 10/100 = 0.10 A b i 0.75 A[1]
b current = V/R = 10/(100+5.0) = 0.095 A V = IR = 0.75 × 12 [1]
ii 
= 9.0 V[1]
Exam-style questions iii Use the circuit loop including both
1 B[1] batteries and the 3 Ω resistor:
2 D[1] 9.0 = E2 + (1× 3 )[1]
3 a W = 3.6 A to the right[1] E2 = 6.0 V[1]
V 6
b  = 4.3 − 2.4 = 1.9 downwards 
X [1] =
I =
iv  [1]
R 12 
 = 4.8 − 2.7 = 2.1 A to the left [1]
c 
Y = 0.50 A[1]
d Z = 4.3 − 4.3 = 0 [1] 9 a The ammeter goes in the main circuit. It
must have a low resistance so little energy

4 X = 6.5 − 2.0 = 4.5 mA to the right [1] is transferred in it / there is a small p.d.
 [1] across it.[1]
Y = 4.5 − 4.2 = 0.3 downwards
5 a X = 2.2 − 1.4 = 0.8 V[1] b i resistance of the voltmeter and
b  = 6.3 + 2.4 − 5.0 = 3.7 V [1]
X 1 1 −1
400 Ω resistor = ( + )
1200 400
 = 6.0 − 1.4 − 2.4 = 2.2 V 
c 
X [1]
= 300 Ω[1]
d  = 4.3 + 4.7 = 9.0 V[1]
X
9.0
=
current in the circuit = 0.03 A [1]
Y = 9.0 V[1] 300
1.8 potential drop across
6 a  =
current in resistor I = 8.2 mA [1]
220
100 Ω resistor = 0.03 × 100 = 3.0 V
b p.d. across the lamp V = 6.0 − 1.8 = 4.2 V
[1] therefore, e.m.f. = 9.0 + 3.0 = 12.0 V[1]

6.0
resistance R = V /I =
c  = 730 Ω[1]
0.0082

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ii  new resistance of the combination b resistance of the upper arm

1 1 −1  = ( 40 + 20 ) = 60 Ω [1]
=( + ) = 387 Ω
12 000 400 resistance of the lower arm
 [1]
−1
9.5  1 1 
=
new current = 0.0246 A [1] =  +  + 96 = 120 Ω
387  60 40  [1]
p.d. across the new 1 1 −1
resistance of network = ( + )
combination = 387 × 0.0246 60 120
= 9.53 ≈ 9.5 V [1] = 40 Ω[1]
     
iii The voltmeter is in parallel with the c total potential difference across whole
main circuit[1] lower arm = 6.0 V[1]
so it reduces the resistance of any p.d. across the parallel section
combination it is in, as shown in
24
answers b i and b ii.[1] × 6.0 = 1.2 V [1]
=
120
10 a Resistance is the potential difference
current through 60 Ω resistor = 1.2/60 =
across a component divided by the current
0.02 A[1]
in it.[1]

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK

Exam-style questions and sample answers have been written by the authors. In examinations, the way marks are awarded
may be different.

Coursebook answers
Chapter 10
Science in context guidance 2  t 2.0 V, R = V/I = 2.0/0.010 = 200 Ω; at 8.0 V,
A
R = 8.0/0.060 = 133 Ω
A few possible (if more than a little unfeasible)
No, it does not obey Ohm’s law.
answers students could come up with here:
3 At θ1, R = V/I = 30/2.4 = 12.5 Ω; at θ2,
a 
• Using superconductors to reduce resistance
R = 15/3 = 5.0 Ω
could allow the hero to transfer very large
currents efficiently. This could maybe be b θ1 is the higher temperature
utilised for some kind of electrocution / 4 a 
Filament lamp is A; steel wire is B
lightning power or weapon.
• Superconducting magnets could be used to b 8.0 V
create a weapon / superpower involving the c resistance, R = V/I = 8.0/3.4 = 2.4 Ω
ability to use magnetism against your enemies.
5 i   3.1 kΩ
a 
• Superconducting magnets could be used to
accelerate charged particles such as protons or ii 1.5 kΩ
alpha-particles, creating a stream of ionising b i 5 °C
particles. This could be used as a weapon (a
proton beam gun, for example). ii 36 °C
The scale of the magnets / superconductors make 6  he lamp will become brighter because the
T
all of these options fairly unlikely, but this is resistance of the thermistor decreases. This
science fiction after all! reduces the total resistance in the circuit and
therefore the current increases.
7 a 
A thermistor’s resistance changes more
Self-assessment questions per degree of temperature change than a
1 a I/A metal wire. This makes the thermometer
0.25
more sensitive.
0.20
b  metal wire will work over a much wider
A
0.15 range than a thermistor. or The metal’s
0.10 resistance increases almost linearly,
making the thermometer more linear.
0.05
8 a Rearrange resistance, R = ρL/A to give
0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 V/V length, L = RA/ρ
where A = ¼pd2 = ¼ × π × (0.5 × 10−3)2 =
b  ll except point at 7.9; this point is
A
1.96 × 10−7 m2
anomalous and can be ignored
so, length for 1.0 Ω resistance = RA/ρ =
c 48 Ω 1.0 × 0.2 × 10−6/44.0 × 10−8 = 0.45 m
d Yes b length for 5.0 Ω resistance = 5.0 × 0.45 = 2.3 m
c length for 10 Ω resistance = RA/ρ = 10 ×
0.45 = 4.5 m

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9 v olume of copper, v = 1.0 cm3 = length L × In a metallic conductor, such as copper,
cross-sectional area A the vibration of the ions increases their
so, length L = v/A effective cross-section to the migrating
electrons.[1]
thus, resistance R = ρv/A2 = 1.69 × 10−8 × 1.0 ×
10−6/(4.0 × 10−7)2 = 0.11 Ω b  he higher the temperature, the more
T
vibration, hence, the greater the effective
resistance, R = ρL/A
10 a 
cross-section and the more collisions there
We know the first length, L1 = 1.0 m, as are between the electrons and the ions.
well as the resistivity of copper and the This reduces the mean drift velocity.[1]
resistance R1. So, the cross-sectional area
In semiconductors, thermal energy gives
of the wire is A = ρL1/R1
electrons sufficient energy to escape from
The resistance of the 5.0 m length of wire their parent atoms.[1]
is R2 = ρL2/A = L2R1/L1 = 5.0 × 0.50/1.0 =
The greater the temperature, the greater
2.5 Ω
the number of electrons that can escape,
b Area = 14 ,pd2, so halving the diameter so the more charge carriers there are and
reduces the area by a factor of 4. the lower the resistance.[1]
Resistance is inversely proportional to
ρ L 1.3 × 10 −8 × 1.5
area. Therefore, halving the diameter 6 a resistance =
= [1]
increases the resistance by a factor of 4. A 0.008 × 10 −6
= 2.4 Ω[1]
So, resistance R = 0.50 × 4 = 2.0 Ω
RA 30 × 8.0 ×10 −9
11 4 0 Ω; the resistance increases by a factor of 4 b L= = [1]
(because cross-sectional area has halved and ρ 1.30 ×10 −8
length has doubled) = 18.5 ≈ 18 m[1]
7 a 
V = IR = 0.48 × 5[1]
Exam-style questions = 2.4 V[1]
1 B[1] b current = 0.72 − 0.48 = 0.24[1]
i 
2 A[1] ii 0.24 A[1]
3 i 
a  When p.d. is 2.0 V, current I is 0.25 A[1] c Resistance of the thermistor decreases[1]
so, resistance R = 2.0/0.25 = 8 Ω[1] so circuit resistance decreases[1]
5.0 so ammeter reading increases[1]
ii resistance = = 10 Ω[1]
0.50
8 a 
The atoms vibrate more[1]
b A filament lamp[1]
so their effective cross-sectional area
4 a 
Graph showing a current greater than increases and there are more collisions.[1]
zero at 0 °C, with a positive gradient; it
may or may not be linear[1] b Cross-sectional area[1]

b  se the graph as a calibration graph.

U Material of which the wire is made[1]
Keeping the voltage across the thermistor c R= VI=
i  1.5 [1]
0.24
constant, place the thermistor at the point
where the temperature is to be measured. = 6.25 Ω[1]
[1] ρL 1.69 ×10 −8 × 5.0
R=
ii  so A = [1]
Read the current and convert to a A 6.25
temperature using the calibration graph.[1] = 1.35 × 10−8 m2[1]
5 a 
The number density of free electrons is 4A
d= = 1.3 × 10 −4 m[1]
very high in copper.[1] π
In silicon, the number density of free d  ess area open to air[1]
L
electrons is very much less (a million times Less cooling, therefore, temperature
less).[1] rises[1]
Current decreases[1]

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ρL
9 R=
a  and A is thickness × width, 11 a 
The current through the resistor is
A proportional to the p.d. across it[1]
ρL
so t = [1] at constant temperature.[1]
Rw
b i Straight horizontal line
2.3 × 103 × 36 × 10 −3
t= [1] (assuming V is on x-axis)[1]
1.1× 106 × 32 × 10 −3
ii As above, but at a higher resistance[1]
= 0.0023 m (2.3 mm)[1]
iii Both at a (slightly) higher level[1]
V 12
b I= = [1]
R 1.1×106 c R ∝ length: 2 × length → 2 × resistance[1]
= 1.1 × 10−5 A[1] R ∝ 1/cross-sectional area: 2 × diameter
→ 4 × area → 14 × resistance[1]
c Resistance decreases[1]
new resistance = 2 × 14 = 12 × original
Current would increase[1]
resistance[1]
Silicon wafer would get even hotter, with
avalanche effect creating more and more 12 a
charge carriers [1] d 0.4 × 10 −3 2
R 4 π( )2 0.28 × π × ( )
RA 2 = 2
i, ii 
10 a   i [2] ρ= =
L 2.25 2.25
[1]
= 1.56 × 10−8 Ω m[1]
0.02
b = = 5.0%
i diameter: uncertainty
ii
0.40
0.05
= = 2.2% [1]
length: uncertainty
b  iode has very low resistance
D 2.25
(in forward direction), so large current[1] 0.01
= = 1.8%
resistance: uncertainty
Heating would lead to damage to 0.28 [1]
diode/supply[1] 
ii total percentage uncertainty
V 1.4
c R = = [1] = ( 2 × 5.0 ) + 2.2 + 1.8 = 14% [1]
I 20 × 10 −3    
= 70 Ω[1]
14
actual uncertainty = 1.56 × 10 −8 ×
100
   = 0.22 × 10 −8 Ωm [1]

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Exam-style questions and sample answers have been written by the authors. In examinations, the way marks are awarded
may be different.

Coursebook answers
Chapter 11
Science in context guidance Self-assessment questions
• Although the idea of an ancient battery is 1 E = 5.0 V
appealing, the evidence that the small pot
discovered in Baghdad was actually used as a
r = 2.0 Ω
battery is inconclusive.
current = 0.50 A
• The pot was allegedly discovered by a German
archaeologist named Wilhelm König just
before the start of World War II. Apparently
König reproduced the pot and in testing R = 8.0 Ω
it managed to produce small potential
differences of between 0.8 and 2 V. He Rearrange e.m.f. E = I(R + r) to give
hypothesised that the pot may have been used current
for electroplating, or for electrifying small I = E/(R + r) = 5.0/(8.0 + 2.0) = 0.50 A
iron religious statues / artefacts, so that when
a worshiper touched them they experienced a 2 i   Rearrange e.m.f. E = I(R + r) to give
a 
strange tingling sensation. current
I = E/(R + r) = 3.0/(10 + 10 + 4.0) =
• Neither the design of the pot nor evidence 0.125 ≈ 0.13 A
from other archaeological finds really back
this up. There is no evidence of electroplated ii External resistance R is given by
items from the historical period in which the 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 = 1/10 + 1/10,
pot was made, or records of such devices so R = 5.0 Ω
being used to electrify statues. The pot has
so, current I = E/(R + r) = 3.0/(5.0 +
many design features that would stop it from
4.0) = 0.33 A
being used effectively. For example:
b i lost volts = Ir = 0.125 × 4.0 = 0.5 V
• The jar was sealed with asphalt at both
ends. The electrolyte in the jar would need terminal p.d. = e.m.f. − lost volts = 3.0
to be replaced regularly; this would be − 0.5 = 2.5 V
impractical with a sealed unit. ii lost volts = Ir = 0.33 × 4.0 = 1.33 V
• There are no “terminals” for this battery. terminal p.d. = e.m.f. − lost volts = 3.0
The iron rod did protrude slightly through − 1.33 = 1.67 V
the asphalt seal, but there was no way of
3 Rearrange e.m.f. E = I(R + r)
connecting a wire to the copper tube.
to give current I = E/(R + r) = (1.5 × 4)/(2.0 +
• There is no evidence that at that time (0.1 × 4)) = 2.5 A
wire (or insulating material) was being
produced in lengths suitable for making 4 E = 3.0 V
an electric circuit p.d. across 10 Ω resistor = 2.8 V so current in
circuit with resistor connected
• As it stands Volta still probably has the best
claim as the inventor of the battery. = V/R = 2.8/10 = 0.28 A

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Rearrange e.m.f. E = IR + Ir to give internal

resistance of battery
r = (E − IR)/I = (3.0 − 2.8)/0.28
= 0.71Ω 10 V
5 1.5
400 Ω Vout

1.0
 he output voltage is shown across the 400
T
V Ω resistor. When the temperature rises, the
resistance of the thermistor decreases and so
0.5
the p.d. across the thermistor decreases and
the p.d. across the 400 Ω resistor increases.
You can instead put the output voltage across
0 the thermistor, then, when temperature rises,
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
I/A the output voltage falls.

E = 1.5 V, r = 0.5 Ω 13 a 
For a 1 cm length of wire, potential
difference = 4.0/100 = 0.04 V
6 terminal p.d. = E − Ir = 12 − (100 × 0.04)
a 
=8V length needed for 1.0 V = 1.0/0.04 = 25 cm

b power, P = VI, and p.d. V = IR means b  length of 37.0 cm has a p.d. across it of
A
current, I = V/R, so P = V2/R 37.0 × 0.04 = 1.48 V
Rearrange to give resistance R = V2/P = The driver cell will have internal resistance
(12)2/36 = 4.0 Ω and it is supplying current to the
potentiometer wire. Therefore, the p.d.
c power, P = V2/R = 82/4 = 16 W across its terminals and the wire will be
7  hen resistor is set to 0 Ω, Vout = 0 V
W slightly less than the e.m.f. (4.0 V) of the
When resistor is set to 40 Ω, Vout = R2/(R1 + R2) cell.
× Vin = 40/(10 + 40) × 10 = 8 V c I f a balance length of 31.2 cm is required
8  rom the graph in Figure 12.7, the resistance
F by a cell of e.m.f. 1.230 V, then p.d.
of the LDR is 100 kΩ. supplied by unknown e.m.f. cell = (1.230 ×
37.0)/31.2 = 1.459 V ≈ 1.46 V
voltage V across the 3 kΩ = R1/(R1 + R2) × Vin,
where R1 is the resistance of the
3 kΩ resistor and R2 is the resistance of the Exam-style questions
LDR 1 B[1]
V = 3/(3 +100) × 10 = 0.29 V 2 C[1]
9 C  onnect the output across the 3 kΩ resistor. 3 terminal p.d. = 2.5 × 0.30 = 0.75 V [1]
a 
10 The thermistor is connected in series with
There is work done inside the cell against
a fixed resistor and a battery. A changing
the internal resistance. or There is a
temperature will cause a changing voltage
voltage (lost volts) across the internal
across the thermistor.
resistance.[1]
11 Both are made from a semiconductor
material. Both have a decreasing resistance: b E = V + Ir [1]
for an LDR when the light intensity increases 1.5 = 0.75 + 2.5 × r so 2.5r = 0.75[1]
and for a thermistor when the temperature
so, r = 0.30 Ω [1]
increases. Both have a non-linear change in
resistance with light intensity or temperature.
12 The resistance of the thermistor at 50° C is
400 Ω so the resistor must have the same value.

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V 8.40
c i power P = I 2 R = 2.52 × 0.30 [1] c i I= = [1]
R 12
= 1.875 ≈ 1.88 W
= 0.70 A[1]
ii Power for 0.5 Ω: total resistance
R + r = 0.80 Ω ii lost volts = 0.54 V[1]
1.5 lost volts 0.54
= = 1.875 A [1]
current r= = = 0.77 Ω[1]
0.8 I 0.7
iii The resistance of the voltmeter >> r
power = 1.8752 × 0.5 = 1.76 W [1] or R[1]
Power for 0.2 Ω: total resistance 7 a 
In circuit 1, the p.d. across the bulb
R + r = 0.50 Ω varies from 0 to 240 V.[1]
1.5
= = 3.0 A [1]
current In circuit 2, it never falls to zero.[1]
0.5
V 2 2402
power = 3.02 × 0.20 = 1.80 W [1] =
R =
b i  [1]
P 60
4 i  The test cell is the wrong way round
a  = 960 Ω[1]
[1]
ii Resistance is greater when switched
so he must reverse it.[1] on. or Resistance is lower at room
ii At the balance point, the ammeter temperature.[1]
reading is zero.[1] Resistance of a metal increases with
e.m.f . 2.25 increasing temperature (or decreases
b = [1] with decreasing temperature).[1]
1.434 34.6
2.25 8 a Voltmeter reading will decrease[1]
so, e.m.f . = × 1.434 = 0.933 V [1]
34.6 because current through R2 decreases.[1]
5 a 
The resistance due to the work done (or R2 470
energy transferred) in driving current b Vout = ×Vin so, 2.0 = ×9
( R1 + R2 ) 470 + R1
through the cell[1]  [1]
which equals the ‘lost volts’ divided by R1 = 1645 ≈ 1600 Ω[1]
the current.[1] c resistance of R2 and voltmeter in parallel
b i E = I ( R + r ) = 0.625 ( 2 + r )[1]  1   1 
−1

=  +   = 903 Ω [1]

= 0.341( 4 + r )   1645   2000 )  
r = 0.40 Ω[1] R2 903
Vout = ×Vin = = 5.9V  [1]
ii Substitution into E = I(R + r) so ( R1 + R2 ) (1645 + 903)
E = 1.50 V[1] 9 i   Straight line through origin with
a 
positive gradient[1]
c Internal resistance is too high[1]
Graph axes labelled V (x-axis) and
Maximum current < 4 A[1]
l (y-axis)[1]
6 a The e.m.f. of a cell is the work done per
ii A: 0 V; B: 2.2 V[1]
coulomb of charge [1] in the complete
circuit.[1] iii General diagram (with one or two
cells)[1]
b  here is no/negligible current through
T
the high resistance voltmeter and, hence, Two cells in correct polarity[1]
the cell. When the resistor is connected Switches, or suitable comment
in parallel there is a much larger current indicating that only one cell is used
through that and the cell.[1] at a time[1]
There is now a potential drop as electrical
work is done against the internal
resistance of the cell.[1]

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b  = I ( R + r )[1]
E R1 15.4
iii  = [1]
= 0.6 × ( 8 + r ) = 1.50 × ( 2 + r )[1] R2 ( 42.6 − 15.4 )
r = 2.0 Ω[1] = 0.57 [1]
Substitution into either equation gives iv uncertainty in R1 = ±0.2 cm;
E = 6.0 V[1] percentage uncertainty = 1.3%
10 a 
A diagram similar to Figure 11.13[2] uncertainty in R2 = ± 0.2 cm;
percentage uncertainty = 0.5%[1]
b i ± 0.2 cm[1]
R1 15.4 total percentage uncertainty
ii  = = 0.36[1] = 10.7 + 0.5 = 11.2 ≈ 11%
( R1 + R2 ) 42.6
total uncertainty = ±0.06[1]

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Exam-style questions and sample answers have been written by the authors. In examinations, the way marks are awarded
may be different.

Coursebook answers
Chapter 12
power P
Science in context guidance 4 intensity =
a  =
area A
• Waves transfer energy (and information) surface area of a sphere = 4pr2
without transferring matter. They move so, the intensity at 1.0 m from the lamp
through the medium. In a water wave the P 100
water is temporarily displaced vertically as = =
4 πr 2
4 × π × (1.0 )2
the wave moves through it. Imagine a buoy
bobbing up and down as a wave passes; the = 7.96 W m−2 ≈ 8.0 W m−2
location of the buoy remains constant, but it b intensity at 2.0 m from the lamp =
moves up and down. P 100
=
• The image shows water from the shore that 4 πr 2 4 × π × ( 2.0 )2
has been displaced vertically as the wave = 1.99 W m−2 ≈ 2.0 W m−2
moves through it. The raised water droplets
5 a 
Intensity is proportional to (amplitude)2,
have gained gravitational potential energy.
so doubling amplitude multiplies intensity
As the water drops, the potential energy is
by 4, to 1600 W m−2
converted into kinetic energy as the wave
“crashes” against the shore. b I ntensity is reduced by a factor of 4, so
the amplitude decreases by a factor of 2,
• The energy transferred by the wave is
to 2.5 cm
dependent on a number of factors, including
wavelength, velocity and amplitude. 6 Rearrange speed of wave, v = fλ, to give
v 5060
frequency f = = = 20 240 Hz ≈ 20 kHz
λ 0.25
Self-assessment questions 7 speed v = fλ = 64 × 1.40 = 89.6 m s−1 ≈ 90 m s−1
1 a 
Wavelength 15 cm, amplitude 4.0 cm
8 frequency f = 30 Hz
a 
b Wavelength 20 cm, amplitude 2.0 cm
b speed v = fλ = 30 × 0.050 = 1.5 m s−1
2  ne complete wave occupies 2.5 scale
O
9
divisions. One scale division represents 0.005 s,
so the period of the wave T = 2.5 × 0.005 Station Wavelength / m Frequency /
= 0.0125 s MHz
1 1 Radio A 97.6
so, the frequency f = = = 80 Hz v 3.00 × 108
T 0.0125 (FM) = = 3.07
3 f 97.6 × 10 6
B
Displacement

A Radio B v 3.00 × 108 94.6

(FM) = = 3.17
f 94.6 × 10 6

Distance

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Station Wavelength / m Frequency / 14 Use table of answers to Question 11:

MHz a 
Radio waves
Radio B 1515 v 3.00 × 108 b Radio waves
(LW) =
λ 1515
c Visible light
= 0.198
(note: MHz) d X-rays or γ-rays
Radio C 693 v 3.00 × 108 15 T
 he Polaroid would allow only plane polarised
(MW) = light to get through, with the electric field
λ 693
vibrations along the transmission axis of the
= 0.433 Polaroid. All other oscillating electric fields
(note: MHz) from the incoming unpolarised light will be
blocked by the long chains of molecules of the
10 a 
Observed wavelength
Polaroid. Some of the incident light energy
λobs =
(v + vs ) (330 + 80 ) = 3.4 m is transferred to thermal energy within the
=
f 120 Polaroid.
v 330 Use Malus’s law: I = I0 cos2 θ
16 a 
fobs = = = 97 Hz
λobs 3.4 I = 12 × cos2 45° = 12 × 0.50 = 6.0 W m−2
fS × v
120 × 330
b fobs = = = 97 Hz b Use Malus’s law: I = I0 cos2 θ
(v + vs ) (330 + 80 ) I = 12 × cos2 60° = 12 × 0.25 = 3.0 W m−2
11 Calculate frequencies using f = vλ ,
with v = 3.0 × 108 m s−1 17 Use Malus’s law: I = I0 cos2 θ
I
I is 30% of I0; this means = 0.30
Radiation Wavelength Frequency / Hz I0
range / m I
therefore, cos2 θ = = 0.30 and
radio waves >106 to 10−1 300 to 3 × 109 cos θ = 0.30 I0
microwaves 10−1 to 10−3 3 × 109 to 3 × 1011 so, θ = 57°
infrared 10 to 7 × 10
−3 −7
3 × 10 to 4.3 × 10
11 14

visible 7 × 10 (red) to 4
−7
 .3 × 1014 to 7.5 × Exam-style questions
4 × 10 (violet) 1014
−7
1 D[1]
ultraviolet 4 × 10−7 to 10−8 7.5 × 1014 to 3 × 1016
2  wo waves occupy 4.8 divisions, so 1 wave =
T
X-rays 10−8 to 10−13 3 × 1016 to 3 × 1021 2.4 div[1]
γ-rays 10−10 to 10−16 3 × 1018 to 3 × 1024 Time for 2.4 div = 2.4 × 500 µs = 1200 µs[1]
12 a 
Visible 1 1
frequency = =
period 1200 × 10 −6
b Ultraviolet = 833 Hz
c 1−100 mm ≈ 830 Hz[1]
3 a  They travel through a vacuum.[1]
d 400−700 nm
Their speed in vacuum is 3 × 108 m s−1.[1]
e 4.3 × 1014 Hz to 7.5 × 1014 Hz
b  icrowaves have a shorter wavelength
M
13 a 
Radio waves (or higher frequency) than radio waves.[1]
b Microwaves c i 
Between 10−8 and 10−13 m[1]
c Infrared ii Using c = fλ, frequency lies between
d Visible light 1016 and 1021 Hz[1]
4 a 
Doppler effect: source moving towards/
e Ultraviolet away from observer leads to decreased/
f X-rays or γ-rays increased wavelength[1]

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b  aximum frequency when boat’s velocity

M 8 i  Lower[1]
a 
is directed towards the observer[1]
ii In the time between emitting one wave
420 × 330
observed frequency = and the next, the source moves away.
305 [1]
= 454 Hz[1]
Minimum frequency when boat’s velocity The wavelength is larger or waves
is directed away from observer[1] appear further apart.[1]
420 × 330 Since v = fλ, a larger wavelength is a
observed frequency = smaller frequency.[1]
355
= 454 Hz[1]
fc 4.00 × 1500
c  hen boat’s velocity is directed at the
W b observed frequency = =
(v + c ) (1500 + 30 )
student[1]  [1]
5 a P = 3.9216 (MHz)[1]
C R C R
shift in frequency = 0.078 MHz =
i Any C correctly marked[1]
78 000 Hz[1]
ii Any R correctly marked[1]
c  he Doppler effect occurs when the
T
b Vibrates[1] observer (the particles) moves away from
parallel to the direction of oscillation[1] the source (the transmitter).[1]
9 a A plane polarised wave is a transverse
c  oves from the equilibrium position
M
wave with oscillations (of the electric
to maximum displacement, back
field) in just one plane.[1]
to equilibrium, then to maximum
displacement in opposite direction and b  iew the reflected light using a polarising
V
back to equilibrium[1] (Polaroid).[1]
240 times per second[1] Rotate the filter about the horizontal axis:
d v = fλ leading to λ = 320
[1] the intensity of the light passing through
240
the filter will change, reaching a minimum
 = 1.3 m[1]
λ value when the transmission axis of the
6 v = fλ = 1000 × 0.33 = 330 m s−1[1] filter is at right angles to the plane of
polarisation of the reflected light.[1]
 ercentage uncertainty in f = 10/1000 × 100
p
= 1.0%[1] c The intensity of transmitted light from
the first polarising filter = I0 (the same as
 ercentage uncertainty in λ = 2/33 × 100
p
the incident intensity)[1]
= 6.06%[1]
The intensity of light from the second
 ercentage uncertainty in v = 1.0 + 6.06
p filter will be:
= 7.06%[1]
I = I0 cos2 θ = I0 cos2 45° = 0.50I0[1]
a bsolute uncertainty in v = 0.0706 × 330
= 23.3 m s−1 The intensity of light from the last filter
will be:
therefore, v = 330 ± 23 m s−1[1]
I = I0 cos2 θ = [0.50I0] cos2 45° = 0.50I0 ×
7 a 
Particles vibrate parallel to direction of 0.50 = 0.25I0[1]
propagation[1]
The final transmitted intensity is not zero,
b 5 waves in 6 × 5 × 10−3 s so period but 25% of the original intensity.[1]
= 6 × 10−3 s[1]
f = 1
T
= 167 ≈ 170 Hz[1]
c v = fλ leading to v = 167 × 1.98[1]
v = 330 m s−1[1]

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Exam-style questions and sample answers have been written by the authors. In examinations, the way marks are awarded
may be different.

Coursebook answers
Chapter 13
Science in context guidance destructive. A stable pattern interference
pattern is not possible.
• There are a number of jobs and workplace
4 The intensity would increase.
environments where continuous noise at
dangerously high volumes can occur. For 5
example, building sites, factories, working with a resultant
loud vehicles.
Displacement
• Sound levels that are 85db and over are 0
considered to be dangerously high. Time

• Noise-cancelling headphones have become b

very popular with travellers, particularly those resultant
Displacement

involved in long-distance flights, as the lack of

noise improves the quality of the passengers’ 0
sleep. They have also been trialled in intensive Time
care units. Disturbed sleep can have a negative
impact on a patient’s recovery time, and noise- c
resultant
Displacement

cancelling headphones (combined with low

lighting) have been shown to help with this.
0
Time

Self-assessment questions 
1 6  : dark fringe, because rays from slits 1 and 2
D
have a path difference of 1½λ
resultant  : bright fringe, because the path difference is 2l
E
7 The wavelength λ and the separation of slits a
Displacement

Distance remain the same

0
therefore, x ∝ D; doubling D means x must
also double
so, new separation of fringes will be 3.0 mm.
2  he grid spacing is much smaller than the
T 8 x = laD , therefore, x ∝
a  1
a
, so decreasing a
wavelength of the microwaves, so the waves do gives increased x
not pass through. However, the wavelength of
light is much smaller, so it can pass through b  lue light has shorter wavelength; x ∝ λ
B
unaffected. so x is less
3  wo loudspeakers with slightly different
T c x is directly proportional to D
frequencies might start off in step, but they
For larger D, x is greater, so there is a
would soon go out of step. The superposition
smaller percentage uncertainty in x
of the waves at a particular point might
be constructive at first, but would become

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9 Rearrange λ = ax the measured second-order angle of 19°

D to give
−9
will give 543 nm. Hence, the diffraction
x = λaD = 589 ×010.0002× 1.20 = 3.5 × 10−3 m grating method is more accurate. In
practice, it is also much more precise
10 D and a are fixed, so x ∝ l because the fringes are bright and sharp
−7
 ew fringe separation = 4.5 × 10−7 × 2.4
n (well-defined).
6.0 × 10
= 1.8 mm For red light, rearrange d sin θ = nλ so
15 a 
(or wavelength is 34 of previous value, so –9
sin θ = ndλ = 1 × 700 × 10–6 = 0.350
2.00 × 10
spacing of fringes is 34 of previous value)
so, θred = 20.5°
11 For the second-order maximum, rays from
adjacent slits have a path difference of 2λ, so For violet light, rearrange d sin θ = nλ so
–9
they are in phase. sin θ = ndλ = 1 × 400 × 10–6 = 0.200
2.00 × 10
(Note: The angle at which the second-order so, θviolet = 11.5°
maximum is observed must be greater than therefore, angular separation
the first-order maximum because the path = 20.5° − 11.5° = 9.0°
difference between neighbouring rays is larger:
2λ instead of λ.) b  he third-order maximum for violet
T
light is deflected through a smaller angle
Rearrange d sin θ = nλ so sin θ =
12 a  than the second-order maximum for red
nλ 2 × 580 × 10 –9 light.
= = 0.348, so θ = 20.4°
d 3.33 × 10 –6
b For n = 3, sin θ = 0.522, so θ = 31.5°
Exam-style questions
For n = 4, sin θ = 0.697, so θ = 44.2°
1 B[1]
For n = 5, sin θ = 0.871, so θ = 60.6°
You cannot have sin θ > 1, so there are 11 2 a
Displacement

maxima: the zeroth-order maximum and

five on either side of this 0
θ increases, so the maxima are more
13 a  Distance
spread out and there may be fewer of
them (note: sin θ ∝ λ)
b d decreases, so again θ increases, the The dashed line represents the resultant
maxima are more spread out and there wave.[2]
may be fewer of them (note: sin θ ∝ 1/d)
(Your diagram should show a good
By calculation, use λ = ax
14 a  D
so fringe attempt to sum the two waves.)
–9
separation x = λaD = 546 × 10 ×–03.80 = 0.87 mm b  avelength is the same as that of the
W
0.50 × 10
so ten fringes have a total width of 8.7 longer wave.[1]
mm, but using a ruler, the student will 3 a 
More rounded[1]
measure 9 mm
b Even flatter[1]
b Separation of lines in grating
1 4  adio waves have a long enough
R
= cm wavelength, up to 1 km, that they can
3000
diffract round the hills.[1]
= 3.33 × 10−6 m
By calculation, rearrange d sin θ = nλ so  V waves have very short wavelength
T
2 × 546 × 10 –9
(centimetres or millimetres), so cannot
sin θ = ndλ = = 0.328 diffract round the hills.[1]
3.33 × 10 –6

so θ = 19.1°, but the student will 5 a  Using ax = ld[1]

measure 19° wavelength λ = ax = 1.58×.01.2 = 0.225 m ≈
d
c For the double-slit experiment, a 0.23 m[1]
measured width of 9 mm for ten fringes b v = fλ; 330 = f × 0.225[1]
will give a wavelength of 562 nm. For the f = 1470 Hz ≈ 1500 Hz[1]
diffraction grating experiment,

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6  hen the waves are in phase, they add up

W iii nλ = d sin θ 
[1]
to give loud sound.[1] sin 19.5ο
n = 1, leading to λ = 5000 × 102 [1]
 hey gradually go out of phase, and when
T
they are in antiphase, the sound is at its λ = 6.68 × 10−7 ≈ 6.7 × 10−7 m[1]
quietest.[1] iv sin θ = nDl leading to
The waves gradually come back into phase
and become loud again.[1] sin θ = 2 × 6.68 × 10−7 × 5000 × 102 [1]
7
1
separation of slits d = 5000 = 2.0 × 10−4 cm  = 41.8 ° ≈ 42°[1]
θ
= 2.0 × 10−6 m[1] 10 a 
The superposition of two waves 180°
out of phase[1]
First maximum when n = 1:
λ 656 × 10 −9 to give (nearly) zero resultant.[1]
sin θ = = = 0.328[1]
d 2.0 × 10 −6 b λ = ax
D
leading to x = Dal
so, t = sin−1 0.328 = 19.1°[1] −2
= 1.212×.51.×510
× 10
−2 [1]
Second maximum when n = 2:
number of fringes in 45 cm distance =
2λ 2 × 656 × 10 −9
sin θ = = = 0.656 [1] 45 × 10 −2
= 3.125[1]
d 2.0 × 10 −6 x
so, θ = sin−1 0.656 = 41.0°[1] Three maxima[1]
8
8 a  Superposition is the algebraic summing c c = fλ leading to f = 13.5.0××1010−2 [1]
of the displacements[1] f = 2.0 × 1010 Hz[1]
of two (or more) waves.[1] 11 a 
Spreading out of a wave after passing
b λ = ax through a gap in a barrier[1]
D [1]
or around an object[1]
leading to
λ D 590 × 10 −9 × 1.8 × 12 b i, ii and iii
a = = [1]
x 16.8 × 10 −3
a = 6.3 × 10−4 m[1]
c i 
More fringes seen on screen or fringe
brightness decreases less from middle
to edge of screen[1]
Less bright[1]
ii Fringes wider / farther apart[1] 0

Same brightness[1] min

9 a 
Coherent: constant phase difference[1] 1
Monochromatic: very small or no
range of wavelengths/frequencies[1]
b i 
First order produced by waves with
path difference of one wavelength[1]
One mark for each line (the min
Second order produced by
line and the 1 line can be above the
waves with path difference of
central line)[3]
two wavelengths[1]
ii Any two from: c λ = ax
D [1]
−2 −2
Lines at end A are further apart or leading to = 18 × 1060 ××1012−2× 10 [1]
lines at end B are closer together[1] λ = 3.6 × 10−2 m (or 3.6 cm)[1]
Lines at end A are thinner or lines
at end B are wider[1]
Lines at end A are brighter or lines
at end B are dimmer[1]

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Exam-style questions and sample answers have been written by the authors. In examinations, the way marks are awarded
may be different.

Coursebook answers
Chapter 14
Science in context guidance b  istance between antinodes = 14 mm =
d
λ/2, so wavelength λ = 28 mm.
• You can find a video of the Tacoma Narrows 8
Bridge breaking by searching for it on the frequency f = λv = 3.00.×028
10

internet. = 1.07 × 1010 Hz ≈ 11 GHz

• Only a few months after it was finished, 4 I n both cases, waves are reflected (by the
the wind passing through the Tacoma metal sheet or by the water). The outgoing
Narrows Bridge set it into vibration at its and reflected waves combine to produce a
fundamental frequency. The video footage stationary wave pattern.
is quite astonishing; the bridge bends and 5 a 
It is much easier to detect where sound
vibrates dramatically before eventually ripping falls to zero than where sound is a
itself apart. maximum.
b I ncreased accuracy: if the wavelength is
Self-assessment questions short, it is difficult to measure just one
1 wavelength of stationary wave = 2 ×
a  wavelength
distance between nodes = 50 cm 6 a 
Three antinodes between them means the
distance between the two measured nodes
b  istance from node to adjacent antinode
d
= 3λ/2 = 20 cm, so wavelength λ = 13.3 cm
= 0.5 × distance between nodes = 12.5 cm
≈ 13 cm
2 a 
One complete wavelength is shown in the
image, so wavelength = 60 cm b speed v = fλ = 2500 × 0.13 = 325 m s−1 ≈
330 m s−1
separation of two antinodes = λ/2 = 30 cm
b
Exam-style questions
1 A[1]
 ongitudinal waves, e.g. sound, can also
L
c length of string = 60 cm, so to produce produce stationary waves. So, this statement
three antinodes, 3λ/2 = 60 cm, meaning λ is incorrect.
= 40 cm  ll the other statements are correct about
A
3 a nodes stationary waves.
2 C[1]
λ = 39.0 cm; v = fλ = 120 × 0.390 = 46.8 m s−1
transmitter reflector

antinodes

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3 a 
Node and antinode marked[1] b 34 λ = 63.8 cm[1]
b Wavelength marked[1]
v = fλ = 400 × 34 × 0.638[1]
λ
speed of sound = 340 m s−1[1]
7 i 
a  The waves have a constant phase
A N A A difference[1]

c  here would be double the number of

T over a period of time.[1]
loops (6).[1] ii The amount by which one wave
4 a 
Resonance is when the frequency of one leads or lags another[1]
source of vibration coincides with the expressed using phase angle.[1]
natural frequency of vibration of a body,
b i 
Maxima occur when the reflected
causing the body to vibrate with a large
waves are exactly in phase with the
amplitude.[1]
incident wave.[1]
b λ4 = 0.312 m[1] Minima occur when the reflected
v = fλ = 256 × 4 × 0.312 = 319 ≈ 320 m s−1[1] waves are 180° out of phase with
5 a 
Similarities: the incident wave.[1]
Points in the waves vibrate[1] ii Each time the wave amplitude falls to
The wave speed = fλ[1] zero, the plate has moved through 12 λ
Differences:  [1]
42.0
A progressive wave transfers energy; λ = [1]
a standing waves does not 2.5
= 16.8 cm[1]
transfer energy.[1] 3 × 108
Points in a progressive wave have different c = fλ leading to f = [1]
16.8 × 10 −2
amplitudes of vibration with respect to = 1.78 × 109 ≈ 1.8 × 109 Hz[1]
time; points of a standing wave have the
same amplitude with respect to time.[1] c Phase shift of 180°[1]
i
b  On reflection[1]
vibrator 75 cm pulley
8 7 × λ = 90 cm so λ = 51.4 cm[1]
a 
N N N N N 4

A A A A A A
c = fλ = 512 × 51.4 × 10−2[1]
= 263 m s−1[1]

slotted masses b Q no movement[1]

Any one node and any one antinode P, R, S and T vibrate from side to side
shown.[2] parallel to the tube[1]
75 P and S have largest amplitude[1]
ii wavelength = cm[1]
3 c Any two correct points[1]
120 × 0.75
c = fλ = [1]
3 9 v = fλ and λ = 2L =
c = 30 m s−1[1] constant (L = length of wire)[1]
c  peed of the waves down the string
S f ∝ v ∝ √T
changes (with tension)[1]
f = 210 × 1.4 = 248.5 Hz[1]
so wavelength changes[1]
absolute uncertainty =
6 i 
a  Vibrating[1] 1
2
× 0.08 × 248.5 = 9.94 Hz[1]
back and forth parallel to the tube[1]
f = 250 ± 10 Hz[1]
ii Stationary[1]
(The value must be given to 2 sig. figs and
absolute uncertainty given to 1 sig. fig)

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Exam-style questions and sample answers have been written by the authors. In examinations, the way marks are awarded
may be different.

Coursebook answers
Chapter 15
Science in context guidance therefore, the volume occupied by one
atom = volume of 193 g/number of atoms
• Workers who are likely to be exposed to in 193 g
radiation (such as radiographers) can protect 9.8 × 10 −6
themselves in a number of ways. = = 1.6 × 10 −29
6.02 × 1023
• Monitoring and reducing exposure over time.
Workers can wear badges that change colour 3V
radius of one atom = 3
with continuous exposure to radiation. This 4π
allows them to monitor their exposure and 3 × 1.6 × 10 −29
spend time away from the source when before = 3
4π
continuous exposure becomes dangerous.
= 1.6 × 10 −10 m
• Use barriers that protect workers from
radiation. This can range from concrete or This assumes there is little empty space
thick lead walls to stand behind when the between atoms.
radiation is being used, to lead-lined aprons to 4 number of neutrons = nucleon number −
wear whilst handling radioactive material. proton number
a  7
Self-assessment questions b 44
1 I f there were air molecules in the container, c 
60
the α-particles would scatter off them as well
and distort the results. The α-particles may d 118
also be absorbed by 6 cm of air. e 122
2 a 
More back-scattered, because of greater 5 +e
a 
chance of close approach to gold nucleus
b No charge
b  ewer back-scattered, because their
F
inertia would tend to carry them forwards c +Ze, where Z is the proton number

c  ewer back-scattered, because the repulsive

F d No charge
force would be smaller (note: gold and e +2e
silver atoms occupy roughly equal volumes)
6  umber of neutrons = nucleon number −
n
mass proton (or atomic) number, so isotopes of
3 density =
volume uranium with nucleon numbers 235 and 238
contain 143 and 146 neutrons, respectively
so, the volume of 193 g of gold volume
193 × 10 −3 3
= m = 9.8 × 10 −6 m3
19700

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7 a 
Proton number 80 for all; neutron 227 223 4
numbers 116, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 124 11 Th → Ra + α
90 88 2
b a verage relative atomic mass = average
nucleon number 64 64 0 0
12 Cu → Zn + β + ν
[(196 × 0.2) + (198 × 10) + (199 × 16.8) + 29 30 −1 0
(200 × 23.1) + (201 × 13.2) + (202 × 29.8) + 64 64 0 0
(204 × 6.9)]/100 = 200.6 8 Cu → Ni + β + ν
29 28 1 0
8  hey are grouped into isotopes as follows: A
T 13 The nucleon number decreases by 32,
and E; C; D, F and G; B and H therefore, there must be 8 α decays.
This would reduce the proton number to 76,
44
A Ca isotope of calcium therefore, there must be (82−76) = 6 β decays
20
14 a 
A proton is made up from 2
50 up quarks and a down quark, charge
B V isotope of vanadium
23 1
= + 23 e + 23 e − 3 e = e
46 b A neutron is made up from 2 down
C Sc isotope of calcium
21 quarks and an up quark, charge = + 23 e −
46 1 1
D Ti isotope of titanium 3e − 3e = 0
22  he up quark has a charge + 23 e, the antidown
15 T
1
46 quark has a charge +3 e, so the ρ-meson = e
E Ca isotope of calcium
20 16 The π− -meson is made up of an up and
48 antidown quark. It is, therefore, likely that the
F Ti isotope of titanium π−-meson is made up from an antiup and a
22
down quark.
50
G Ti isotope of titanium 1
 he strange quark has a charge of −3 e, the
17 T
22 1
antistrange quark has a charge +3 e, hence the
51
H V isotope of vanadium π-meson is neutral.
23
18 a
9 a  Gravitational force acts between all b1
neutron proton
protons and neutrons in a nucleus, as both
types of particle have mass.
b  lectrostatic force acts only between
E d u u u
protons in a nucleus, as neutrons are
uncharged. d d
c  trong nuclear force acts between all
S
protons and neutrons in a nucleus.
A β-particle has less charge, is smaller
10 a  n
and travels faster, so is less likely to cause
b  → d +β + v
u +
ionisation of an atom and thus travels
further before losing all its energy. 19 The charge must be conserved in the
interaction. The proton has a charge of +1,
b  ir is much less dense and so less
A this becomes a neutron of charge 0 and a β+
ionisation is caused per unit distance particle, charge +1. They balance.
travelled.
The nucleon number, which is an approximate
measure of mass, must also balance. The
proton and the neutron have approximately
the same mass, the β+ particle has a small, but
measureable mass and the neutrino must also
have a very small mass.

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20 This is an open ended question, the table below gives some ideas and others to explore.

proton positron photon

mass ∼ 1u ∼ ½000 u zero rest mass
charge +1e +1e zero
speed range of speeds up to c range of speeds up to c c in vacuo
location free or in the nucleus of free, could be found in the
an atom outer atom of antihydrogen
nature matter antimatter electromagnetic
type not fundamental fundamental what does that mean
in this instance?
life stable Annihilates on meeting an Are there photons still
electron. arriving at Earth from
the original Big Bang?
21 Leptons are (we think) fundamental, hadrons
are not. 7 131 131 0 0
I→ Xe + β + ν [3]
53 54 −1 0
Leptons do not feel the strong force, 8 a  β−-particles are fast-moving electrons
hadrons do. that come from the nucleus.[1]
14 14 0 0
Exam-style questions b  C → N+ β+ ν
6 7 −1 0
1 D[1] Proton numbers correct[1]
2 C[1] Nucleon numbers and all symbols
3  ost strongly ionising implies that many more
M correct[1]
collisions occur, so there is greater loss of c i 
Graph grid drawn correctly and
momentum and, therefore, less penetration.[1] labelled[1]
4  he plum pudding model predicts that there
T
Carbon-14 marked correctly[1]
will be no large-angle scattering events. An
α-particle is more massive than an electron ii Nitrogen-14 marked correctly[1]
and will not be deviated by an electron.[1]
9 An α-particle contains two protons
a 
 he actual experiment shows a few α-particles
T and two neutrons.[1]
scattered through more than 90°.[1]
A β−-particle is a fast-moving electron.[1]
These α-particles must have interacted with a
An α-particle is much heavier than a
charged object more massive than an electron.
β−-particle (about 7400 or 8000 times
This object, containing most of the mass of
larger).[1]
the atom, was called the nucleus.[1]
An α-particle is positively charged (+2e),
5 The nucleus contains 38 protons and 52
whereas a β−-particle is negatively
neutrons.[1]
charged (−e).[1]
6  hen the nucleus ejects an α-particle,
W
it emits two protons and two neutrons,[1] b I sotopes have the same number of
protons in the nucleus or the same
s o the nucleon number decreases by 4 (A − 4)[1]
proton number.[1]
and the proton number (atomic number)
Isotopes have different numbers of
decreases by 2 (Z − 2).[1]
neutrons in the nucleus or different
The nucleus then ejects two β−-particles, nucleon numbers.[1]
formed by decay of two neutrons to protons.[1] 236 232 4
The nucleon number (mass number) remains c  U→ Th + α
92 90 2
at A − 4, but the proton number now increases
All three nucleon numbers correct[1]
by 2, returning to Z.[1]
All three proton numbers correct[1]

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4 3
10 a volumeof a sphere = πr A
3
R3 10 −10
ratio of the volumes = 3 = ( −15 )3 [1] 210
r 10 
= 10 [1]
15

b  ssuming that most of the mass of the

A
a
atom is concentrated in the nucleus,[1] 208
then 19 000 kg of gold atoms has a
volume of 1 m3; from part a the volume
of the nucleus with this mass is 1 × 10−15
m3[1]
206
density of nucleus = 1.9 × 10 4 × 1015 b b
= 1.9 × 10 kgm [1]
19 −3

11 a 
82 protons[1] b

128 neutrons[1] 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
12 a 
Most of the mass is concentrated in a
b  ecause the particles are charged, when
B
small space.[1]
they collide with or pass close to atoms,
[1] This space/nucleus is positive and
surrounded by negative charged
they knock electrons from the atoms,
electrons.[1]
leaving behind charged atoms or ions.[1]
b Any three from:
c  wo solutions, each with two β−-decays
T
and one α-decay[1] Most α-particles pass undeviated through
the gold, showing that most of an atom is
Each β−-decay correct[1]
empty space.[1]
Each α-decay correct[1]
Some α-particles are deflected though
A large angles / greater than 90°, showing
b that part of the atom is much heavier than
210 an α-particle (and positive).[1]
Electrons (negative) were known to exist,
so other particles in the nucleus must have
a been positive and heavier.[1]
208
The relative number of large deflections
showed the size of the nucleus.[1]
46 46 0 0
i  
13 a  Ca → N + β + ν [1]
20 21 −1 0
206
b 23 23 0 0
ii  Sc → N + β + ν[1]
12 11 1 0
b i A down quark turns into an up quark,
an electron and an antineutrino.[1]
80 81 82 83 84 85
ii An up quark turns into a down quark,
a positron and a neutrino.[1]
c The weak nuclear force[1]

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14 a 
A neutron is made up of other particles 1 1 0 0
but a quark is thought not to.[1] d  n → p + β + ν [2]
0 1 −1 0
b i e
Charge Quarks Group to  nother particle in
A
proton +1(e) t wo up and which it the same group
one down belongs
neutron 0 two down electron lepton neutrino, muon,
and one up muon neutrino, tau
and tau neutrino
ii The proton is positive, so either one or  roton
p Hadron  ntineutron,
a
both up and down quarks are positive. neutron or baryon antiproton or a
[1] variety of mesons
The neutron is neutral, so if one quark Note that that mesons (e.g. muons, pions)
is positive, the other is negative.[1] can only be accepted if the neutron is
c  trong interaction or strong nuclear force
S identified as a hadron not a baryon.
[1]

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Exam-style questions and sample answers have been written by the authors. In examinations, the way marks are awarded
may be different.

Coursebook answers
Chapter 16
Science in context guidance c angle of 30° = 30 × π/180 = π/6 rad
angle of 120° = 120 × π/180 = 2π/3 rad
Students will probably have a number of examples
to share. They might include: angle of 270° = 270 × π/180 = 3π/2 rad
• A car braking abruptly and the passengers angle of 720° = 720 × π/180 = 4π rad
(and shopping!) being thrown forward 3  he magnitude of the velocity remains the
T
• Competitive runners continuing to run after same (the speed is constant).
they have crossed the finish line 4 a 
Speed is a scalar quantity and is constant,
• The feeling of leaving your stomach behind so change in speed = 0 m s−1
when riding a rollercoaster
b  elocity changes to be in the opposite
V
• The classic “pulling away the tablecloth” direction, so change in velocity = 0.2 −
magic trick (−0.2) = 0.2 + 0.2 = 0.4 m s−1
All of them involve objects either continuing to
5  econd hand turns through 360° in 1 minute,
S
move or continuing to remain stationary. They
or 2π rad in 1 minute, which is 2π/60 rad in
are all examples of Newton’s first law: every body
1 second; angular velocity ω = 2π/60 = 0.105
remains at rest or in uniform and rectilinear
rad s−1
motion unless another body interposes and acts
on it. 6 number of revolutions per second =
a 
1200/60 = 20 rev s−1

Self-assessment questions b angular velocity = 20 × 2π = 40π rad s−1 =

130 rad s−1
1 full circular face of clock = 360°; clock
a 
7 speed = v =ω r = 0.105 × 1.8 = 0.19 cm s-1
face divided into twelve sections, so
angular displacement of hour hand per
π
∆θ 2
hour = 360°/12 = 30° 8 a  angular speed = = = 0.105 rad s −1
∆t 15
i angular displacement of minute hand =
b 
half the clock face = 180° b speed v = ωr = 0.105 × 50 = 5.2 m s−1
ii angular displacement of hour hand = v 7800
3.5 × 30° = 105° 9 ω= = = 1.1× 10 −3 rad s −1
r 7000 ×103
2 a Angle of 30° = 30 × π /180 = 0.52 rad
10 a 
The gravitational pull of the Earth on the
Angle of 90° = 90 × π /180 = 1.57 rad
Moon
Angle of 105° = 105 × π /180 = 1.83 rad
b  he frictional force of the road on the
T
b Angle of 0.5 rad = 0.5 × 180 /π = 28.6° wheels
Angle of 0.75 rad = 0.75 × 180 /π = 43.0° c  ension in the string supporting the
T
Angle of π rad = π × 180 /π = 180° pendulum
Angle of 12 π rad = 12 π × 180/ π = 90°

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11 T
 here will be no frictional force between v 2 0.942
b acceleration a = = =1.76 ≈ 1.8 ms −1
the road and the wheels. If the driver turns r 0.5
the steering wheel, the car will continue in a tension in string, F = ma = 0.40 × 1.76 =
c 
straight line. 0.71 N
12 S
 peed and kinetic energy are scalar quantities, 18 a 
speed,
the others are vectors. Speed is constant; s 2 π × 2.3 ×1011
v= = = 2.4 × 10 4 ms −1
velocity has a constant magnitude but t 687 × 24 × 3600
continuously changing direction (the direction
b centripetal acceleration,
is tangential to the circle); kinetic energy
v 2 ( 2.4 × 10 4 )2
is constant; momentum has a constant a= = = 2.6 × 10 −3 ms −2
magnitude but continuously changing r 2.3 × 1011
direction (the direction is tangential to the c gravitational force = ma = 6.4 × 1023 × 2.6
circle); the centripetal force has a constant × 10−3 = 1.6 × 1021 N
magnitude but continuously changing 19 T
 he tension in the string must have a vertical
direction (the direction is always towards component to balance the weight of the bung.
the centre of the circle); the centripetal
20 I n level flight, lift balances the weight. During
acceleration behaves in the same way as the
banking, the vertical component of the lift is
centripetal force.
less than the weight, so the aeroplane loses
v2 height unless the speed can be increased to
13 acceleration a = ,
r provide more lift.
ω 2r2 21 T
 he normal contact force of the wall of the
v = ωr, therefore, v2 = ω2r2 , so a = = ω2r
r slide has a horizontal component, which
14 distance travelled for one complete orbit s = provides the centripetal force. If you are
2pr = 2 × π × 6400 000 = 4.02 × 107 m going fast, you need a bigger force, so the
 earrange speed v = s/t to give
R horizontal component must be greater. This
t = vs = 4.02 ×107 = 5.08 ×103 s = 1.4 h happens as you move up the curved wall of
7920
the slide.
 aximum tension in the string = centripetal
15 m
force + the weight of the stone, so the Exam-style questions
maximum centripetal force = 8.0 − (0.2 × 9.8)
= 6.04 N 1 C[1]
Rearrange centripetal force F = mv 2 to 2 B[1]
r

Fr 6.04 × 0.30 3 a 
The angle subtended at the centre of a
v= = = 3.0 ms −1 circle by an arc equal in length to the
m 0.20
radius.[1]
centripetal force, F = ma = 350 × 103 × 8.8
16 a  2π
b a ngular speed ω = [1]
= 3.1 × 106 N 15
mv 2 = 0.42 rad s−1[1]
b Rearrange centripetal force F = to
give r 4 a 
At the position shown, the weight of
the truck[1]
Fr 3.1× 106 × 6740 × 103
v= = = 7.7 × 103 m −1 v2
m 350 × 103 b s peed of the truck: g = [1]
s r
c Rearrange speed v = to give v = gr = 9.8 × 4 [1]
t
s 2 π × 6.74 × 106 v = 6.3 m s−1[1]
t= = = 5.5 × 103 s = 1.5 h 2
v 7.7 × 103
5 a force = mrω 2 = 60 × 10 −3 × 0.15 ×  2 × π 
20
length of day 24  60 
=
d number of orbits = = 16
orbital time 1.5  [2]
time taken for one revolution t = 10/3 =
17 a  = 0.039 N[1]
3.33 s
s 2 π × 0.50 b The centripetal force on the toy increases
v= = = 0.94 m s −1 with its speed.[1]
t 3.33

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 he toy falls off because the frictional

T centripetal force = T sin θ = mrω 2 [1]
ii 
force between the turntable and the toy T sin θ 3.5 × sin θ
is not sufficient to provide the centripetal ω= = [1]
mr 0.20 × 0.40
force.[1]
= 6.0 rad s −1[1]
6 change in potential energy = kinetic
a 
2π 2π
energy[1] iii time period T = = = 1.0 s [1]
1
ω 6.0
mg ∆h = mv 2 , therefore, 10 a 
The force acting towards the centre of
2 a circle[1]
2 m × 9.8 × 0.70 on a body moving round that circle[1]
v= = 3.7 m s −1 [1]
m mv 2
b i  = mg
centripetal force = [1]
mv 2 0.050 × 3.72 r
b centripetal force Fc = =
r 1.5 1.8
 [1] therefore, v = rg =
× 9.8 [1]
= 0.46 N[1] 2
v = 3.0 m s−1[1]
tension in the string T = Fc+ mg = 0.46 +
F = 2mg = 2 × 5.4 × 9.8[1]
ii 
(0.05 × 9.8) = 0.95 N[1]
= 106 N[1]
c  he weight is only equal to the tension
T
when the ball is at rest in the vertical 11 a 
Pilot feels thrown out from the circle or
position.[1] pilot feels pressed outwards against seat.[1]

The ball is not in equilibrium in the Inertia means that with no force pilot
vertical position because it has an would travel in a straight line.[1]
upward (centripetal) acceleration.[1] Centripetal force pulls the pilot in
7  riction between the tyres and the road
F towards the centre of the circle.[1]
provides the centripetal force.[1] mv 2
F=
b i  , therefore,
r
 il reduces the frictional force, so the car
O
carries on in a wider arc. (The frictional force Fr 6 m × 9.8 × 5 [2]
v= =
is not enough to push the car around the m m
desired curve.)[1] v = 17.1 m s−1[1]
8 a 
Weight acting vertically downwards, lift ii w = v/r = 17.1 × 5[1]
force perpendicular to the aeroplane = 86 rad s −1
wings[2]
revs per minute = 86 × 60/2 p
b (lift = L, angle with horizontal = θ) = 820 revs per minute[1]
Therefore the vertical force = L cos θ = mg c Sharp turns in combat at high speed[1]
[1]
mean the pilot will experience high g
horizontal force = L sin θ = mv2/r[1] forces.[1]
Now, angle in radians = length of arc radius
12 a 
mv 2 m × 752
sinθ r 800 = 0.717
= tanθ = = For a complete circle, arc length =
cosθ mg m× g circumference = 2pr[1]
 [1]
θ = 36°[1] angle in radians = 2pr/r = 2π[1]
9 a 
Angle covered per unit time[1] b 540 rpm = 540/60 rev s−1, therefore,
i 
Angle in radians[1] ω = 9 × 2π rad s−1[1]
0.20 × 9.8 v = rω = 0.10 × 9 × 2π = 5.7 rad s−1[1]
T cos θ = mg leading to T =
b i 
cos 56°
ii F = mrω 2 = 20 × 10 −6 × 0.10 × 5.72 [1]
[1]
= 6.4 × 10-3 N[1]
T = 3.5[1]
c gravitational force ≈ 20 × 10−3 × 10 = 0.2 N
[1]
Very much less than the centripetal
force[1]

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Exam-style questions and sample answers have been written by the authors. In examinations, the way marks are awarded
may be different.

Coursebook answers
Chapter 17
Science in context guidance  human with mass 70 kg weighs about
A
700 N on Earth. Their weight is greater
• The electrostatic force may be many times than their mutual attraction by a factor of
stronger, but the gravitational force dominates approximately 109.
over large distances because the gravitational
3At sea level:
force is always attractive, whereas there are
6.67 × 10 −11 × 6.0 × 1024 × 100
two types of charge (positive and negative), W= = 9.77 N
so the electromagnetic interaction can either (6.4 × 106 )2
be attractive or repulsive. In general, the At top of Mount Everest:
negative and positive charges tend to cancel 6.67 × 10 −11 × 6.0 × 1024 × 100
out, making any large-scale object nearly W= = 9.74 N
(6.409 × 106 )2
electrically neutral.
This is only just detectable and other
• The balance between gravitational attraction factors would probably mask it.
and electrostatic repulsion is demonstrated
4 a i
beautifully in star formation. Gravity pulls
increasing amounts of dust and gas together gravitational field strength at Moon’s surface
and the heat and pressure rises. When this GM 6.67 × 10 −11 × 7.4 × 1022
protostar becomes sufficiently massive, the = =
r2 (1.74 × 106 )2
heat and pressure are strong enough to fuse
= 1.6 N kg −1
hydrogen nuclei together, overcoming the
(incredibly strong) force of repulsion between ii
positively charged nuclei. gravitational field strength at Sun’s surface
GM 6.67 × 10 −11 × 2.0 × 1030
= =
Self-assessment questions r2 (7.0 × 108 )2
m1 m2 10 −1 × 10 −1
1 a F = −G = − 6.67 × 10 −11
× = 270 N kg −1
r2 (1× 10 −2 )2
b  ravitational field strength is very weak
G
= − 6.67 × 10 N
−9
on the Moon, so gas molecules will
mm 5 × 1010 × 5 × 1010 have enough energy to escape from the
b F = −G 1 2 2 = −6.67 × 10 −11 ×
r 6( 4 × 109 )2 Moon, whereas the Sun has a very high
= −1.04 × 10 −8 N field strength and, therefore, pulls gas
mm 1.4 × 10 4 × 6.0 × 1024 molecules very close together.
F = −G 1 2 2 = −6.67 × 10 −11 ×
c 
r (6.8 × 106 )2 5 a Earth’s field strength near the Moon
= 1.2 × 10 5 GM 6.67 × 10 −11 × 6.0 × 1024
= =
2 Estimate that each person has mass 70 kg and r2 (3.8 × 108 )2
that they are seated 0.5 m apart. = 2.8 × 10 −3 N kg −1
m1 m2 70 × 70 b force = mg = 7.4 × 1022 × (2.8 × 10−3) = 2.1
F = −G = −6.67 × 10 −11 ×
r2 0.52 × 1020 N
= 1.3 × 10 N
−6 F 2.1× 1020
acceleration = = = 2.8 × 10 −3 m s −2
m 7.4 × 1022
≈ 10−6 N

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320 b
6 gJupiter = 9.81× = 25 N kg −1 1 1 
11.22 ∆ϕ = GM  − 
 r1 r2 
7 gravitational field of the Sun at the Earth
6.67 × 10 −11 × 2.0 × 1030  1 1 
gs = = 5.9 × 10 −3 N kg −1 = 6.67 × 10 −11 × 7.4 × 1022  − 
 (1.74 × 10 ) ( 2.05 × 10 ) 
6 6
(1.5 × 1011 )2
gravitational field of the Moon at the Earth = 4.3 × 105 J kg −1
6.67 × 10 −11 × 7.4 × 1022 11 orbital radius = radius of Earth + altitude of
= = 3.4 × 10 −5 N kg −1
(3.8 × 108 )2 satellite above surface = 6.4 × 106 + 2.0 × 105 =
6.6 × 106 m
s o, the Sun has a greater pull on each kilogram
of the seawater GM 6.67 × 10 −11 × 6.0 × 1024
v= = = 7.8 ms −1
8 a r 6.6 × 106
6.67 × 10 −11 × 6.4 × 1023 × 4.0 12 Diagram showing the satellite spiralling in
force of Mars on baby = towards Earth
(1.0 × 1011 )2
= 1.8 × 10 −8 N  he satellite needs to fire small thruster
T
b rockets to maintain its speed and orbit.
6.67 × 10 −11 × 50 × 4.0 13
force of Mother on baby =
0.402 GMT 2 6.67 × 10 −11 × 6.4 × 1023 × ( 24.6 × 3600 )2
= 8.3 × 10 −8 N r3 = =
4 π2 4 π2
GM 6.67 × 10 −11 × 6.0 × 1024 = 8.48 × 10 21

9 a ϕEarth = − =−
r 6.4 × 106 r = 2.04 × 107 m = 20 400 km
= −6.3 × 10 J kg
7 −1
14 d
 istance travelled by signal sent to and
GM 6.67 × 10 × 7.4 × 10
−11 22 returned by satellite = 2 × (42 300 000 −
b ϕMoon = − =− 6 400 000) = 7.18 × 107 m
r 1.74 × 106
= −2.8 × 10 J kg
6 −1  he extra time taken by signal travelling via
T
satellite t:
c ϕ ϕ
distance 2 × ( 4.23 × 107 − 6.4 × 106 )
r r t= =
speed 3 × 108
WMoon
7.18 × 107
WEarth = = 0.24 s
3 × 108
 he signals travel 30% slower in the cables but
T
the distance is very much less.
Potential well for Earth Potential well for Moon

d  Earth is the energy needed for each

W Exam-style questions
kilogram, initially on the Earth’s surface,
to escape from the Earth’s field, which can 1 B
 (A: failing to square r; C & D: inverting
be seen to be much greater than WMoon, the multipliers)[1]
the energy needed for each kilogram, 2 B
 (A: dividing by r2; C & D: gravitational
initially on the Moon’s surface, to escape potential is negative, not positive)[1]
from its field. So, the rocket does not need mm
3 F = G 1 2 2 [1]
to carry so much fuel. r
20 × 10 −3 × 20 × 10 −3
10 a The radius of the command module orbit = 6.67 × 10 −11 × [1]
varies; the closer to the Moon the deeper (5.0 × 10 −3 )2
the module is in the potential and the   = 1.1 × 10−9 N[1]
smaller the potential.

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4 a Arrow vertically downwards labelled b  he proximity of the very large planet,

T
‘weight’ or ‘Earth’s gravitational pull’[1] Jupiter, would disrupt the orbit, through
Arrow to right labelled ‘pull of mountain’ its gravitational pull.[1]
[1] 9 a circumference of orbit = 2πr = 2π × 1.5 ×
Arrow along the string labelled ‘tension’[1] 1011 = 9.42 × 1011 m[1]
mm circumference 9.42 ×1011
b F = G 12 2 [1] v= = [1]
r time 365 × 24 × 3600
3.8 × 1012 × 0.020 v = 3.0 × 104 m s−1[1]
= 6.67 × 10 −11 ×
12002 (3.0 × 10 4 )2
b centripetal acceleration = [1]
= 3.5 × 10−6 N[1] 1.5 × 1011
= 6.0 × 10 m s [1]
−3 −2

c Earth’s force F = mg = 0.020 × 9.8 =

0.196 N[1] c 6.0 × 10−3 N kg−1; the gravitational field of
the Sun provides the centripetal force[1]
which is 5.6 × 104 times as large[1]
M 6.4 × 1023
5 a Arrows towards the Earth[1] 10 a i g = G 2 = 6.67 × 10 −11 ×
r (3.395 × 106 )2
 [1]
b  or a rise of 10 000 m, the Earth’s field
F
may be considered to be uniform,[1] = 3.7 m s−2[1]
but when something moves a significant GM 6.67 × 10 −11 × 6.4 × 1023
ii ϕ = − =−
distance away from the Earth we must r 3.395 × 106
 [1]
recognise that there is a significant
reduction in the field.[1] = −1.26 × 107 J kg−1[1]
4
6 a  mass of Mercury = πr 3 × ρ [1] b 1.26 × 107 J kg−1[1]
3
4 1
 = π × ( 2.44 × 106 )3 × 5.4 × 103 = 3.28 × 1023 c  mv 2 = mϕ , so v = 2ϕ = 2 × 1.26 × 107
3
[1] 2 [1]
M = 5020 m s−1[1]
F = G 2 [1]
r
3.28 × 1023 d  he work done in lifting the mass of a
T
= 6.67 × 10 −11 × Mars probe from the Earth is very large
( 2.44 × 106 )2
[1] [1]
= 3.67 N kg−1[1] so requires a very powerful rocket to
do it all in one go.[1]
b mass of person = 900/9.8 = 91.8 kg[1]
11 a Work done to bring unit mass[1]
weight on Mercury = 91.8 × 3.67=
337 N ≈ 340 N[1] from infinity to that point[1]
7  istance from centre of Mars =
d b  ϕ
3.4 ×106 + 20 × 106 = 23.4 × 106 km r
Mm
potential energy = −G [1] ii
r
i
6.4 × 1023 × 250
= −6.67 × 10 −11 × [1]
23.4 × 106
= −4.6 × 10 J[1]
8
2R
GMT 2
8 a  r 3 =
4 π2
R
6.67 × 10 −11 × 1.48 × 1023 × (7.15 × 24 × 3600 )2
= =
4 π2
95.5 × 1021 m3[1]
r = 4.6 × 107 m[1]

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i Dashed line in diagram: same radius mv 2 2πr

c  =
F ,v = [1]
but depth two times original[1] r T
outside original ‘well’[1] rm
hence,T = 2 π
ii Bold line on diagram: goes along the F
present lines[1] 1.7530 × 107 × 1.5 × 1021
= 2π [1]
but stops at twice the radius[1] 3.3 × 1018
= 5.6 × 105 s (= 6.5 days)[1]
c Curve ii[1]
Smaller hill to get up[1] d  therwise they would lose stability in
O
GM their orbits (or words to that effect)[1]
d Using ϕ = − once[1]
r 13 a 0.80 N kg−1 (accept range ±0.1)[1]
GM
Using ϕ = − a second time[1] b 0 .80 m s−2 (must be numerically equal
r to part a)[1]
1 1  v2
(Using ∆ϕ = GM  −  scores both c a = , therefore, v [1]
marks)  r1 r2  r
= ar = 0.80 × 19.2 × 106
∆ϕ = 6.67 × 10 −11 × 4.87
= 3.9 × 103 m s−1[1]
 1 1 
× 10 
24
− 7 
[1]
1.21× 10 1.30 × 10  
7
d i Path spiralling into the centre[1]
= 1.86 × 10 J[1]
6
ii Work done against friction in the
12 a Gravitational force per unit mass[1] atmosphere causes heating[1]
at the point[1] causing satellite to ‘burn up’.[1]
mm
b F = G 1 2 2 [1]
r
1.27 × 1022 × 1.50 × 1021
= 6.67 × 10 −11 × [1]
(1.96 × 107 )2
= 3.3 × 1018 N[1]

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Exam-style questions and sample answers have been written by the authors. In examinations, the way marks are awarded
may be different.

Coursebook answers
Chapter 18
Science in context guidance 5  he trolley is the mass; the central position
T
of the trolley is the equilibrium position; the
• Electric toothbrushes generally work resultant restoring force of the springs is the
by the brush head moving back and force.
forth and/or rotating up to 8000 times
6  he restoring force is not proportional to the
T
per minute, removing more plaque than
distance from the equilibrium point. When the
manual toothbrushes. There have, however,
person is not in contact with the trampoline
been some reported issues with electric
the restoring force is equal to the person’s
toothbrushes.
weight, which is constant.
• Some users have been known to press down
7 a amplitude = 0.02 m
too hard with the brush, and the intense,
repetitive brushing can thin or remove the b time period = 0.40 s
enamel from the front of the teeth.
c maximum velocity = 0.31 m s−1
• Some users have reported fillings loosening
and falling out, presumably due to the d maximum acceleration = 5.0 m s−2
repetitive vibrations of the electric toothbrush. 8  t the extreme left of the oscillation (i.e.,
A
It is worth highlighting, however, that maximum displacement to the left; the
despite these reports electric toothbrushes acceleration is in the opposite direction
are recommended by dentists as being highly (towards the right)
effective when used properly.
9 gradient = 0, velocity = 0
10 a 0 cm s−1
Self-assessment questions
b 4 7 cm s−1 (= magnitude of the gradient at t
1 a Forced = 1.0 of t = 3.0)
b Forced c 
0 cm s−2
c 
Free period T = 1/f = 1/2 = 0.50 s
11 a 
d Forced b 2 Hz
2 Curved as in Figure 18.6a c angular frequency ω = 2pf = 4p rad s−1
3 amplitude = 10 cm 12 a 
0.20 m
period = 120 ms (0.12 s) b 0.40 s
1 1
frequency= = = 8.3 Hz
T 0.12 c frequency = 1/T = 1/0.4 = 2.5 Hz
4 a  Half an oscillation d angular frequency ω = 2pf = 5p rad s−1
b  he waves have different frequencies
T e −0.1 m
so the phase difference is continuously
changing. f 0 m s−1
g 3.1 ± 0.2 m s−1 (= gradient of the graph)

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13 a F k
x/10–12 m b a= = x but a = ω 2 x, therefore, ω 2
m m
2
k k 2π m
= and ω = ,T = = 2π
1 m m ω k
0 20 a 
Gravitational potential energy
0.5 1.0 t/10–14 s
–1 b
 ravitational potential energy is
G
transferred to kinetic energy, which
–2
reaches a maximum when the bob passes
through the lowest point, then k.e. is
b  radient at steepest point, giving
G converted to g.p.e. once more.
approximately 1.3 × 103 m s−1
21 Similar graph with the same time period but
3 × 10−4 m (0.3 mm)
14 a  half the maximum values for both kinetic and
potential energies. The total energy would be a
b frequency = 240π/2π = 120 Hz
horizontal line at half the height.
c period = 1/f = 1/120 = 8.3 × 10−3 s 22 a 0.35 m s−1
x = 0.15 cos (pt)
15 a  b  aximum kinetic energy = 12 mv2 = 12 × 2.0
m
b × (0.35)2 = 0.12 J
x/m
+0.15 c  aximum potential energy = maximum
m
kinetic energy = 0.12 J
d  aximum acceleration 0.17 m s−2, (from
m
0
2.0 4.0 t / s the maximum gradient)
e  aximum restoring force = ma = 2.0 ×
m
–0.15 0.17 = 0.34 N
angular frequency ω = 2pf = 2 × π × 1.4 =
16 a  23 a
8.80 s−1 so a = −ω2x = −77.4x Undamped pendulum total
b acceleration = −77.4 × 0.050 = 3.9 m s−2 energy
17 angular frequency ω = 2pf so, in acceleration
equation, a = −ω2x = −4p2f 2x
meaning 4p2f 2 = 300 s−2, therefore, kinetic
energy
f = (300 / 4 p ) = 2.76 Hz ≈ 2.8 Hz
2
Energy

18 a i 2.0 s
ii frequency = 1/T = 1/2.0 = 0.5 Hz potential
iii angular frequency ω = 2pf = π rad s−1 energy
or 3.14 rad s−1
b a = −ω2x = −9.87x or a = −p2x 0
0 T T
c maximum speed = ωx0 = 3.14 × 12 = 2 Time
37.6 cm s−1 ≈ 38 cm s−1
d speed at x = 6 cm is b  he total energy of the pendulum
T
would decrease gradually and hence the
v = ω ( x02 − x 2 ) = ω (144 − 36 ) maximum values of k.e. and p.e. would
also decrease.
= 32.6 cm s ≈ 33 cm s −1
−1

The restoring force = kx (from Hooke’s law),

19 a 
a ∝ F, therefore a ∝ x. The force acts in the
opposite direction to the displacement.

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24 Any from: Exam-style questions

Example Useful or What is resonating? 1 B[1]
problem? 2 A[1]
buildings in problem Mechanical 3 a No, constant acceleration under gravity
earthquake structure is forced towards ground but not on hitting ground
to oscillate by and when hit by player[2]
energy from waves
of earthquake. b  es, the restoring force is directed
Y
components problem  t certain rates
A towards a point and is proportional to
in engines of rotation, parts the displacement from the point[2]
of an engine c  o, it travels with constant acceleration
N
may resonate towards each plate and then suddenly
mechanically; the reverses its direction of velocity on
resonance is driven hitting the plate[1]
by the energy
output of the d  es, the restoring force is directed
Y
engine. This can towards a point and is proportional to
lead to components the displacement from the point[2]
cracking or 4 a x = 4 sin 2pt for x in cm or
disintegrating, x = 4 × 10−2 sin 2pt for x in m[2]
with dangerous
consequences. b  aximum velocity = ωx0 = 2p f x0 =
i m
2p × 1.0 × 4.0[1]
 ositive
p problem Microphone is
feedback in held too close to a = 25.1 cm s−1[1]
amplification loudspeaker that is v = ω (x02 − x 2 ) = 2π (42 − 22 )
ii 
systems emitting waves of = 21.8 cm s−1[1]
(high- the same frequency
pitched as the microphone 5 a f = 1/T = 1/0.84 = 1.19 Hz[1]
squealing is tuned to, so the b vmax = 2px0 f = 120 mm s−1[1]
sound) waves from the
loudspeaker force k.e.max = ½ m(vmax)2 = 3.6 × 10−4 J[1]
c 
the amplifier to as it passes through the equilibrium
resonate. position[1]
tuned radio useful  lectric signal in
E
d g.p.e.max = 3.6 × 10−4 J (i.e. the same as
circuit is forced
maximum k.e.)[1]
to oscillate by
incoming radio 6 a i ½ cycle[1]
waves.
ii 180°[1]
microwave useful Water molecules
cooker are forced by iii π rad[1]
microwaves. b i ¼ cycle[1]
magnetic useful  uclei in atoms
N
resonance in behave as magnets; ii 90°[1]
atoms they can be made iii π/2 rad[1]
to resonate by
electromagnetic c i 
3
8 cycle[1]

waves. Each nucleus

ii 135°[1]
resonates at a
different frequency, iii ¾π rad[1]
so the structures of
molecules can be
determined.
And many others!

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7 a period T = 8.0 ms[1] c v = ωx0[1]

i 
frequency = 1/T = 125 Hz[1] = 55 m s−1[1]
b i 
velocity: same shape graph, starting at a = ω2x0[1]
ii 
t = 0 at maximium value (amplitude is = 24 000 m s−2[1]
not relevant as no scale for velocity[1]
iii Use of F = ma = 5800 N[1]
ii acceleration: same shape as
10 a Oscillations that are exactly in step with
displacement graph but inverted, so
each other / each point on one oscillation
first maximum is negative[2]
moves in the same way as on the second
Displacement / Velocity / Acceleration oscillation[1]
b x = 15 sin (3pt)[1]
c i angular displacement from equilibrium
position = ωt = 30° = π/6 rad[1]
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Time / ms x = 15 sin (π/6)[1]
= 7.5 cm[1]
ii v = v0 cos ωt = ωx0 cos ωt = 15 × 3π
cos(π/6)[1]
8 a No, it is not moving with simple harmonic v = 120 cm s−1[1]
motion because the displacement does
not show a sine or cosine relationship iii 60° or π/3 rad[1]
with time or comment regarding gradient 11 a Vibration/oscillation in which there is
constant for time showing constant acceleration towards a fixed point[1]
velocity, then a sudden change, not in
The magnitude of the acceleration is
keeping with a force proportional to
proportional to the displacement from
displacement[1]
the point.[1]
b i, ii
b a = ω2x0[1]
Displacement
a = (2π × 60)2 × 2.8 × 10−3 = 400 m s−2[1]
c F = ma = 190 N[1]
Time
d  raph showing sine-type wave, with
G
amplitude getting smaller[1]
Velocity
Frequency remaining the same[1]
If driving frequency = natural frequency[1]
12 a 
Time
resonance occurs[1]
giving false reading for the shock wave
Acceleration
strength[1]
b  hows that the acceleration is
S
Time proportional to the displacement[1]
and in the opposite direction to the
displacement[1]
 [3]
c ω2 = a/x0[1]
9 a Vibration / oscillation in which there is
ω2 = 500[1]

acceleration towards a fixed point[1]
ω = 22.4[1]

The magnitude of the acceleration is
proportional to the displacement from f = 22.4/2π = 3.6 Hz[1]
the point.[1]
b f = 70 Hz[1]

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Exam-style questions and sample answers have been written by the authors. In examinations, the way marks are awarded
may be different.

Coursebook answers
Chapter 19
Science in context guidance 4 work done, W = p∆v = 1.0 × 105 × 0.002 = 200 J
5 T (K) = θ (°C) + 273.15, so
a 
• Geysers tend to occur in volcanic areas,
particularly where the Earth’s crust is thin. 0 °C ≈ 273 K
Magma deep underground causes the heating 20 °C ≈ 293 K
of rocks. Water normally boils at 100 °C, 120 °C ≈ 393 K
but at high pressure the boiling point can be
significantly higher. 500 °C ≈ 773 K
−23 °C ≈ 250 K
• The water underground can become a
superheated liquid, reaching temperatures −200 °C ≈ 73 K
greater than 200 °C. When this water breaks b θ (°C) = T (K) − 273.15, so
through to the surface, the pressure drops
0 K ≈ −273 °C
rapidly and the water rapidly vaporises.
20 K ≈ −253 °C
• In terms of uses; hot springs were used by the
100 K ≈ −173 °C
Romans 2000 years ago as Thermae (Roman
baths). Volcanic areas can now be used as a 300 K ≈ +27 °C
source of geothermal energy. 373 K ≈ +100 °C
500 K ≈ +227 °C
Self-assessment questions 6

1  onds are still relatively strong (stronger than

B Temperature Resistance Temperature
gas but weaker than a solid) and the molecules / °C /Ω /K
are free to move through the body of the liquid. 10 3120 283
2 a 
Energy has to be supplied to convert the 50 3600 323
liquid into vapour: this takes time.
75 3900 348
b  hen ice is converted to liquid water,
W
100 4200 373
only a few intermolecular bonds are
broken, whereas when liquid is converted 150 4800 423
to vapour all the molecules are totally 220 5640 493
separated. This requires more energy.
260 6120 533
3 change in internal energy = energy
a 
supplied by heating + energy supplied by
doing work = 250 + 500 = +750 kJ
b c hange in internal energy = energy
supplied by heating + energy supplied by
doing work = energy supplied by heating −
work done by the gas on its surroundings
= 250 − 200 = +50 kJ

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7000 s o, from this experiment, the heat capacity of

6000 water is
5000 E 34 700
c = = ÷ 11.7 = 5680 ≈
Resistance / Ω

4000 m∆θ 0.522

3000 5700 J kg−1 K−1
2000 The biggest source of error will be energy loss
due to poor insulation. There will also be an
1000
error because we have ignored the specific heat
0 capacity of the beaker.
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
–1000
Temperature / K 14 a  AB: solid; BC: solid + liquid; CD: liquid

 bsolute zero is the temperature at which all

A b I nternal energy increases in all three
substances have the minimum internal energy; sections.
the kinetic energy of the atoms of copper is c  he specific heat capacity is greater when
T
zero and their electrical potential energy is at it is a solid. The gradient is greater when
a minimum. Therefore, we would expect the it is a liquid, so it takes less time to raise
resistance to be zero. the temperature by the same amount, and
7 a  Calibration therefore less energy.
b Range 15 E
 nergy needed to change ice into water is
E = mL = 0.0020 × 330 000 = 660 J. When a
c Linearity solid melts, only about one bond per atom
d Sensitivity or molecule is broken. On boiling, several
remaining bonds are broken, requiring more
8 energy, E = mc∆θ = 5.0 × 4180 × (100 − 20) energy. The change in volume on boiling is
= 1.67 MJ ≈ 1.7 MJ much larger than on melting so the increase
9 e nergy required for lead, Elead = mc∆θ = 2.0 × in potential energy is larger and work is also
126 × 30 = 7.56 kJ done pushing back the atmosphere.
e nergy required for copper, Ecopper = mc∆θ = 16 r ate of loss of mass = 2.25 g per minute =
4.0 × 380 × 5.0 = 7.60 kJ 0.002 25
= 3.75 × 10−5 kg s−1
so, the copper block requires more energy 60
10 energy supplied in the time is E = power × time rate of supply of energy to alcohol =
= 50 × 4.0 × 60 = 12 kJ 40 × 80% = 32 W
so, specific latent heat of vaporisation =
Rearrange energy E = mc∆θ to give specific
heat capacity rate of supply of energy 32
=
E 12 000 rate of loss of mass 3.75 × 10 −5
c = =
m∆θ 1.2 × ( 45 − 22 ) = 853 000 J kg−1 ≈ 850 kJ kg−1
= 435 J kg−1 K−1 ≈ 440 J kg−1 K−1
11 At higher temperatures, the rate of energy loss Exam-style questions
to the surroundings is greater, therefore the 1 C[1]
temperature rise is slower.
2 B[1]
12 S
 ystematic: it can (theoretically) be removed
by perfect insulation and always causes a 3 a 
Kinetic energy remains constant.[1]
deviation in the same direction Potential energy increases.[1]
 ass of water used, m = mass of (beaker +
13 m Internal energy increases.[1]
water) − mass of beaker = 0.672 − 0.150 =
0.522 kg b Kinetic energy increases.[1]

 ower of heater, P = VI = 11.4 × 3.9 = 44.5 W

p  otential energy remains constant (slight
P
so, in 13.0 min, energy supplied by heater = increase/decrease if water expands/
P × t = 44.5 × 13.0 × 60 = 34.7 kJ contracts).[1]
temperature rise, ∆θ = 30.2 − 18.5 = 11.7 K Internal energy increases.[1]

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4 J ust before the stone hits the ground, it has in the thermocouple remains linear
kinetic energy. All the molecules are moving beyond 100 °C[1]
together in the same direction.[1] 9 a 
1 °C corresponds to a change of 18 Ω[1]
 hen it hits the ground, this unidirectional
W temperature = (620 − 200)/18 = 23 °C[1]
movement of the molecules is converted into
movement of individual molecules in random b 280 K = 7° C or 23° C = 296 K[1]
directions.[1] Thermodynamic scale does not depend
The kinetic energy for movement in random on the property of a substance.[1]
directions is internal energy, and hence the Change in resistance is not linear with
temperature rises.[1] temperature.[1]
5 The air is being compressed, so work is
energy supplied = mc∆θ = 0.300 ×
10 a 
being done on it.[1]
4180 × 80[1]
 rom the first law of thermodynamics, the
F
energy supplied = 100 320 J[1]
change in internal energy of a body is equal to
the energy supplied by heating plus the energy energy 100320
time = = [1]
supplied by doing work.[1] power 500
In this case, there is no energy supplied by = 201 s [1]
heating and little is lost, but work is done in No energy is needed to heat the element
compressing the air.[1] or the kettle[1]
6 If two bodies are at the same temperature, energy supplied = power × time energy
b
no energy flows from one body to another. supplied = 500 × 120 = 60 000 J[1]
Therefore, if no energy flows from A to B and energy
none flows from B to C, but energy flowed mass of water boiled away =
60 000 s.l.h.
from C to B, it would mean that A and B were
= = 0.027 kg[1]
at the same temperature, and A and C are at 2.26 × 106
the same temperature, but C is hotter than B. mass remaining = 300 − 27 = 273 ≈ 270 g
This is clearly a nonsense! We can see how [1]
fundamental this law is, and why it is called No energy is lost to the surroundings;
the zeroth law.[2] all the vapour escapes from the kettle.[1]
7 ∆U an increase in internal energy[1]
a  11 a 
The energy required to raise the
temperature of unit mass of a substance
q heat (energy) transferred to the system
[1]
[1]
W work done on system[1] by unit temperature rise[1]

b work done on gas W = p∆V = 4 × 105

i  b heat needed = 0.020 × 2100 × 15 +
i 
× 3 × 10−4 = + 120 J[1] 0.020 × 330 000[1]

∆U = −220 + 120 = −100 J[1]

 = 7230 J[1]

ii No work done on or by the gas so ii heat lost by water in cooling =
W = 0[1] 0.200 × 4200 × (26 − T)[1]

−330 = q so heat is removed from heat gained by ice in melting and then
the gas; the temperature falls[1] warming to temperature T = 7230 +
0.02 × 4200 × T[1]
8 a 
No temperature difference, so 0 V[1]
T = 15.8 or 16 °C[1]
100 × 49
b temperature = [1] 12 a 
The energy needed to change the state
63
of unit mass of a substance[1]
= 77.8 ≈ 78 °C[1]
without change in temperature[1]
63 × 327
c voltage =
i   µV[1] Latent heat of fusion is heat needed to
100
change form solid to liquid and latent
= 206 µV[1]
heat of vaporisation is heat needed to
ii That the variation between change the state from liquid to gas.[1]
temperature difference and the e.m.f.

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b i Each minute the mass decreases by the i  Sum of the kinetic energy and
14 a 
same amount.[1] potential energy of the molecules [1]
ii energy provided = 120 × 60 = 7200 J[1] random distribution (of kinetic
L = 7200/0.0062 = 1.2 × 10 J kg [1]
6 −1 energy)[1]

iii Too large[1] ii Lowest temperature (at which

energy cannot be removed
Heat lost from beaker means less than from molecules)[1]
7200 J is used to boil the liquid.[1]
0 K[1]
13 a 
Energy goes to potential energy of the
molecules[1] b mass per second = ρAv
i 
as they are moved further apart (accept mass per second
bonds broken) / work is done pushing = 1000 × 4.8 × 10−5 × 1.2[1]
back the atmosphere[1] mass per second = 0.058 kg[1]
b  o reduce the energy gained from the
T ii E = mc∆θ leading to
surroundings[1] 9000
∆θ = [1]
c energy input = 40 × 2 × 60 (= 4800 J)[1] 0.058 × 4200
Use of E = ml[1] = 37 °C[1]
m = mass decrease with heater on minus final temperature of the water
half mass decrease with heater off[1] = 37 + 15 = 52 °C[1]
m = 23.8 g iii The heater is 100% efficient; no heat
4800 is lost or gained from the pipe.[1]
l = = 202 J g−1[1]
23.8 iv Decrease the rate of flow of water[1]

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may be different.

Coursebook answers
Chapter 20
Science in context guidance of the molecules. As the force increases, the
pressure inside the can may cause it to explode.
• There are a number of factors that will affect
3 mass of one molecule = 12 × 1.66 ×
a 
the behaviour of the balloon on its journey.
10−27 = 1.99 × 10−26 kg
As the balloon rises, there is a decrease in air
pressure. This causes the balloon to expand. b number of atoms = 0.054/1.99 × 10−26 kg =
There is, however, a decrease in temperature 2.71 × 1024
which will cause the balloon to contract. The number of moles = 2.71 × 1024/6.02 ×
pressure change is more significant. 1023 = 4.5
• There are a few possible scenarios for when c  umber of atoms = 1.0/1.99 × 10−26 = 5.0 ×
n
the balloon reaches its maximum altitude. 1025
Some stronger balloons will reach a point
of equilibrium where the balloon will reach 4 single atom has mass = 235 × 1.66 × 10−27
a 
a constant altitude. Many weather balloons = 3.90 × 10−25 kg = 3.90 × 10−22 g
will eventually burst (due to over-expansion b number of atoms = 0.02/3.90 × 10−22
i 
and the balloon becoming brittle due to cold = 5.1 × 1019
temperatures) before returning to the ground
on a parachute. ii number of moles = 5.1 × 1019/6.02 ×
1023 = 8.5 × 10−5
• It is possible to make fairly accurate predictions
as to the burst height and landing location of 5  ypical number of nucleons in an atom = 10,
T
weather balloons using some basic physical so 1 kg contains 100 moles = 6 × 1025 ≈ 1026
modelling. This is important as losing weather molecules. Note for heavier elements, e.g.,
balloons (and the attached craft) can become iron, Ar ≈ 60 and number of atoms ≈ 1025
very expensive! 6 Boyle’s law is p1V1 = p2V2. Rearranging this
pV
gives pressure required, p2 = 1 1
Self-assessment questions V2
120 000 × 0.04
= = 1.92 × 10 Pa ≈ 1.9 × 105 Pa
5

1  ressure increases because more molecules

P 0.025
are hitting a unit area of the tyre per second. 7 Rearrange ideal gas equation pV = nRT to give
The molecules have the same speed and each temperature
collision causes the same impulse or change pV 1.0 × 10 4 × 1.0
T = = = 1200 K
in momentum. Since more molecules hit per nR 1.0 × 8.31
second, the rate of change of momentum, i.e. mass 100
the force, increases. 8 a number of moles = = =
molar mass 28
2  t higher temperatures, the molecules have
A 3.57 mol
higher internal energy and move faster. The b  earrange ideal gas equation pV = nRT to
R
number of collisions per second increases and give volume
the change in momentum of each collision
nRT 3.57 × 8.31× 293.15
also increases. For both these reasons, the rate V = =
of change of momentum of the molecules p 1.01× 105
increases. The force on the wall is equal and = 0.086 m3
opposite to the rate of change of momentum

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3
9  earrange ideal gas equation pV = nRT to give
R 16 E = 2 kT = 1.5 × 1.38 × 10−23 × 300
volume = 6.2 × 10−21 n
nRT 5.0 × 8.31× 473.15 17 Rearrange Emean = 1 m<c2> = 3 kT to give
V = = 2 2
p 1.01× 105 temperature
= 0.195 m3 ≈ 0.20 m3 T = 2E/3k = (2 × 5.0 × 10−21)/(3 × 1.38 × 10−23)
= 242 K (or −31 °C)
number of atoms
10 number of moles of gas = = 18 a  (200 + 400 +600 + 800)/4 = 500 m s−1
NA
3.0 × 1024
= 4.98 mol b 5002 = 250 000 m2 s−2
6.02 × 1023
Rearrange ideal gas equation pV = nRT to give c (2002 + 4002 +6002 + 8002)/4 =
volume, or V = NkT/p 300 000 m2 s−2
nRT 4.98 × 8.31× 300 d 300 000½ = 547 m s−1
V = =
p 1.20 × 105 19 cr.m.s. = < c 2 > = ( 3kT/m)½ = 1900 m s−1
= 0.104 m ≈ 0.1 m3
3
20 T
 emperature is proportional to (average
mass 1000 speed)2 so if the speed doubles, the
11 number of moles of gas = =
molar mass 32 temperature increases by a factor of 22 = 4
= 31.25 mol 21 a 
Halved
 earrange ideal gas equation pV = nRT to give
R b Remains the same
temperature
3 3RT 3 × 8.31× 293.15
pV 1.0 × 105 × 1.0 22 mean k.e. = kT or =
T = = = 385 K 2 2N A 2 × 6.02 × 1023
nR 31.25 × 8.31 = 6.1 × 10 J
−21

Rearrange ideal gas equation pV = nRT to

12 a  1
mean k.e. = m<c2> where m (mass of one
give number of moles of hydrogen 2
molar mass
pV molecule) = so root-
n= Avogadro number
RT
20 × 1.01× 105 × 0.1 mean-square speed of oxygen molecule =
= = 82.9 mol 2 × mean k.e. 2 × 6.1× 10 −21 × 6.02 × 1023
8.31× 293.15 =
so, mass of hydrogen = number of moles m 0.032
× molar mass = 82.9 × 2.0 = 166 g ≈ 170 g = 480 m s−1
b I f number of moles of oxygen is the same, root-mean-square speed of nitrogen molecule
82.9 mol, then mass of oxygen = 82.9 × 32
2 × 6.1× 10 −21 × 6.02 × 1023
= 2.65 kg ≈ 2.7 kg = 510 m s−1
F ma 0.028
13 Base units of pressure p = = are
−2
A A 23 internal energy E = NA( 32 kT) = 3
2
RT
kg ms
= kg m−1 s−2 3
m2 Nm < c 2 > change per kelvin = 2
R
Base units of the right-hand side
V
kg ( m s −1 )
2

are
m3
= kg m s
−1 −2
Exam-style questions
Nm < c 2 >
14 a  Rearrange p = to give <c2> = 1 B[1]
3V
2 C[1]
3pV 3 × 105 × 1.0
= = 2.3 × 105 m2 s−2 3 i   6.02 × 1023[1]
a 
Nm 1.29
ii Chlorine is diatomic, so 12.0 × 1023[1]
b  < c 2 > = 2.3 × 105 = 480 m s−1, which is iii 1000 × NA = 6.02 × 1026[1]
50% greater than the speed of sound in air
15 R = 8.31 J K−1, NA = 6.02 × 1023
8.31J K −1
so, k = NR = = 1.38 × 10−23 J K−1
A 6.02 × 1023

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b i  4 × NA = 24.1 × 1023[1] b  his is considerably faster than air

T
ii One C atom per molecule, so molecules at the same pressure[1]
24.1 × 1023[1]
 ecause the He atoms have a much smaller
b
iii Two O atoms per molecule, so mass, so greater speed needed for same
48.2 × 1023[1] energy.[1]
4 197 × 1.66 × 10−27 = 3.3 × 10−25 kg[1]
a  average k.e. per molecule at 27 °C =
i 
11 a 
3 kT[1]
b 1/(3.3 × 10−25) = 3.06 × 1024 ≈ 3.1 × 1024[1] 2

3.06 × 1024/6.02 × 1023[1]

c  = 1.5 × 1.38 × 10−23 × 300[1]
= 5.08 mol ≈ 5.1 mol[1] = 6.2 × 10−21 J[1]
pV
5 pressure p2 = 1 1 [1]
a  ii average k.e. at 243 °C = 1.07 × 10−20 J
V2 [1]
105 × 140
= = 3.4 × 105 Pa, or
42 b ratio of energies = 1.07
0.62
= 1.72[1]
3.3 atmospheres[1]
ratio of speeds = ( ratio of energies )
b  he temperature of the gas would
T
= 1.31 : 1 or (ratio of temperatures) =
increase, causing pressure to be higher
1.31 : 1[1]
than in part a.[1]
12 a 
The molecules hit the wall / rebound
6  2 = pV
V 1 1 [1]
from the wall.[1]
p2
Each impact causes a small force /
35 × 0.42 impulse on the wall.[1]
= [1]
10 Molecules are in random motion / many
= 1.47 ≈ 1.5 cm3[1] impacts smear force over whole wall.[1]
Assumes that the temperature at 25 m depth b pV = nRT[1]
is equal to the temperature at the surface of
3.42 × 105 × 1.50
the water and that the mass of gas is constant n = [1]
(it does not dissolve in the water).[1] 8.31× 276
= 224 mol[1]
7 Using pV = nRT, we have
a 
c i Using pV = nRT
pV 4.8 × 105 × 0.040 224 × 8.31× 315
n = = [1] p = [1]
RT 8.31× 293 1.50
= 7.89 mol ≈ 7.9 mol[1] = 3.91 × 105 Pa[1]

b Using pV = nRT, we have ii ∆E = 3

2
k∆T = 1.5 × 1.38 ×
mass = 7.89 × 44[1] 10−23 × (315 − 276)[1]
= 347 g ≈ 350 g[1] ∆E = 8.01 × 10−22 J[1]
8 Using pV = nRT, we have[1] 13 a 
N the number of molecules[1]
nRT 1× 8.31× 273
V = = = 2.25 × 10−2 m3[1] m the mass of one molecule[1]
p 1.01× 105
<c2> the mean square speed[1]
9 Using pV = NkT, we have[1]
b pV = nRT[1]
i 
3.0 × 1026 × 1.38 × 10 −23 × 400
p = [1] n = (6.0 × 105 × 4.1 × 104 × 10−6)/(8.31 ×
0.200
295)[1]
= 8.31 × 106 Pa[1]
n = 10 mol[1]
3p
Using p =
10 a  1 ρ<c2>, we have <c2> = [1]
3 p ii 10 × 6.02 × 1023[1]
3 × 1.01× 105 = 6.02 × 1024[1]
= =1.69 × 106 m2 s−2[1]
0.179 iii 1 × 4 × 1.66 ×10−27 × <c2> = 3/2kT[1]
2
so, r.m.s. speed = (1.69 × 106)1/2
<c2> = 1.84 × 106[1]
= 1350 m s−1[1]
cr.m.s = 1360 m s−1[1]

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14 a 
An ideal gas is a gas that obeys the ideal b i 2 × 2.4 × 10−26 × 400[1]
gas law at all temperatures[1] = 1.9 × 10−23 kg ms−1[1]
and pressures.[1] ii 400/(0.3 × 2)[1]
b i 
125 (mol)[1] = 667[1]
ii 125 × 6.02 × 10 = 7.53 × 10
23 25
iii 1.9 × 10−23 × 667[1]
(molecules)[1]
= 1.3 × 10−20 N[1]
iii pV = nRT[1] 1
kinetic energy of 1 mole = NA ×
16 a  2
m
125 × 8.31 × 300
V = 5 × 105
[1] < c 2> = 3
RT[1]
2
3
= 0.62 m [1]
3 energy to raise by 1 °C = 2
R = 12 J[1]
i   No kinetic energy is lost in the
15 a  b 12 m < c 2> = 3
kT or < c 2> = 3 kT/m[1]
2
collision.[1]
cr.m.s. = (3 × 1.38 × 10−23 × 373)/(3.34 ×
ii Any three from:
10−27)½[1]
Total volume of molecules negligible
= 2150 ≈ 2200 m s−1[1]
compared to that of container[1]
No intermolecular forces[1] c r atio of r.m.s. speeds hydrogen : oxygen
= (mass of oxygen molecule / mass of
Molecules in random motion[1] hydrogen molecule)½[1]
Time of collision small compared = 3.99 ≈ 4.0[1]
with the time between collisions[1]
Large number of molecules[1]

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Exam-style questions and sample answers have been written by the authors. In examinations, the way marks are awarded
may be different.

Coursebook answers
Chapter 21
Science in context guidance 3  he field strength is greatest at the top
T
(pointed) part of the building. The electric
There are a number of issues with harnessing field lines are closest together there.
lightning:
4 0V +2.0 kV +6.0 kV 0V
• It is difficult to predict when the lightning
will strike. This makes it an unreliable power
source.
• It is difficult to know where the lightning will
strike. Where would you put the lightning rods
required to harness it?
• Lightning provides (very short) bursts of
energy. This energy would have to be somehow
stored (giant capacitors?) so the energy can
be used appropriately (and other a suitable
period of time).
Although the energy released during a lightning
strike is huge, it is over in a very short amount of 5 e lectric field strength E = F/Q = 150/20 × 10−3 =
time. 3 000 000 strikes a day would mean around 7500 N C−1 downwards
35 strikes / second on average, or an average power 6 e lectric field strength E = V/d = 1000/0.40 =
output of 350 MW. Even the smallest nuclear 2500 V m−1 = 2500 N C−1
power plants have an output of around 500 MW,
7 e lectric field strength E = F/Q = 8 × 10−16 / 1.6
so even harnessing all of the lightning on the
× 10−19 = 5000 V m−1 or N C−1
planet would provide a fairly insignificant amount
of electrical energy. 8 a Rearrange E = V/d so that voltage to cause
sparks is given by V = Ed = 40 000 × 4
= 160 000 V. This is only an estimate as

Self-assessment questions the formula only really works for parallel
1 a Diagram i shows positive charges plates; using approximations like this is a
repelling; the arrow heads point away good way to find a rough estimate.
from the charges. b Rearrange E = V/d so that minimum
b Diagram iii shows negative charges distance is given by d = V/E = 325/40 000
repelling; the arrow heads point towards = 0.008 cm = 0.08 mm
the charges.
c Rearrange E = V/d so that voltage to
c Diagram ii shows opposite charges cause lightning is given by V = Ed =
attracting; the positive charge is on the 40 000 × 10 000 = 400 MV (remember that
right. the field strength was given in volts per
2 centimetre)

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9 a  0V +2.0 kV 3 a The foil is positively charged and

experiences a force in the same direction
as the electric field.[1]
A C D B
b  he foil will become negatively charged
T
[1]
and will experience a force in the opposite
earth direction to the field.[1]
4 field strength E = F/Q[1]
b potential difference = 2.0 kV = 4.4 × 10−13 N/8.8 × 10−17 C = 5000 N C−1[1]
c  lectric field strength between parallel
E 5 p.d. V = E × d[1]
plates is uniform, so has the same value at = 4000 × 0.04 = 160 V[1]
both points.
6 a separation d = V/E[1]
E = V/d = 2.0 × 103/0.25 = 8.0 kV m−1
= 2400/3.0 × 104 = 0.08 m = 8.0 cm[1]
d  = QE = +5 × 10−6 × 8.0 × 103 = 0.04 N to
F
b field strength E = V/d [1] = 2400/0.02[1]
the left
= 1.2 × 105 V m−1[1]
10 E = V/d = 5.0 × 103/0.10 = 5.0 × 104 V m−1 or N
C−1 7  he field is directly proportional to the p.d.,
T
so doubling the p.d. doubles the field strength.
F = QE = +2 × 10−6 × 5.0 × 104 = 0.10 N
[1]
11 force F = QE = −1.6 × 10−19 × 5.0 × 106 = −8.0 ×
 he field strength is inversely proportional
T
10−13 N
to the plate separation, so reducing the
Rearrange F = ma to give magnitude of separation by a factor of 3 trebles the field
acceleration strength.[1]
a = F/m = 8.0 × 10−13/9.11 × 10−31  herefore, the electric field strength is
T
= 8.8 × 10 m s 17 −2 increased by a factor of 6.[1]
e+, e– e+
12 a 8 a
–
e+, e– +
e–
+
e–
b 3+ +
2
– +
3+1 (smallest mass)
2+ 1+ (smaller mass)
– 1+
+

Ions with a greater mass will show smaller Five good lines, not touching, good shape[2]
deflection.
(One mark for three good lines, not
Ions with greater charge will have greater touching, good shape)
deflection.
Arrows in correct direction[1]

Exam-style questions b  he positive charge on the sphere induces

T
negative charges on the plate.[1]
1 C
 (Direction of field: away from the positive
The opposite charges attract.[1]
charge/ towards negative. Force: the charge
on an electron is negative therefore force away C i T
 he sphere would still be attracted to
from the negative plate)[1] the plate.[1]
2 B
 (A: charge on an electron, C: calculated E as    The negative charge on the sphere now
V × d, D: calculated d/V only)[1] induces positive charges on the plate.[1]

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ii T
 he field direction would reverse.[1] c DW = FDx = 1.0 × 10−11 × 8.0 × 10−2[1]
(But any indication that the shape work done = 8.0 × 10−13 J[1]
changes [0])
9 a A series of parallel lines between the d 8.0 × 10−13 J[1]
plates[1] e Ek = ½mv2 = 8.0 × 10−13[1]
Arrows vertically downwards[1] v2 = 2 × 8.0 × 10−13/1.7 × 10−27[1]
b Vertically downwards[1] v = 3.1 × 107 m s−1[1]
c 6.4 × 10−14 N[1] 11 a i   Arrows from the inner electrode to
the outer electrode[1]
d  = F/q = 6.4 × 10−14/1.6 × 10−19[1]
E
ii Lines are closer together.[1]
= 400 000 V[1]
e  = V/d leading to V = Ed = 400 000 × 2.5
E b DV = EDx = 5.0 × 106 × 1.25 × 10−3[1]
× 10−2[1] = 6250 V[1]
= 10 000 V[1] c Given that E = 5.0 × 106 N C−1 (or 5.0 ×
10 a Electric field strength is force per unit 106 V m−1), in a distance of 4.0 µm the
charge on a stationary charge[1] potential drops 5.0 × 106 × 4.0 × 10−6 V[1]
per unit positive charge[1] potential drop = 20 V[1]
b E = V/d = 5.0 × 106/8.0 × 10−2[1] (Other routes are possible.)
F = EQ = (5.0 × 106/8.0 × 10−2) × 1.6 × 10−19
[1]
= 1.0 × 10−11 N[1]

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Exam-style questions and sample answers have been written by the authors. In examinations, the way marks are awarded
may be different.

Coursebook answers
Chapter 22
Science in context guidance c In part a, we calculated the electric field
due to the first sphere at 25 cm from
• In terms of effects on the environment, many its centre (which is also the midpoint
additional masts will need to be erected. between the two spheres). Electric field
5G can transfer more data as it is higher strength due to second sphere,
frequency than 4G. However their shorter
wavelengths mean they are more easily Q −1.0 × 10 −6
E2 = =
blocked by buildings and other objects. 4 πε 0 r 2
4 π × 8.85 × 10 −12 × 0.252
• Copper cables are already struggling to = −1.4 × 105 N C −1
provide the data required for 4G networks. The minus sign indicates the field is
For higher capacity networks like 4G and 5G, attractive to a sample positive charge
data needs to be provided by fibre optic cables. towards the second sphere, whereas the
In many countries the current fibre optic field of the first sphere is repulsive to a
infrastructure is already struggling to meet positive charge away from the first sphere
the data demands of 4G networks, so extra (and towards the second sphere). So, the
fibre optic capacity will need to be provided to total field strength due to both spheres
make 5G effective. = 1.4 × 105 + 2.9 × 105 = 4.3 × 105 V m−1
• In terms of 5G and price rises; it really (or N C−1) (towards the second, negative
depends on the network providers. When 4G sphere).
was introduced the majority of mobile phone 2  iameter of sphere 40 cm means distance of
d
companies offered 4G as an optional extra surface from centre = 20 cm
for an additional cost. This was particularly
Q
important to provide fairness for customers in Rearrange E = so Q = 4p × e0r2E = 4π
areas with poor / non-existent 4G coverage. 4 πε 0 r 2
× 8.85 × 10−12 × 0.202 × 4.0 × 104
=1.8 × 10−5 C
Self-assessment questions 3 a Electrical potential energy W = QV = +1
1 a electric field strength due to first sphere, × potential difference. So, at different
positions in the uniform field, electrical
Q 2.0 × 10 −6 potential energy is A, 0 J; B, 2 kJ; C, 1 kJ
E1 = =
4 πε 0 r 2
4 π × 8.85 × 10 −12 × 0.252 (C is halfway between A, 0 V and B, +2
= 2.9 × 105 N C −1 kV); D, 1.5 kJ (D is halfway between C,
b centre-to-centre distance of spheres = 20 + +1 kV and B, +2 kV).
20 + 10 = 50 cm b e lectrical potential energy W = QV = +2 ×
force, potential difference = +2 × answers in part
Q1Q2 2.0 × 10 −6 × −1.0 × 10 −6 a. A, 0 J; B, 4 kJ; C, 2 kJ; D, 3 kJ
F= =
4 πε 0 r 2
4 π × 8.85 × 10 −12 × 0.502 4 Rearrange V = 4πQε r to give
0
= 0.072 N charge Q = 4p × e0rV = 4 × π × 8.85 × 10−12 ×
0.10 × 100 000 = 1.1 × 10−6 C

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 reating charge on the sphere as concentrated

T d
at a point in the centre of the sphere,
potential,
Q 1.1× 10 −6
V= =
4 πε 0 r 4 π × 8.85 × 10 −12 × 0.20
= 4.95 × 10 4 ≈ 50 kV
e
5 a work done in uniform field = QV so E →
H, 5 kJ; E → F, 2.5 kJ; F → G, 0 J; H →
E, −5 kJ
b i  E → H, −5 kJ; E → F, −2.5 kJ; F → G, 4 a E = V/d = 2500/0.040[1]
0 J; H → E, +5 kJ = 6.25 × 104 V m−1[1]
ii E → H, 10 kJ; E → F, 5 kJ; F → G, 0 J;
H → E, −10 kJ b F = EQ = 6.25 × 104 × 2.4 × 10−9[1]
i 

6 electrostatic force = 1.5 × 10−4 N[1]

QQ (1.6 × 10 −19 )2 ii a = F/m = 1.5 × 10−4/4.2 × 10−6[1]
FE = 1 2 2 =
4 πε 0 r 4 π × 8.85 × 10 −12 × (1.0 × 10 −15 )2 = 36 m s−2[1]
= 230 N Q 2.4 × 10 −9
5 a  E = = [1]
4 πε 0 r 2
4 π × 8.85 × 10 −12 × 0.022
gravitational force
Gm1 m2 6.67 × 10 −11 × (1.67 × 10 −27 )2 = 5.4 × 104 V m−1[1]
F= = Q 2.4 × 10 −9
r2 (1.0 × 10 −15 )2 b E = = [1]
4 πε 0 r 2 4 π × 8.85 × 10 −12 × 0.042
= 1.9 × 10 −34 N
= 1.4 × 104 V m−1 (or one-quarter of

 his answer tells us that the gravitational
T the answer to part a since distance has
attraction is nowhere near enough to balance the doubled)[1]
electric repulsion. Some other force must hold the 6 a potential V = Q/4p × e0r
protons together. (In fact, it is the strong nuclear so Q = 4p × e0r × V[1]
force.)
= 4π × 8.85 × 10−12 × 0.03 × 20 × 103[1]
= 6.7 × 10−8 C[1]
Exam-style questions b E=
Q
=
6.7 × 10 −9
[1]
4 πε 0 r 2
4 π × 8.85 × 10 −12 × 0.032
1 C[1]
= 6.7 × 105 N C−1[1]
2 A (B: use of 1/r, C: use of r, D: use of r2)[1] Q
3 a to e, 7 ionisation potential V = [1]
4 πε 0 r
+2 kV
a 1.6 × 10 −19

+2 kV = [1]
4 π × 8.85 × 10 −12 × 1.05 × 10 −10
= 13.7 V[1]
8 a The electric field strength is the force
at a point[1]
b
per unit positive charge at the point.[1]
Q 2.0 × 10 −9
E=
b i  =
4 πε 0 r 2
4 π × 8.85 × 10 −12 × 0.052
c  [1]
= 7200 V m−1[1]
ii field due to B = 7200 − 1800 =
5400 V m−1[1]
d E=
Q
leading to Q = E × 4p ×
4 πε 0 r 2
e0 × r2[1]
= 1.5 × 10−9 C[1]
e

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Q 2.0 × 10 −19
c i V= = 10 a Potential at a point is the work done in
4 πε 0 r 4 π × 8.85 × 10 −12 × 1.0 × 10 −2 bringing unit positive charge[1]
 [1]
from infinity to the point.[1]
= 1800 V[1]
Q −1.6 × 10 −19
b i V = =
ii Greater before removing sphere B[1] 4 πε 0 r 4 π × 8.85 × 10 −12 × 5.3 × 10 −11
Potential is a scalar, thus two potentials  [1]
tend to add[1] = −27.2 V[1]
9 a i   W = VQ leading to ii W = VQ = −27.2 × 1.6 × 10−19 C[1]
W 8.0 × 10 −13
= −4.4 × 10−18 J[1]
V= = [1]
Q 2 × 1.6 × 10 −19
c Gradient drawn at the relevant point[1]
= 2.5 × 106 V[1]
leading to E = 5.1 × 1011 V m−1[1]
ii Ek = 12 mv2 leading to
Q 6.0 × 10 −8
2 Ek 2 × 8.0 × 10 −13 11 a E = =
v2 = = [1] 4 πε 0 r 2 4 π × 8.85 × 10 −12 × ( 0.8 × 10 −2 )2
m 6.65 × 10 −27
 [1]
= 2.41× 1014 [1]
= 8.4 × 106 N C−1[1]
therefore, v = 1.6×107 m s−1[1]
b i
b i 
Zero[1] 6.0 × 10 −8 × ( −4.5 × 10 −8 )
 Q1Q2
F= =
ii Zero[1] 4 πε 0 r 2 4 π × 8.85 × 10 −12 × ( 5.0 × 10 −2 )2
iii 8.0 × 10−13 J[1]  [1]
Q1Q2 Q1Q2 = −9.7 × 10−3 N[1]
c W = which gives r = [1]
4πε 0 r 4πε 0W ii reading = 0.0482 − 0.0097 =
=
2 ×1.6 × 10 −19 × 79 × 1.6 × 10 −19 0.0384 N[1]
= 4.5 × 10 −14 m Q 1 1
4 π × 8.85 × 10 −12 × 8.0 × 10 −13 c ∆V = − [1]
 [1] 4 πε 0  r2 r1 
d Radius of nucleus is 4.5 × 10−14 m[1] 6 × 10 −8  1 1 
= −12 
−
This is the maximum radius of the 4 π × 8.85 × 10  3.5 × 10 −2
5.0 × 10 −2 
nucleus; if the inverse square law is still = 4.6 ×103 V[1]
valid.[1] work done = VQ = 4.6 × 10−3 × (−4.5×10−8)
= −2.1 × 10−4 J[1]

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Exam-style questions and sample answers have been written by the authors. In examinations, the way marks are awarded
may be different.

Coursebook answers
Chapter 23
4 I / μA 250
Science in context guidance
200
• Finding a way to store energy from wind
turbines and solar cells to be used later when 150
demand is higher would greatly improve
100
efficiency and reduce costs. However, large,
efficient batteries currently provide a better 50
solution than capacitors.
0
• Although they have many similarities and 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
t/s
provide a similar function, there are some
key differences between batteries and charge = area under graph ≈ 5.1 mC
capacitors. A battery is a store of chemical capacitance ≈ 6.0 × 10−4 F (600 µF)
energy, whereas a capacitor stores its energy 5 gradient = DV/DQ = 1/capacitance
in an electric field. Batteries can currently
store a lot more energy / unit mass than 6 capacitance = Q/V = 1/gradient = 4 ×
a 
capacitors. Batteries discharge their electrical 10−3/4 = 1.0 × 10−3 F (1 mF)
energy slowly (due to the chemical reactions b 
occurring) whereas capacitors can charge and
discharge very quickly. Q / mC V / V Area of strip Sum of
DW / mJ areas W / J
• The short-term, rapid charge / discharge make
1.0 1.0 0.5 0.5
them perfectly suited for the short pulses of
power required in a particle accelerator, but 2.0 2.0 1.5 2.0
not particularly useful for storing energy
3.0 3.0 2.5 4.5
generated by renewable energy sources.
4.0 4.0 3.5 8.0
Self-assessment questions c 8.0

1 Rearrange capacitance C = Q/V to give charge 7.0

stored Q = CV = 220 × 10−6 × 15 = 3300 µC (or 6.0
3.3 × 10−3 C)
5.0
Area W / mJ

2 capacitance C = Q/V = 1.0 × 10−3/500 = 2.0 ×

10−6 F (or 2.0 µF, 2.0 × 106 pF) 4.0

3 current I = Q/t so charge Q = It; substitute in 3.0

C = Q/V = It/V 2.0
Rearrange so I = CV/t = 50 × 10−6 × 10/0.01 =
1.0
0.050 A (50 mA)
0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
Voltage V / V
Shape: parabola

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7 energy stored, E = ½CV2 = ½ × 5 × 10−3 ×

a  capacitance of the two in series is given by
(5.0)2 = 6.25 × 10−2 J ≈ 6.3 × 10−2 J 1 = 1 + 1 = 2 = 1 so C
100 100
= 50 µF,
Cseries 100 50 series

b E = ½ × 5 × 10−9 × (5.0)2 = 6.3 × 10−8 J therefore, Ctotal = Cseries + 100 = 50 + 100 =

150 µF
c E = ½ × 0.2 × 10−3 × (230)2 = 5.29 J ≈ 5.3 J
16 a 
Four in parallel
8 charge is the same for both capacitors, Q = CV
= 2.0 × 10−2 C b Four in series
energy stored, W = 12 CV2 c Two in series with two in parallel
 or 100 µF capacitor: W = × 100 × 10 ×
F 1
2
−6
17 Maximum: in parallel, 900 pF
(200)2 = 2.0 J 1
 inimum: in series, where Ctotal
M = C11 + C12 +
 or 200 µF capacitor: W = × 200 × 10 ×
F 1
2
−6
1
1 C3 = 100 1
+ 200 10
+ 600 10
= 600 1
= 60 so Ctotal = 60 pF
(100)2 = 1.0 J
18 t otal capacitance of the two in parallel is
9 a energy stored, W = 12 CV2 = 12 × 0.01 × 122 Cparallel = 10 + 10 = 20 µF
= 0.72 J
so, total network capacitance is given by
b Rearrange power P = work done/time 1 1 1 1 1 1 5
Ctotal = C1 + C2 + C3 = 10 + 20 + 10 = 20 = 1/4 so
1

taken to give time = work done/power = Ctotal = 4.0 µF

0.72/36 = 0.02 s
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
charge Q = CV = 0.20 × 9.0 = 1.8 C
10 a  Ctotal = C1 + C2 + C3 = 120 + 120 + 120 =
19 a 
3 1
energy stored, W = 12 CV2 = 12 × 0.2 × (9.0)2 120 = 40 so Ctotal = 40 µF
= 8.1 J b charge stored, Q = CV = 40 × 10−6 ×
b power = energy/time taken = 8.1/0.01 = 10 000 = 0.40 C
810 W c energy stored, W = 12 CV2 = ½ × 40 ×
c current = charge/time = 1.8/0.01 = 180 A 10−6 × (10 000)2 = 2.0 × 103 J
total capacitance in parallel = 20 + 5.0 =
20 a 
d Rearrange power P = I2R to give
25 µF
resistance R = P/I2 = 810/(180)2 = 0.025 Ω
Ctotal = C1 + C2 = 100 + 100 = 200 µF
11 a  b c harge stored across first capacitor when
connected to the power supply, Q = CV
b charge stored, Q = CV = 200 × 10−6 × 20 = = 20 × 10−6 × 200 = 4.0 × 10−3 C (4000 µC)
4.0 × 10−3 C (4000 µC)
c  otential difference across the
P
12 Two 20 µF and one 10 µF connected in
combination is given by the charge stored
parallel; or five 10 µF connected in parallel
(which comes from the first capacitor) and
13 T
 otal capacitance of capacitors in series is the total capacitance of the combination.
1
given by: Ctotal = C11 + C12 + C13 = 200
1 1
+ 300 1
+ 600 = So, Vcombination = Q/C = 4.0 × 10−3/25 × 10−6
6
= 1 so C = 100 µF = 160 V
600 100 total

14 a 1
Ctotal
= C1 + C1 = C2 = so Ctotal = 0.5C d e nergy stored by first capacitor = 12 CV2
1 = 12 × 20 × 10−6 × 2002 = 0.4 J
b  total
C = Cn so Ctotal = Cn
energy stored by combination =
Ctotal = 2C
c  1
2 C(Vcombination) = 2 × 25 × 10 × (160) =
2 1 −6 2

d Ctotal = nC 0.32 J
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 so, energy dissipated when the capacitors
Ctotal = C + C2 + C = 100 + 100 + 100 = 100 so Ctotal
15 
1 3
are connected = 0.4 − 0.32 = 0.08 J (80 mJ)
= 100
3
= 33 µF Q
21 V = which leads to
In parallel, Ctotal = C1 + C2 + C3 = 100 + 100 + 4 πε 0 r
100 = 300 µF Q
C = = 4 πε 0 r = 4 π × 8.85 × 10 −12 × 6.4 × 106
c apacitance of the two in parallel = 200 µF, V
1 1
therefore, Ctotal = 100 1
+ 200 3
= 200 so Ctotal = 200 = 7.1 × 10-4 = 710 µF
3 =
67 µF Assumption: the Earth is a perfect sphere

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i   12 V (equal to the e.m.f. of the battery)

22 a  8 a W = ½CV2 = 0.5 × 5000 × 10−6 × 242 =
ii Q = CV = 1000 × 10−6 × 12 = 12 × 10−3 C 1.44 J[1]
12
iii I = VR = 2000 = 6 × 10−3 A b When charge is halved, p.d. is halved[1]
so energy stored =
b I t reduces; charge is flowing off through 0.5 × 5000 × 10−6 × 122 = 0.36 J[1]
the resistor
energy dissipated in lamp =
c i 
It reduces; less charge on the capacitor 1.44 J − 0.36 J = 1.08 J[1]
the less p.d. across it 9 a W = ½CV2 = 0.5 × 4700 × 10−6 × 122 =
ii It reduces; less p.d. across the 0.34 J[1]
capacitor the less across the resistor b Q = CV = 4700 × 10−6 × 12 = 0.056 C[1]
and thus less current
average current = Q/t = 0.056/2.5 =
c 
23 Unit of R is the ohm volt/ampere 0.023 A[1]
Unit of C is the farad = coulomb/volt = d average p.d. = 6.0 V[1]
(ampere × second)/volt
R = V/I = 6.0/0.023 = 260 Ω[1]
t hus the units of RC = (volt/ampere) ×
(ampere × seconds)/volt. The amperes cancel e  urrent is dependent on p.d., which
C
as do the volts leaving the unit of RC as the decreases at a non-uniform rate[1]
second. 10
Q = CV = 400 ×10 ×20 = 8.0 × 10 C
24 a  −6 −3

b τ = RC = 600 × 400 ×10−6 = 24 × 10−2

= 0.24 s
Substitute in Q = Q0 exp
c  ( − RCt ) giving 2.0 × 11 Three in parallel, 300 μF[1]
10 = 8.0 × 10 exp ( 0−.24
−3 −3 t
) Three in series, 33 µF[1]
Take antilogs: ( ln 8 ) = ( 0−.24
2
)
t , ln 0.25 =
Two in parallel, the third in series with the
−1.39, therefore, −t = −1.39 × 0.24 pair 67 µF[1]
and t = 0.33 s Two in series, the third in parallel over the
d Initial p.d. = 20 V storing 8.0 mC pair, 150 µF[1]
1 1 1
Ctotal = 100 + 200 + 600 = 600 [1]
12 a  1 10
2.0 mC = 14 of 8.0, therefore p.d. across
the plates = 20 × 14 = 5 V so, combined capacitance = 600
10
= 60 µF[1]
charge stored = 1.5 × 60 × 10−6 = 90 µC[1]
Exam-style questions Q1 = +90 µC, Q2 = −90 µC, Q3 = +90 µC,
1  (B: incorrect calculation of charge (use
A Q4 = −90 µC, Q5 = +90 µC, Q6 = −90 µC
of V 2), C & D: incorrect calculation of [2]
capacitance (use of V not V 2))[1] b Q
Using V = C [1]
2  (Both 1 and 4 increase the time constant
B p.d. = 0.90 V across the 100 µF capacitor,
(= CR); large time constant leads to long 0.45 V across the 200 µF capacitor[1]
decay time)[1]
0.15 V across the 600 µF capacitor[1]
3 Q = CV = 470 × 10−6 × 9.0 = 4.2 × 10−3 C[1]
Q
13 a Time delay, antisurge, antispark, etc.[1]
4 V = C = 02200
.033 × 10−6 = 15 V[1]

Q 2.0 b R = VI = 9.0/15 × 10−3[1]

i 
5 C = V = 5000 = 4.0 × 10−4 = 400 µF[1]
R = 600 Ω[1]
6 W = 12 CV 2 = 0.5 × 470 × 10−6 × 122 = 0.034 J[1]
ii p.d. decreases across capacitor[1]
7 W = 12 QV = 0.5 × 1.5 × 10−3 × 50 = 0.0375 J[1]
as charge flows off, so less p.d. to
drive current through the resistor[1]

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iii Evidence of using the area[1] 16 a 

Capacitance is the charge stored[1]
45 ± 5 mC[1] per unit potential difference across the
iv C = Q/V = 45 × 10 /9.0[1]
−3 capacitor plates.[1]

= 5.0 × 10−3 µF[1] b i  = CV = 67 × 10−6 × 12[1]

Q
14 a Q = V × 4πε0 r = 5.4 × 103 × 4π × 8.85
i  Q = 804 ≈ 800 µC[1]

× 10−12 × 0.20 I = Qt = Q × frequency = 804 × 10−6 × 50
ii 
= 1.2 × 10−7 C [1]
ii C = Q/V = 2.4 × 10−8 / 5.4 × 103 = = 0.040 A[1]
2.2 × 10−11 F = 2.2 pF P = VI where V is average p.d.[1]
iii 
1 1 1
b  =
E 2
QV or2
CV2 = × 1.2 × 10 ×
2
−7
= 12 × 12 × 0.04[1]
5.4 × 103 (or equivalent)[1]
P = 0.24 W[1]
initial energy = 3.24 × 10−4 J[1]
c Capacitance is halved.[1]
p.d. after discharge = 15 kV[1]
Charge stored is halved.[1]
t herefore, energy remaining = ½CV2
= ½ × 2.2 × 10−11 × 15 0002 = 0.0025 J[1] Current is halved but (average) V is
unchanged.[1]
energy released = 0.0324 − 0.0025
≈ 0.03 J[1] Power is halved.[1]
c  ot sufficient p.d. between sphere and
N (Maximum[2] if qualitative, i.e.,
plate[1] capacitance reduced, etc.)
to continue ionising the air[1] 17 a 
The time constant is the time taken for the
Q charge on a capacitor to fall to 1/e of its
15 a V= so Q = 4πε0 × V × r[1]
4 πε 0 r initial value[1]
Q = RC[1]
C = = 4 πε 0 r [1]
V b i 1
 total 1 + 1 = 5 [1]
= 500
Q 5 ×10 −8 C 2000 2000
b i  V = 4 πε r = 4 π × 8.85 ×10 −12 × 0.1 [1] so, combined capacitance =
0
2000
5
= 400 µF[1]
= 4500 V[1]
Q = CV = 400 × 10−6 × 50[1]
ii 
ii E = ½QV = ½ × 5 × 10−8 × 4500[1]
Q = 20 000 µC = 0.020 C[1]
= 1.1 × 10−4 J[1]
c i 
Q is shared, therefore, each sphere has
Q = Q0 exp
iii  (CR−t ) which leads to
a charge of 2.5 × 10−8 C[1] 5  −t 
= exp   and ln 0.05 ( = −3.0 )
and the p.d. is halved = 2250 V[1] 100  CR 
thus, ½QV = ½ × 2.5 × 10−8 × 2250 = t t
= =
2.8 × 10−5 J[1] ( 400 ×10−6 × 250 ×103 ) 1.00  [1]
ii Energy is lost to heating the spheres, t = 3.0 s[1]
as charge moves from one to the other.
[1]

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Exam-style questions and sample answers have been written by the authors. In examinations, the way marks are awarded
may be different.

Coursebook answers
Chapter 24
Science in context guidance 4 a 
No force

• The solenoid creates an incredibly strong b Force into the plane of the paper
magnetic field. Any magnetic material (iron / c Force down the page
steel objects, for example) could be attracted 5 force F = BIl = 0.06 × 0.20 × 2.50 = 0.030 N
towards the scanner. You can imagine the issues
6 Rearrange force F = BIl to give flux density
this might cause!
F 0.015
• Superconductors allow a very large current B = = = 0.050 T
Il (1.5 × 0.20 )
to flow through them as they have very low Q ne 1.60 × 10 −19
resistance. Magnetic field strength is directly 7 a  current I = = = 1018 ×
t t 1
proportional to current, so large currents can = 0.16 A
be used to create the very strong magnetic
fields required for an MRI scan. b force F = BIl = 0.005 × 0.16 × 0.50 = 4.0 ×
10−4 N (0.40 mN)
8 a 
Section of wire in field tilts up
Self-assessment questions
b Tilts down
1 Current flowing into page Current flowing out of
page, strength doubled c  ill try to move horizontally, into
W
horseshoe
d No movement
9  here is a force downwards on the balance
T
and a force upwards on the wire caused by the
current in a magnetic field (Fleming’s left-
hand rule). The size of the force acting = 2.0 ×
10−3 × 9.81 = 2.0 × 10−2 N
 he field lines are closer together to show the
T  o produce a force downwards, the current in
T
field is stronger. the wire is from left to right.
C
2 D 10 force, F = BIl
= 0.005 × 2.4 × 0.50 = 6.0 × 10−3 N (6.0 mN)
11 a  Remembering there are 200 turns:
force F = BIl = 0.05 × 1.0 × 200 × 0.20 =
A S N B
2.0 N
b  ivoted along a line parallel to one edge
P
with the magnetic field in the same plane
I as the coil
c  reater torque could be provided by:
G
3 Pair a will repel; pair b will attract. increasing current, increasing number of
turns in coil, increasing length of side in

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field, pivoting by centre of coil and having b  he direction is given by Fleming’s left-
T
magnets either side, having magnets all hand rule. The wire experiences a force
round the circle through which the coil into the plane of the paper.[1]
turns, increasing field strength perhaps by 6 a
adding an iron core.
force F = BIl sin θ = 0.25 × 3.0 × 0.50 × sin
12 a 
90° = 0.375 N ≈ 0.38 N
b force F = BIl sin θ = 0.25 × 3.0 × 0.50 × sin
45° = 0.265 N ≈ 0.27 N
c  urrent is parallel to magnetic field so
C
Clockwise magnetic field lines around and
force F = 0 N
close to each strip[1]
Both a and b are into the plane of the
Elliptical lines further away from the
paper.
strips, eventually becoming elliptical
13 They attract. If you consider each flat coil around both strips (even farther away, the
as a small electromagnet, then unlike poles shape becomes circular, not shown in the
are facing one another. If you think of the diagram)[1]
currents in the wires, these are parallel (rather
than antiparallel) and the coils attract. When b  he force on strip A is towards strip B
T
the current is reversed, it is reversed in both and the force on strip B is towards strip
coils and they still attract. A, i.e. the strips attract each other.[1]
This is because strip A, on its own,
produces a magnetic field vertically down
Exam-style questions the paper at strip B by the right-hand
1 B[1] rule.[1]
2 C[1] The left-hand rule can then be applied to
strip B, which has a current into the plane
3 (force, F is given by F = BIl sin θ)
a 
of the paper and a field down the
The force is a maximum when the angle θ paper.[1]
between the wire and the magnetic field is So, the force is to the left, towards
90° (i.e. when sin θ = 1).[1] strip A.[1]
b  he force is zero when the angle θ
T 7 a 
The current is from Y to X. This is
between the wire and the magnetic field because Q shows that the magnetic field
is 0°. (The wire is parallel to the magnetic above the wire, produced by the current,
field.)[1] is from west to east. The right-hand rule
4 F = BIl ∝ I (force ∝ current)[1]
a  then shows the current is upwards.[1]
hence, the force increases by a factor of b P points towards the north-west.[1]
3.0 to a value of 1.41 × 10−2 N[1]
c 
Q then points towards the north-west.[1]
b  = BIl ∝ ∆B (force ∝ change in magnetic
F
8 F = BIl [1]
a 
flux density)[1]
= 4.5 × 10−3 × 2.5 × 0.07[1]
hence, the force is halved to a value of
2.35 × 10−3 N[1] = 7.88 × 10−4 ≈ 7.9 × 10−4 N[1]

c  = BIl ∝ ∆l (force ∝ change in length of

F b  he magnetic field is in the same direction
T
wire in the field)[1] as the current (or the wire).[1]
hence, the force is reduced to 40% of its c 
From Fleming’s left-hand rule, PQ
initial value to 1.88 × 10−3 N[1] experiences a force out of the plane of the
5 F = BIl sin θ[1]
a  paper and RS experiences a force into the
F 3.8 × 10 −3 plane of the paper.[1]
B = = [1]
Il sin θ 1.2 × 0.03 × sin 50ο Hence, the frame starts to rotate in a
clockwise direction (when viewed from the
B = 0.138 T ≈ 0.14 T[1]
end PS).[1]

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d torque = F × d = 7.88 × 10−4 × 0.040[1] c f orce on wire =

= 3.15 × 10 N m ≈ 3.1 or 3.2 × 10 N m
−5 −5 (102.45 − 101.06) × 10−3 × 9.81 = 0.0136 N
[1] [1]
9 a 
Left to right[1] F 0.0136
B = = = 0.068 T[1]
Il 4 .0 × 5.0 × 10 −2
b force = weight of paper tape
d Axes labelled and balance reading when
F = mg = 60 × 10−3 × 10−3 × 9.81[1] current is zero marked[1]
= 5.89 × 10−4 N ≈ 5.9 × 10−4 N[1] Balance reading decreases linearly with
F current[1]
c B = [1]
Il
5.89 × 10 −4 102.45

Balance reading / g
= [1]
8.5 × 0.052 101.06

= 1.33 × 10 T ≈ 1.3 mT[1]

−3

d Moves up and down slowly[1]

10 a 
Diagram showing wire and magnetic field
0 4
and a method of measuring the force (e.g. Current/ A
diagrams similar to either Figure 24.14 or
24.15 in the coursebook)[1] 12 a 
Magnetic flux density is the force acting
Measure I, the current, and F, the force[1] per unit current per unit length on a wire
carrying a current[1]
Method of measuring the force, e.g.
difference in readings on top-pan balance when placed at right angles to the
(in kg) × 9.81[1] magnetic field.[1]
Measure length of wire at right angles to Both electric field strength and magnetic
magnetic field[1] field strength are defined in terms of the
F force on an object. For the electric field
B = [1] strength, the object is a charge of one
Il
coulomb (1 C); for the magnetic field
b i  Using the left-hand rule, the field is
strength, the object is a wire of length 1 m
horizontally towards the north, the
carrying a current of 1 A.[1]
force is upwards and thus the current is
from west to east.[1] b i 
The two wires attract one another or
F there is a force upwards on the wire on
ii I = [1] the bench.[1]
Bl
0.02 The wire above the bench produces a
= [1]
1.6 × 10 −5 × 3.0 horizontal magnetic field on the wire
= 417 ≈ 420 A[1] lying on the bench.[1]
11 a 
The wire is carrying a current in a This magnetic field interacts with the
magnetic field and experiences a force.[1] current in the wire lying on the bench
to produce a force upwards.[1]
There is an upwards force on the top-pan
balance, reducing the reading.[1] The currents flow in the same direction
causing the wires to attract each other.
b  y Newton’s third law, the force is
B [1]
downwards on the wire to produce an 2.0 × 10 −7 × 4.0
upwards force on the top-pan balance.[1] ii B = = 2.67 × 10−5 T[1]
0.03
By the left-hand rule, the current in the F = BIl = 2.67 × 10−5 × 4.0 × 1[1]
wire is from left to right.[1] = 1.07 × 10−4 ≈ 1.1 × 10−4 N[1]

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL PHYSICS: COURSEBOOK

Exam-style questions and sample answers have been written by the authors. In examinations, the way marks are awarded
may be different.

Coursebook answers
Chapter 25
Science in context guidance b  t an angle of 45° to the magnetic field,
A
force F = BQv sin θ = 0.50 × 1.6 × 10−19 ×
• The movement of the particles in the bubble 1.0 × 106 × sin 45° = 5.66 × 10−14 N ≈
chamber can give useful clues as to what 5.7 × 10−14 N
the particles are. Particles that are moving
3  ince the particles have opposite charges,
S
in the same direction as the electrons will
when moving through a magnetic field at right
have similar charge (negative). Particles
angles to the direction of travel the positrons
that move in the opposite direction will be
experience a force in the opposite direction to
positively charged. Particles that move in less
the force on the electrons. This will separate
tightly wound pathways will tend to have a
the particles into two beams.
larger mass. positrons
• The bubbles are produced when charged
particles ionise the liquid in the bubble
chamber. As such neutral particles such
as photons and neutrons cannot be
directly detected.

Self-assessment questions
1 field into
A α-particles, charge +2e plane of paper electrons
γ-rays, no charge
B 4 Out of the plane of the photograph
5  ll have same mass, charge and speed. (There
A
is more about this when you study how J.J.
Thomson discovered the electron, later in the
C coursebook.)
β– -particles, charge –e
6 a 
Circular path will have smaller radius
 rack A is pushed upwards, meaning it is the
T b  lectrons will circle in the opposite
E
equivalent of a positive current flowing to the direction
right: A must be α-particles.
Track B is not deflected by the magnetic field: c Circular path will have smaller radius
B must be γ-rays. d  lectrons will spiral around field lines
E
Track C is pushed downwards, meaning it is because they will have a constant
the equivalent of a negative current flowing to component of velocity in the direction of
the right: C must be β−-particles. the field lines
2 a  At right angles to the magnetic field, force 7 a 
The magnetic force is upwards, towards
F = BQv = 0.50 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 1.0 × 106 = the positive plate, and the electric force is
8.0 × 10−14 N downwards, towards the negative plate.

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b
3
speed of ion, v = EB = 1.50×.3010 = 1.73 × 1011 ≈ 1.7 × 1011 C kg−1[1]
= 5.0 × 103 m s−1 mass of α-particle
4 ratio =
a  =
mass of β-particle
c  agnetic force > electric force; the ion
M
travels in an upward curved path (towards 4 × 1.67 × 10 −27
[1]
the positive plate) and hence misses the 9.11× 10 −31
slit S ratio = 7333 ≈ 7300[1]
BI charge on α-particle 3.2 × 10 −19
8 Hall voltage VH =
a  b ratio = =
nte charge on β-particle 1.6 × 10 −19
0.10 × 0.020 [1]
VH =
(1.5 ×1023 × 0.05 ×10−3 ×1.6 ×10−19 ) ratio = 2.0[1]
VH = 1.67 × 10−3 V ≈ 1.7 mV force on α-particle
c ratio = ; force = BQv ∝
b  he current in a Hall probe must be
T force on β-particle
maintained at a constant value because Q[1]
the Hall voltage is directly proportional ratio = ratio of charges = 2.0[1]
to both the magnetic flux density and the
r mαQβ 7333
current; VH = nte
BI . The current must be d ratio = α = = [1]
rβ mβQα 2.0
kept constant for VH ∝ B
ratio = 3666 ≈ 3700[1]
9  he Hall voltage is given by the equation:
T
5  he force is always at right angles to the
T
VH = nte
BI . Using a single sample of a
direction of the magnetic field and is in the
semiconducting material of measured same direction (or the reverse) in an electric
thickness t, and using a constant magnetic field.[1]
field of known flux density B, the Hall voltage  he force is proportional to the velocity of
T
could be measured for different values of the electron in a magnetic field but does not
current. By plotting a graph of Hall voltage depend on the velocity of the electron in an
against current, the graph should form a electric field.[1]
straight line passing through the origin,
B 6 a  i   The electron is charged. or A moving
and have a gradient = nte , from which the charge is the equivalent of a current.
number density n of the semiconductor can be [1]
determined.
e The magnetic field of the moving
10 = 1.76 × 1011 charge interacts with the uniform
m
1.60 × 10 −19 magnetic field.[1]
m = = 9.1 × 10−31 kg
1.76 × 1011 ii The electron ionises atoms as it moves
and loses (kinetic) energy.[1]
Exam-style questions The speed v of the electron decreases
mv
and the radius r decreases as r = BQ .
1 C[1]  [1]
2 The force is at right angles to the velocity v[1] b  = Bev = 0.25 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 1.0 × 107
i F
a nd does no work on the electron, since [1]
work = force × distance moved in the = 4.0 × 10−13 N[1]
direction of the force.[1]
mv 2 9.11 × 10 −31 × (1.0 × 107 )2
As no work is done on the electron, the kinetic ii r = =  [1]
F 4.0 × 10 −13
energy of the electron is constant, as is its
speed.[1] = 2.278 × 10−4 ≈ 2.3 × 10−4 m[1]
1 7 i   Quarter of a circle linking exit and
a 
3 mv2 = eV = e × 1600[1]
2 entry points[1]
mv Force at right angles to the circle
r = [1]
Be marked at two points[1]
e 2V 3200
= 2 2 = [1]
me B r 0.017 × (8 × 10 −3 )2
2

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Both forces towards the centre of The vertical deflection for all the
the circle (top right-hand corner of electrons in the electric field is the
square)[1] same, therefore, they all must have
the same speed.[1]
source
b 12 mv2 = e × Vac[1]
region of proton
magnetic field i 
c  Into the plane of the paper/page[1]
ii Bev = eE[1]
E
proton v = [1]
detector B
1
iii  mv2 = e × Vac
2
so, v = ( 2 × 1000 × 1.76 × 1011 [1]
ii Into the plane of the paper [1] = 1.88 × 107 ≈ 1.9 × 107 m s−1[1]
b i   F = BQv = 0.25 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 4.0 × 106 V 500
E = = = 1.0 × 104 V m−1[1]
d 5.0 × 10 −2
= 1.6 × 10−13 N[1]
mv 2 1.67 × 10 −27 × ( 4.0 × 106 )2 E 1.0 × 10 4
ii r = = [1] B = = = 5.3 × 10−4 T[1]
F 1.6 × 10 −33 V 1.88 × 107
= 0.167 ≈ 0.17 m[1] mv 2
10 a  = BQv[1]
r
c  he direction of the magnetic field is
T mv 1.67 × 10 −27 × 1.0 × 106
reversed.[1] r = = [1]
BQ 6.0 × 10 −5 × 1.6 × 10 −19
The magnetic field is reduced in strength.
r = 174 ≈ 170 m[1]
[1]
8 i   Diagram showing − on right side
a  b  wo paths shown, both circles or parts
T
and + on left side[1] of circles of different radius[1]
Force on moving charges in magnetic Radius of helium nucleus is roughly twice
field[1] as large as radius of proton (354 m)[1]
Left-hand rule explained[1]
ii Force due to electric field or charges
on sides cancels magnetic force[1]
354 m
174 m
b  arger number density of charge carriers
L
[1]
Smaller drift velocity[1]
Same charge flow per second but larger
number of charge carriers[1]
radius of path of proton radius of path of helium nucleus
Smaller Hall voltage[1]
Smaller force on each charge carrier due 11 a – – – –
to lower drift velocity needs a smaller
electric field to cancel force due to
magnetic field[1]
9 i   The electron has a negative charge
a  V
and is in an electric field.[1]
The electric field from the plates
is downwards and the electron is
i The opposite face to the one
negative, so there is a constant force
marked X[1]
upwards.[1]
ii Between X and the opposite face[1]
ii 
A (small) spot is formed on the
screen at the same point.[1]

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b  lectrons move until the magnetic force

E d i Electrons move faster.[1]
(Bev) is equal to the electric force  eVdH [1] Larger magnetic force so larger voltage
 
eVH (or electric field) is needed to repel
Bev = so VH = Bvd[1]
d them or obtain equilibrium[1]
I
I = nAve or v = [1] ii 
Hall voltage VH or value calculated is
nAe
very small with metal[1]
BdI BI
VH = Bvd = = [1] Semiconductor has smaller value of n
nAe nte
so larger Hall voltage VH[1]
I
c v=
i  e  lectrons are forced in opposite direction
E
nAe when strip is rotated through 180°[1]
=
0.04 VH is maximum when plane and B-field
8.5 × 1028 × 3.0 × 10 −5 × 9 × 10 −3 × 1.6 × 10 −19 are normal to each other or VH is zero/
 [1] minimum when plane and B-field are
= 1.1 × 10−5 m s−1[1] parallel to each other or Voltmeter
reading or VH depends on sine of angle
ii VH = between plane and B-field[1]
BI 0.60 × 0.04
= [1]
nte 8.5 × 1028 × 3.0 × 10 −5 × 1.6 × 10 −19
= 5.9 × 10−8 V[1]
I
iii v =
nAe
percentage uncertainty = 1.3 + 0.2 +
(2.5 + 3.0) = 7.0%[1]

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