GEOMETRIC

GEODESY
GE 107

Prepared by:

Engr. William Marie Honrado - Trivinio

INTRODUCTION TO GEODESY

 According to the Geodetic Glossary (NGS 2009),

geodesy can be defined as
“The science concerned with determining the
size and shape of the Earth” or “The science that
locates positions on the Earth and determines the
Earth’s gravity field.”

Perhaps surprisingly, geodesy plays a central role

in a wide variety of cutting-edge sciences, such as
geophysics, astronomy, and climatology.
Aristarchus of Samos (310-230 B.C.E.) – an
astronomer who worked out a geometric method
to determine ratios of distance between the Sun
and Earth with the distance between Moon and
the Earth.
GEODESY – the science of accurately measuring and
understanding three fundamental properties of the
Earth: its geometric shape, its orientation in space,
and its gravity field— as well as the changes of these
properties with time.

DIVISIONS OF GEODESY
1. Geometrical geodesy - concerned with describing
locations in terms of geometry.
2. Physical geodesy - concerned with determining the
Earth’s gravity field, which is necessary for
establishing heights.
3. Satellite geodesy - concerned with using orbiting
satellites to obtain data for geodetic purposes.
METHODS OF DETERMINING EARTH’S
SURFACE
1. Measurements of areas on the surface of the
earth combined with the determination of
astronomical position of points on the area.
2. Measurements of lengths in the network of
triangles covering a large area.
3. Measurement of the variation of force of gravity
in different parts of the earth’s surface.
GOALS OF GEODESY
1. To obtain a mathematical model that best
approximates the earth’s mean sea level
surface.
2. To describe the location of points on the earth’s
surface relative to the equator (latitude), to an
arbitrary meridian (longitude), & to mean sea
level (elevation).
3. To determine the earth’s external gravity field.
HISTORY OF GEODESY

PYTHAGORAS (582 BC) – declared the earth to be a

globe
ARISTOTLE (276-195 BC) – given credit for first
determining the earth’s size, admittedly, (spherical in
shape)
WILLEBRORD SNELLIUS – measured an arc over 80
m. long with a series of 33 triangles (earth’s radius
was too small by about 3.4%)
JEAN PICARD – measured an arc on the meridian
through Paris in 1669 – 70 & obtained a length for
the earth’s radius too large by only 0.7%
CASSINI BROTHERS – earth is not sphere but
elongated at the poles.
ISAAC NEWTON (1687) – published his law of
gravitation that the earth is flattened at the poles.
GEOMETRICAL GEODESY – concerned with the
size & of the earth’s mean sea level.
Geoid - the shape that the surface of the oceans
would take under the influence of Earth's
gravitation and rotation alone, in the absence of
other influences such as winds and tides.
- the Earth’s mean sea level.
Ellipsoid - a mathematical model which best
approximates the earth’s mean sea level surface.
Geoid Height - The separations of the geoid and
ellipsoid.
Figure: Geoid, ellipsoid, and topographic surface of the Earth, and
deflection of the vertical due to differences in mass.
COORDINATE SYSTEM

 A coordinate system (also called a spatial

reference system) is a means of assigning
coordinates to a location and establishing
relationships between sets of such coordinates. It
enables the interpretation of a set of coordinates as
a representation of a position in a real world space.
TYPES OF COORDINATE SYSTEMS
1. Cartesian Coordinates
2. Geodetic Coordinates
3. Projected Coordinates
4. Local Coordinates
Cartesian Coordinates - coordinates that measure the
position of a point from a defined origin along axes
that are perpendicular in the represented two-
dimensional or three-dimensional space.
Geodetic coordinates - (sometimes called geographic
coordinates) are angular coordinates (longitude and
latitude), closely related to spherical polar
coordinates, and are defined relative to a particular
Earth geodetic datum.
Projected coordinates - are planar Cartesian
coordinates that result from performing a
mathematical mapping from a point on the Earth's
surface to a plane.
Local coordinates - are Cartesian coordinates in a
non-Earth (non-georeferenced) coordinate system.
Local coordinate systems are often used for CAD
applications and local surveys.
REFERENCE ELLIPSOIDS
 Reference ellipsoids are usually defined by semi-
major (equatorial radius) and flattening (the
relationship between equatorial and polar radii).
 Other reference ellipsoid parameters such as
semi-minor axis (polar radius) and eccentricity
can computed from these terms.
 Reference Ellipsoid Parameters
GEOMETRIC MODELS OF THE EARTH
 Early ideas of the figure of the earth resulted in descriptions of the
earth as an oyster (The Babylonians before 3000 B.C.), a rectangular
box, a circular disk, a cylindrical column, a spherical ball, and a very
round pear (Columbus in the last years of his life).
 Flat earth models are still used for plane surveying, over distances
short enough so that earth curvature is insignificant (less than 10
kms).
 Spherical earth models represent the shape of the earth with a sphere
of a specified radius.
 Spherical earth models are often used for short range navigation (VOR-
DME) and for global distance approximations.
 Spherical models fail to model the actual shape of the earth.
 The slight flattening of the earth at the poles results in about a twenty
kilometer difference at the poles between an average spherical radius and
the measured polar radius of the earth.
 Ellipsoidal earth models are required for accurate range and bearing
calculations over long distances.
 Loran-C, and GPS navigation receivers use ellipsoidal earth models to
compute position and waypoint information.
 Ellipsoidal models define an ellipsoid with an equatorial radius and a polar
radius.
 The best of these models can represent the shape of the earth over the
smoothed, averaged sea-surface to within about one-hundred meters.
 Many reference ellipsoids are in use by different
nations and agencies.
 Selected Reference Ellipsoids
 A More Complete List of Reference Ellipsoids
REFERENCE SYSTEM AND FRAMES

Reference System – a set of prescriptions and

conventions together with the modeling required
to define at any time a triad of coordinate axes.

Reference Frame – it realizes the reference

system by means of coordinates of definite points
that are accessible directly by occupation or by
observation.
DEFINING ELLIPSOID

ELLIPSOID OF REVOLUTION
 a three dimensional shape obtained by
rotating an ellipse about it’s minor axis.
 It is uniquely defined by two parameters
1) Semi-major Axis (a)
2) Flattening (f)
GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTION OF
ELLIPSE

α
a
b
x2 = a2 – b2
x
a2 = x2 + b2

a
b x = a Sin β
b Sinβ
β z = b Sin β
a Sinβ
TWO DIMENSIONAL ELLIPSE
An ellipse is a two-dimensional closed
curve that satisfies the equation

Eq. 1

Flattening is defined as

Eq. 2

Eccentricity squared is

Eq. 3

Eccentricity squared is

Eq. 4
Additional geometrical relationships derived
from the definitions above include

Eq.5

Eq.6
x = ___a2 Cosφ___ Eq. 7
(1-e Sin2 φ)1/2
_____a _____ Radius of the Curvature in
N= Eq. 8
(1-e2Sin2 φ)1/2 Prime Vertical Section

General Formula
_b_
Tan ψ = b Sin β = a Tan β = (1-e ) Tan β
2 1/2 Eq. 9
a Cos β
_z_ = a(1-e2) Sin φ / (1-e2Sin2 φ)1/2
Tan ψ = x a Cos φ/(1-e2Sin2 φ)1/2
Eq. 10

Tan ψ = (1-e2)1/2Tan β = (1-e2)Tan φ Eq. 11

ELLIPSOIDAL COORDINATES

Meridian Section – cross section of the ellipsoid

containing both poles.
Prime Meridian – reference meridian – Greenwich
Meridian
Longitude – angular difference between meridian
section
Latitude – angular distance of north or south of the
equator
Normal – perpendicular to the ellipse tangent &
goes from a point of tangency to the 8pm axis.
LATITUDE - In geography, latitude (φ) is a
geographic coordinate that specifies the north-
south position of a point on the Earth's surface.
Latitude is an angle (defined below) which ranges
from 0° at the Equator to 90° (North or South) at
the poles. Lines of constant latitude, or parallels,
run east–west as circles parallel to the equator.
3 TYPES OF LATITUDE

1. Geodetic Latitude (φ) – the angle that a

normal makes with the equatorial plane.
2. Geocentric Latitude (ψ) – angle between the
equatorial plane and a line from the ellipse
center.
3. Parametric / Reduced Latitude (β) – an angle
between equatorial plane and radial line.
Radius of the Curvature in Meridian Section

M=
___a (1-e2)__
(1-e2Sin2 φ)3/2 Eq. 13

The x & y Coordinates

b
z
φ x = ___a2 Cosφ___
x (1-e Sin2 φ)1/2
a

z= _ a (1-e 2) Sin φ_
Eq. 14
(1-e Sin φ)
2 2 1/2
THREE DIMENSIONAL ELLIPSE
The earth is considered as a three
dimensional ellipsoid. Point position on the
ellipsoid surface is defined by 3-coordinates or by
latitude and longitude.

Normal Section – created by intersecting a plane

containing the normal at a point , & the ellipsoid
Vertical (standing axis) – perpendicular to the
geoid
Deflection of Vertical – difference in directions of
the normal and vertical
 The Normal Section Radius of Curvature at a
point on the ellipsoid in any azimuth is given by
the Euler’s Theorem

or _1_ = Cos α + Sin α

2
Rα = ______MN______
2
Eq. 15
MSin α + NCos α
2 2 Rα M N

Where:
Rα = radius of the curvature
M = radius of curvature in the meridian section
N = radius of curvature in the prime vertical
α = normal section azimuth
PRINCIPAL RADII OF THE CURVATURE

M – radius of curvature of meridian section

– smallest radius of curvature
N – radius of curvature of prime vertical section
– largest radius of curvature

** N & M are equal at the Poles because the prime

vertical of a given meridian is itself a meridian
section.
 Radius of the Parallel (RP)
RP = NCos φ
Gaussian Mean Radius (Rg)
_______a2b_________
Rg = MN = (aCos φ)2 + (bSin φ )2

Other useful equations for the radii of the earth

The area of an ellipse
A = πab
The volume of an ellipse of revolution
V = 4/3 πa2b
Properties:
N & M are equal at the poles because the prime
vertical of a given meridian is itself a meridian
section.

Length of Parallel (LP) – angular distance between

two 2 meridians
- A parallel at constant latitude on the
ellipsoid describe a small circle, as opposed to a great
circle, whose plane is parallel to the equation plane.
Where:
LP = partial length of parallel = λNCos φ
λ = difference in longitude between meridian
N = Normal
φ = geodetic latitude
ELLIPSOID SURFACE AREA

Q2
Q1
LP

λ1 λ2

Q2
λ1 – λ2 a2 (1-e2) ___Sin φ___ + _1_ ln 1-eSin φ
AREA = (1-e 2Sin2 φ) 2e 1+eSin φ Eq. 16
2
Q1

_1_ + _1_ ln 1 + e
Total Area = 2πa2 (1-e2) 1-e 2
2e Eq. 17
1-e
Length of Meridians Arc (Lm) - measurement of the
distance between two points with the same
longitude
Lm = a (1-e2)A φ = length of meridians
A = 1 + ¾ e2
CURVES ON THE SURFACE OF AN
ELLIPSOID

1. NORMAL SECTION
2. CURVE OF ALIGNMENT
3. GEODESIC CURVE
THE NORMAL SECTION AND THE
REVERSE NORMAL SECTION
 At each ellipsoidal point an ellipsoidal normal is
defined (which is orthogonal to the surface of the
ellipsoid). The intersection of those planes, which
contain the ellipsoidal normal, with the ellipsoidal
surface is called a normal section. At each point an
infinite number of normal sections exist.
 Normal sections are usually ellipses. When the point
is located on the Equator, then a circular normal
section can also be formed.
 When a certain normal section is defined between two
points on the ellipsoid (P1P2), then it must be noted
that it differs from the normal section between P2P1,
since the ellipsoidal normals have a skewness. The
latter section is called the reverse normal section.
 P2

io n
ct

n
se

tio
l

c
a

se
o rm

al
n
e 

rm
e rs

no
v
Re


P1
The normal section and the reverse normal section has
an angle :
1 s2 2
   ' ' 2 e cos2 1 sin 2
4 a

The maximal distance between the normal section and

the reverse normal section is:
1 s3 2
d 2
e cos2
1 sin 2
16 N1

Where N1 is the radius of the curvature in the prime vertical.

CURVE OF ALIGNMENT
It is usually used in the Anglo-Saxon
region. Let’s suppose that P1 and P2 are
two ellipsoidal points. Let’s connect the P1
and P2 and form a chord inside the ellipsoid.
By drawing the ellipsoidal normal from each
point of the P1P2 chord, the intersections of
these normals form the curve of alignment.
When in any point of the CoA an ellipsoidal normal is drawn,
and a vertical plane is created, which contains P1, then P2
lies in this vertical plane as well, since the plane contains two
points of the chord, thus it must contain all the points on the
chord.
Thus the CoA can be defined as the sum of those points,
in which the normal sections pointing to P1 and P2 has
the azimuth difference of 180°.
The CoA connects to the normal sections of P1 and P2
tangential -> this is the main advantage, since the angular
observations are equal to the angles between the curves of
alignment.
THE GEODESIC
 The general solution to define the sides of the ellipsoidal
triangles is application of the geodesic.

 To define the geodesic, first we need to brush up our

knowledge on the Frenet trihedron.

 For any points on any curve in the 3D space three mutually

orthogonal vectors can be created (the Frenet trihedron), which
are:

• the tangent;

• the principal normal (perpendicular

to the tangent, and is aligned with
the radius of curvature of the curve;

• the binormal (perpendicular to both

the tangent and the principal normal;
THE GEODESIC
The Frenet-frame contains three different planes
(formed by a pair of the three vectors):
• normal plane (the plane of the principal normal and the
binormal);
• osculating plane (the plane of the principal normal and the
tangent);
• rectifying plane (the plane of the tangent and the
binormal).
the princ ipal normal

tangent

al
o rm
b in
the
The Geodesic: is an ellipsoidal curve, where at each point of
the curve the principal normal of the curve conincides with
the normal of the ellipsoid.
 Or: In each point the osculating plane of the curve is a
normal plane of the ellipsoidal surface.
 Or: The rectifying plane of the curve coincides the
tangential plane of the ellipsoidal surface.
 Or: The geodesic is a specific curve among the curves on the
surface, that has the shortest path between the
two points. This is a sufficient criteria, but NOT
a required one (helix against the straight line
between two points on the same element of a A
cylinder).

 Example:
• straight lines on the surfaces are B
geodesics
(e.g. cylinder)
THE GEODESIC OR GEODETIC LINE
The concept of geodetic lines is used extensively
in theoretical and practical questions of geodesy.
Points on the earth’s surface are projected on the
surface of a terrestrial ellipsoid and are
connected by geodetic lines. There are several
special methods for transferring the distances
and angles on the earth’s surface to
corresponding arcs of geodetic lines and angles
between them onto the surface of the terrestrial
ellipsoid.
GEODETIC DIRECT AND GEODETIC INVERSE
The problems in geodesy are usually reduced to two
main cases: (1) the direct problem: given a starting
point, and an initial heading, find the position after
travelling a certain distance along the geodesic; and
(2) the inverse problem: given two points on the
ellipsoid, find the connecting geodesic and hence the
shortest distance between them.
Because the flattening of the Earth is small, the
geodesic distance between two points on the Earth is
well approximated by the great-circle distance using
the mean Earth radius—the relative error is less than
1%. However, the course of the geodesic can differ
dramatically from that of the great circle.
The two geodesic problems usually considered are:
• the direct geodesic problem or first geodesic problem,
given A, α1, and s12, determine B and α2;
• the inverse geodesic problem or second geodesic problem,
given A and B, determine s12, α1, and α2

Fig. 1. A
geodesic AB
on an ellipsoid
of revolution.
N is the north
pole and EFH
lie on the
equator
THE DIRECT AND INVERSE GEODETIC
PROBLEM ON THE ELLIPSOID

in meridian in prime vertical

__ a (1-e N(φ) = _____ a___ ___

2)___
general M(φ) =
(1-e Sin φ)
2 2 3/2 (1-e2Sin2 φ)1/2

At equator M(00) = a (1-e2) N(00) = a

At pole M(900) = __a___ N(900) = __a___

1-e2 1-e2
REDUCTION TO THE SURFACE OF THE
REFERENCE ELLIPSOID
Geodetic measurements (terrestrial directions,
distances, zenith distances) are on the surface of the
earth. Classical computations of geodetic positions are
made on the reference ellipsoid. Therefore,
measurements must be reduced from the surface of
the earth to the reference ellipsoid. When reducing
measured quantities, there are two sets of effects to
be considered- geometric effects and the effect of
variations in the earth’s gravity field.

It should be noted that the reductions developed herein

can be applied in an inverse fashion. That is,
computed geodetic ellipsoidal quantities (distance for
instance) can be reduced up to the earth’s surface.
 DEFLECTION OF THE VERTICAL
CORRECTION
The Laplace correction is used to relate a geodetic azimuth to an
astronomical azimuth. Such a correction is made at a point called
a Laplace Station, where the deflection-of-the-vertical components
are known. In a broader sense, the Laplace equations are used to
connect the physical world with a mathematical representation.

Deflection-of-the-Vertical
The difference between the ellipsoid normal and the vertical
plumb line is called deflection-of-the-vertical and is
realized in several ways. First, the ellipsoid surface is not
necessarily parallel with the level surface—the geoid. Given
the two surfaces are not coincident, except for where they
cross, there must be a physical distance between them. That
difference is called geoid height and is studied under the name
of geoid modeling. Second, the angular amount by which the
two surfaces are not parallel is given by the deflection-of-the-
vertical and expressed in terms of a north/ south component
and an east/west component. Any measurement or observation
made with an instrument having a level bubble on it (whether
a carpenter’s level, a surveyor’s total station, a differential
level, a telescope in an observatory, or an inertial measuring
unit) is physically referenced to the local vertical. On the other
hand, vectors obtained from GPS observations are referenced
to the ellipsoid normal.
REFERENCE ELLIPSOID
In geodesy, a reference ellipsoid is a
mathematically defined surface that approximates
the geoid, the truer figure of the Earth, or other
planetary body. Because of their relative
simplicity, reference ellipsoids are used as a
preferred surface on which geodetic network
computations are performed and point coordinates
such as latitude, longitude, and elevation are
defined.
MODERN REFERENCE ELLIPSOID

1. World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS 84)

2. Geodetic Reference System 1980 (GRS 80)
WORLD GEODETIC SYSTEM 1984
World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS 84) is an Earth-
centered, Earth-fixed terrestrial reference system
and geodetic datum. WGS 84 is based on a
consistent set of constants and model parameters
that describe the Earth's size, shape, and gravity
and geomagnetic fields. WGS 84 is the standard
U.S. Department of Defense definition of a global
reference system for geospatial information and
is the reference system for the Global Positioning
System (GPS). It is compatible with the
International Terrestrial Reference System
(ITRS).
WORLD GEODETIC SYSTEM 1984
 Origin:
Earth’s center of mass being defined for the
whole Earth including oceans and atmosphere
 Axes:
• Z-Axis = The direction of the IERS Reference Pole
(IRP). This direction corresponds to the direction of the
BIH Conventional Terrestrial Pole (CTP) (epoch
1984.0) with an uncertainty of 0.005′′o
• X-Axis = Intersection of the IERS Reference Meridian
(IRM) and the plane passing through the origin and
normal to the Z-axis. The IRM is coincident with the
BIH Zero Meridian (epoch 1984.0) with an uncertainty
of 0.005′′
• Y-Axis = Completes a right-handed, Earth Centered
Earth-Fixed (ECEF) orthogonal coordinate system
WORLD GEODETIC SYSTEM 1984
 Scale:
Its scale is that of the local Earth frame, in
the meaning of a relativistic theory of
gravitation. Aligns with ITRS
 Orientation:

Given by the Bureau International de

l’Heure (BIH) orientation of 1984.0
 Time Evolution:

Its time evolution in orientation will create

no residual global rotation with regards to the
crust
 Coordinate System:
Cartesian Coordinates (X, Y, Z). WGS 84 (G1674)
follows the criteria outlined in the International
Earth Rotation Service (IERS) Technical Note 21. The
WGS 84 Coordinate System origin also serves as the
geometric center of the WGS 84 Ellipsoid and the Z-
axis serves as the rotational axis of this ellipsoid of
revolution. WGS 84 geodetic coordinates are
generated by using its reference ellipsoid.
 Defining Parameters:
WGS 84 identifies four defining parameters.
These are the semi-major axis of the WGS 84
ellipsoid, the flattening factor of the Earth, the
nominal mean angular velocity of the Earth, and the
geocentric gravitational constant
 PARAMETER NOTATION VALUE

Semi-major Axis a 6378137.0 meters

Flattening Factor of the 1/f 298.257223563

Earth
Nominal Mean Angular ω 7292115 x 10-14
Velocity of the radians/second
Earth

Geocentric Gravitatio- GM** 3.986004418 x 1014

nal Constant (Mass meter3/second2
of Earth’s Atmosphere
Included)

**The value of GM for GPS users is 3.986004418 x 1014 meter3/second2

GEODETIC REFERENCE SYSTEM 1980
The Geodetic Reference System 1980 (GRS 80) posited a 6
378 137m semi-major axis and a 1/298.257 222 101
flattening. This system was adopted at the XVII General
Assembly of the International Union of Geodesy and
Geophysics (IUGG) in Canberra, Australia, 1979.
The GRS 80 reference system was originally used by the
World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS 84). The reference
ellipsoid of WGS 84 now differs slightly due to its later
refinements.
The numerous other systems which have been used by
diverse countries for their maps and charts are gradually
dropping out of use as more and more countries move to
global, geocentric reference systems using the GRS80
reference ellipsoid.
The reference ellipsoid is usually defined by its
semi-major axis (equatorial radius) and either its
semi-minor axis(polar radius) , aspect ratio or
flattening ,but GRS80 is an exception:
According to Resolution No. 7, the Geodetic
Reference System 1980 is based on the theory of
the equipotential ellipsoid. This theory has
already been the basis of the Geodetic Reference
System 1967; we shall summarize (partly quoting
literally) some principal facts from the relevant
publication.
 "RESOLUTION NO. 1
The International Association of Geodesy,
recognizing that the IUGG, at its XVII General
Assembly, has introduced a new Geodetic
Reference System 1980,
recommends that this system be used as an
official reference for geodetic work, and
encourages computations of the gravity field
both on the Earth's surface and in outer space
based on this system".
GRS80 requires four independent constants.
 Geometrical Constant
1. Semi-major axis = Equatorial Radius = a
 Physical Constants
2. Geocentric gravitational constant, including
mass of the atmosphere = GM
3. Dynamical form factor = J2
4. Angular velocity of rotation = ω
GRS 80 Defining Constants
 equatorial radius of the Earth:

a = 6378 137 m,
 geocentric gravitational constant of the Earth
(including the atmosphere):
GM = 3986 005 x 108 m3 s-2
 dynamical form factor of the Earth, excluding the
permanent tidal deformation:
J2 = 108 263 x 10-8
 angular velocity of the Earth:

ω = 7 292 115 x 10-11 s-1

GRS 80 Derived Geometric Constants
 semi-minor axis
b = 6 356 752.3141 m
 linear excentricity
E = 521 854.0097 m
 polar radius of curvature
c = 6 399 593.6259 m
 first excentricity (e)
e2 = 0.006 694 380 022 90
 secondexcentricity (e')
e'2 = 0.006 739 496 775 48
 flattening
f = 0.003 352 810 681 18
 GRS 80 Derived Geometric Constants
 reciprocal flattening
f-1 = 298.257 222 101
 meridian quadrant
Q = 10 001 965.7293 m
 mean radius R1=(2a+b)/3
R1 = 6 371 008.7714 m
 radius of sphere of same surface
R2 = 6 371 007.1810 m
 radius of sphere of same volume
R3 = 6 371 000.7900 m
ORIGIN AND ORIENTATION OF THE
REFERENCE SYSTEM
 IUGG Resolution no. 7, quoted at the begining, specifies
that the Geodetic Reference System 1980 be geocentric,
that is, that its origin be the center of mass of the earth.
Thus, the center of the eliipsoid coincides with the
geocenter.
 The orientation of the system is specified in the following
way. The rotation axis of the reference ellipsoid is to have
the direction of the Conventional International Origin for
the Polar Motion (CIO), and the zero meridian as defined
by the Bureau International de l'Heure (BIH) is used.
 To this definition there corresponds a rectangular
coordinate system XYZ whose origin is the geocenter,
whose Z-axis is the rotation axis of the reference ellipsoid,
defined by the direction of CIO, and whose X-axis passes
through the zero meridian according to the BIH.
DEFINING PARAMETERS FOR THE TWO ELLIP-
SOIDS:

SEMI-MAJOR AXIS INVERSE

FLATTENING
WGS 84 6378137 298.257223563

GRS 80 6378137 298.257222101

There is small difference between the flattening of the two

ellipsoids. Calculate how different are the minor semi-axis (the
North to South axis) of the two ellipsoids:
bWGS84 = 6356752.31425
bGRS80 = 6356752.31414

FACT: For all practical applications WGS84 ellipsoid and GRS80

ellipsoid are identical.
GEOID AND THE GRAVITY FIELD OF THE
EARTH
Geoid
 that equipotential surface of the Earth gravity field
that most closely approximates the mean sea surface.
 At every point the geoid surface is perpendicular to the
local plumb line. It is therefore a natural reference for
heights - measured along the plumb line. At the same
time, the geoid is the most graphical representation of
the Earth gravity field.
A significant difference exists between this
mathematical model and the real object. However, even
the most mathematically sophisticated geoid can
only approximate the real shape of the earth.
GEOID MODELS
 Geoid 90,93,96,99,2000,2003, 2006, 2009 others
to follow
 models represent an even more precise
“mapping” of the equipotential surface of the
earth and because the surface of the earth is
not static this “mapping” is a never ending task
Target Heights

In geodesy, point or terrain heights are "above sea level",

an irregular, physically defined surface. Therefore a height
should ideally not be referred to as a coordinate. It is more
like a physical quantity, and though it can be tempting to
treat height as the vertical coordinate , in addition to the
horizontal coordinates and , and though this actually is a
good approximation of physical reality in small areas, it
quickly becomes invalid for regional considerations.

Heights come in the following variants:

• Orthometric heights
• Normal heights
• Geopotential heights
Each has its advantages and disadvantages. Both
orthometric and normal heights are heights in metres
above sea level, whereas geopotential numbers are
measures of potential energy (unit: m² s−2) and not metric.
Orthometric and normal heights differ in the precise way
in which mean sea level is conceptually continued under
the continental masses. The reference surface for
orthometric heights is the geoid, an equipotential surface
approximating mean sea level.

None of these heights is in any way related to geodetic or

ellipsoidial heights, which express the height of a point
above the reference ellipsoid. Satellite positioning
receivers typically provide ellipsoidal heights, unless they
are fitted with special conversion software based on a
model of the geoid.
Fig. Target Height Correction
Target Height Correction
The azimuth of the normal section is computed from
the 3-D azimuth by adding the target height correction, as
shown in Figure.
DATUM TRANSFORMATION
Datum
 In surveying and geodesy, a datum is a
reference point or surface against which position
measurements are made, and an associated model
of the shape of the earth for computing positions.

Geodetic Datum
 Define as the reference systems that describe
the size and shape of the earth, and the origin and
orientation of the coordinate systems used to map
the earth.
TYPES OF DATUM

1) Horizontal datums are used for describing a

point on the earth's surface, in latitude and
longitude or another coordinate system.

2) Vertical datums are used to measure elevations

or underwater depths.

3) Complete Datum are used to describe both

vertical and horizontal systems.
Horizontal datum
 The horizontal datum is the model used to
measure positions on the earth. A specific point
on the earth can have substantially different
coordinates, depending on the datum used to
make the measurement. There are hundreds of
locally-developed horizontal datums around the
world, usually referenced to some convenient
local reference point.
Ex. North American Datum of 1927 (NAD27) and
the European Datum 1950 (ED50)
Vertical datum
 A vertical datum is used for measuring the
elevations of points on the sea level. Vertical
datums are either: tidal, based on sea level;
gravimetric, based on a geoid; or geodetic, based
on the same ellipsoid models of the earth used
for computing horizontal datums.
Ex: National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929
(NGVD29) and the North American Vertical
Datum of 1988 (NAVD88)
DATUMS IN USE
 North American Datum of 1983 is used for United
States marine, aviation, and topographic maps
(based in the past on NAD 1927)
 The Global Positioning System is based on the
World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS-84)

 Parameters for simple XYZ conversion between

many datums and WGS-84 are published by the
Defense mapping Agency
GEODETIC COORDINATES
 In geodetic coordinates the Earth's surface is
approximated by an ellipsoid and locations near
the surface are described in terms of latitude (φ),
longitude (λ) and height (h).
DATUM CONVERSIONS
 Complete datum conversion is based on seven parameter
transformations that include three translation parameters,
three rotation parameters and a scale parameter. These
conversions are only accurate in the region for which the
parameters were computed. These can result in local
accuracies of less than one meter.
A regional geodetic can be defined with
parameters/conditions
• Two elements to define the geometrical ellipsoid
• Latitude and longitude of the initial point.
• A reference azimuth for orientation.
• The geoid height at the initial point, usually assumed to
be 0.0.
• The assumption that the ellipsoid minor axis is parallel
to earth's spin axis.
DATUM CONVERSIONS
 The process of converting the coordinates of a point
from one datum system to another. Datum conversion
may frequently be accompanied by a change of grid
projection.

 Geodetic to/from ECEF coordinates

 From ECEF to geodetic
 Geodetic to/from ENU coordinates
 From ECEF to ENU
 From ENU to ECEF
PHILIPPINES REFERENCE SYSTEM 1992
 a geodetic datum first defined in 1992 and is suitable
for use in Philippines - onshore and offshore..
 References: the Clarke 1866 ellipsoid and the
Greenwich prime meridian.
 Origin is Fundamental point: Balanacan. Latitude:
13°33'41.000"N, longitude: 121°52'03.000"E (of
Greenwich), geoid-ellipsoid separation 0.34m.
 A geodetic datum for Geodetic survey, cadastre,
topographic mapping, engineering survey. It was
defined by information from National Mapping and
Resource Information Authority, Coast and Geodetic
Survey Department. Replaces Luzon 1911 datum (code
6253)
TRANSFORMATION FORMULAE FROM
WGS84 TO PRS92 DATUM
The transformation parameters shall be:
• Translation: X = 127.62196 meters
Y = 67.24478 meters
Z = 47.04305 meters

• Rotation: Rot X = -3.06762 seconds

Rot Y = +4.90291 seconds
Rot Z = +1.57790 seconds

• Scale Parameters = 1.06002

The sign shall be reversed when transforming from
Luzon Datum to World Geodetic System 1984
(WGS84). Transformation formula from WGS84
to PRS92 and vice-versa shall be as follows:
X2 X 1 Rz -Ry X1
Y2 = Y + (1 + Sc 10-6) -Rz 1 Rx Y1
Z2 Z Ry -Rx 1 Z1
Where:
X2,Y2,Z2 are the transformed Cartesian Coordinates
X,Y,Z are the shifts for the change in origin
Rx, Ry, Rz are the rotation of each axis
Sc is the scale change in part per million
X1,Y1,Z1 are the coordinates to be transformed
PHILIPPINES PLANE COORDINATE
SYSTEM (PPCS)
 Also known as the Philippine Transverse Mercator
(PTM) Grid, are transformed from geographic
coordinates to cartesian coordinates on the Luzon 1911
Datum, determined trough astronomical observations.
PPCS-PTM was adopted as the reference system in the
Philippines pursuant to Lands Circular No. 64, dated
June 30, 1965 with the following characteristics:
 Spheroid: Clarke 1866
 Projection: Traverse Mercator, in Zones of two
degrees net width
 Point of Origin: Intersection of the equator and the
Central Meridian of each zone, with
Northing of 0 meter and an Easting of
500,000 meters
 Scale Factor at the Central Meridian: 0.99995
ZONIFICATION
Zone No. Central Extent of Zone
Meridian
I 1170 116000’ to 118030’

II 1190 117030’ to 120030’

III 1210 119030’ to 122030’

IV 1230 121030’ to 124030’

V 1250 123030’ to 127000’

FORMULA FOR THE CONVERSION FROM
GEOGRAPHIC COORDINATE AND VICE-VERSA
 From Geographic to Grid Coordinates:
N = (I) + (II)p2 + (III)p4 Northing in Meters
E= (IV)P + (V)P3 + (VI)P5 + 500,000 Easting in Meters
p = .0001 (λ”) difference in longitude

 From Grid to Geographic Position:

φ = φ’ – (VII)q2 + (VIII)q4 Latitude
λ = (IX)q – (X)q3 + λCM Longitude
q = 0.000001(E – 500,000) difference in Easting