Comminution (Size reduction)

Fundamentals
Prof. A. K. Majumder
Department of Mining Engineering
Size Reduction – Why?
Size reduction (comminution) in its earliest stages is carried out in order to make the
freshly excavated material easier to handle by scrapers, conveyors, and ore carriers, and
in the case of quarry products to produce material of controlled particle size.

Explosives are used in mining to remove ores from their natural beds, and blasting can
be regarded as the first stage in comminution
 Mineral Processing Industry
Because most minerals are finely disseminated and intimately associated with the
gangue, they must be initially "unlocked" or "liberated" before separation can be
undertaken.

This is achieved by comminution in which the particle size of the ore is progressively
reduced until the clean particles of mineral can be separated by such methods as are
available.
The Size Reduction Process
Minerals being crystals have a tendency to break into endless numbers of sizes and
shapes every time they are introduced to energy

The difficulty in size reduction lays in the art of limiting the number of over and under
sizes produced during the reduction

If this is not controlled, the mineral will follow its natural crystal behaviour, normally
ending up in over representation of fines
Note
So, the trick when producing quality products from rock or minerals (fillers
excepted) is to keep the size reduction curves as steep as possible.

Normally that is what we get paid for

The shorter or more narrower the fraction - the more value!

To achieve that goal we need to select the correct equipment out of the repertoire for
size reduction in a proper way.

They are all different when it comes to reduction technique, reduction ratio, feed size
etc. and have to be combined in the optimum way to reach or come close to the
requested size interval for the end product.
Mechanism of size reduction
Impact — particle concussion by a single rigid force (hammer)

Compression — particle disintegration by two rigid forces (nutcracker)

Shear — produced when the particle is compressed between the edges of two hard
surfaces moving tangentially

Attrition — arising from particles scraping against one another or against a rigid
surface (a file)
Type of impact?

Gravity impact

In gravity impact ,the free falling material is momentarily stopped by the stationary
object.

Example – coal dropped onto a hard steel surface

Dynamic impact

Most often used when it is necessary to separate two material which have
relatively different friability

The more friable material is broken first

Less friable material remains without broken

Example – material dropping in front of a moving hammer

When compression forces needed?

If material is hard

If material is abrasive

If the material is not sticky

Where the finished product is to be relatively coarse in size
Factors affecting size reduction
Hardness
It is a surface property of the material.
It is frequently confused with a property named strength.

It is possible for a material to be very hard, but if it is brittle also then size reduction
may present no special problems.
An arbitrary scale of hardness has been devised known as Mohs Scale;

Mohs Scale = 1 is for graphite

Mohs Scale < 3 is for soft material
Mohs Scale > 7 is for hard material
Mohs Scale = 10 is for diamond

The harder the material, the more difficult it is to reduce in size

Material structure
Some substances are homogeneous in character

Mineral substances may have lines of weakness along which the materials split to
form flake-like particles
Abrasiveness

Abrasiveness is a property of hard materials (particularly those of mineral origin)

It may limit the type of machinery that can be used

During the grinding of some very abrasive substances the final powder may be
contaminated with more than 0.1 percent of metal worn from the grinding mill
Moisture content

It is found that materials do not flow well if they contain between about 5 and 50
per cent of moisture.

Under these conditions the material tends to cake together in the form of balls.

In general, grinding can be carried out satisfactorily outside these limits.

Crushing strength

The power required for crushing is almost directly proportional to the crushing
strength of the material.

Friability
The friability of the material is its tendency to fracture during normal handling.

In general, a crystalline material will break along well-defined planes and the power
required for crushing will increase as the particle size is reduced.
Stickiness
A sticky material will tend to clog the grinding equipment and it should therefore be
ground in a plant that can be cleaned easily.

Soapiness
In general, this is a measure of the coefficient of friction of the surface of the
material.

If the coefficient of friction is low, the crushing may be more difficult.

Explosive

Such materials must be ground wet or in the presence of an inert atmosphere.

Materials yielding dusts that are harmful to the health

Such material must be ground under conditions where the dust is not allowed to
escape.
Design of Size Reduction Processes
The process of size reduction is normally designed to take place in single stage open
circuit, single stage closed circuit or multiple stage open or closed circuit In some
cases a combination of these methods are adopted.

In a single stage, single pass, open circuit size reduction operation, the product
consists of a range of particle sizes which seldom achieves the desired degree of
liberation.

Hence second or even third stages of size reduction are often necessary to
progressively reduce the remaining particle size to liberate mineral particles to an
acceptable degree.
In closed circuit, the product from the stage of size reduction is separated into
relatively fine and coarse fractions.

The coarser fraction is then collected and re-crushed in the same unit as seen in the
figure.

In so doing the load on the equipment for size reduction is increased and a circulating
load is established, but the total number of units required for obtaining the same
degree of size reduction is less.
Open Circuit Crushing Closed Circuit Crushing
The two most commonly used devices for size reduction are the crushers and
grinding mills.

The crushers are normally fed with rocks, up to about 1 meter in size, while the
grinders are usually fed with rocks crushed down to a maximum size of about 50
mm.

Larger rocks produced at the mines are initially separated by grizzlies, broken by
hammers and then fed to the crushers.
In designing a plant for size reduction the two main features of
interest are:

1. The power required for size reduction

2. The choice of crushers and grinders

Energy for Size Reduction - Work Index

It had been generally observed that in the process of size reduction, as the size of
the particles diminishes the surface area of the particles increases.

So a measure of size or surface area before and after size reduction would indicate
the extent of energy expended in the comminution process.
Hence, if E was the energy used for a desired size reduction, which resulted in a
change in surface area S, it has been found that

Where k is a constant and a function of the crushing strength of the rock.

Different researchers have determined the value of the exponent n, as:

n = -2 (Rittinger)
n = -1 (Kick)
n = -1.5 (Bond)
It has been found that Rittinger's expression,

n = - 2 , is more applicable for coarse size reduction while that of Kick, n = - 1, is

more appropriate for finer size reductions in the region where large surface areas
of particles are exposed as in the case of grinding operations.

Bond's intermediate value of 1.5 covers almost the entire range of particles.
Substituting n = - 1.5 in the above equation and integrating between feed particle
size, F, and product particle size, P, yields

𝟏 𝟏
𝑬 = 𝟐𝒌[ − ]
𝑷 𝑭

where k is a constant and a function of ore characteristics

The final form of Bond's equation for size reduction of a mass of feed, MF , in closed circuit grinding is
now written as:

𝑭𝟖𝟎 = 80% passing size of the feed in microns

𝑷𝟖𝟎 = 80% passing size of the circuit product, in microns

𝑾𝑰 = A constant for the ore

𝑾𝑰 is known as Bond work index and represents the work required to reduce the ore from
an infinite size to 100 μm.
By definition the specific grinding energy is the energy required per unit mass of the rock.

The specific grinding energy of a particular mineral is written as:

𝟏 𝟏
𝑬𝑮 = 𝟏𝟎𝑾𝑰[ − ] kWh/t
𝑷𝟖𝟎 𝑭𝟖𝟎
Summary

Rittinger’s theory:- (n= -2.0)

Energy α new surface area formed

Bond’s theory:- (n= -1.5)

Energy used in crack propagation α Crack length produced

Kick’s theory:- (n= -1.0)

Energy α Ratio of change in size
Energy utilization
One of the first important investigations into the distribution of the energy fed into a crusher was
carried out by OWENS who concluded that energy was utilized as follows:

In producing elastic deformation of the particles before fracture occurs.

In producing inelastic deformation which results in size reduction.
In causing elastic distortion of the equipment.
In friction between particles, and between particles and the machine
In noise, heat and vibration in the plant, and
In friction losses in the plant itself

Owens estimated that only about 10 per cent of the total power is usefully employed.
Estimation of Work Index for crushers and grinding mills

The standard laboratory procedures for estimating work index can be divided into two
categories.

The first category involves tests on individual particles of rock and the second
category deals with bulk rock material.
A number of tests are required to get an idea of the rock strength

The standard laboratory procedures adopted in industry are:

1. Bond Pendulum test

2. Narayanan and Whitens rebound pendulum test
3. JKMRC drop test
4. Bond ball mill grinding test
5. Bond rod mill grinding test
Bond Work Indices for some Common Minerals

Material Work Index Material Work Index

Barite 4.73 Fluorspar 8.91
Bauxite 8.78 Granite 15.13
Coal 13.00 Graphite 43.56
Dolomite 11.27 Limestone 12.74
Emery 56.70 Quartzite 9.58
Ferro silicon 10.01 Quartz 13.57
What exactly is 'Work Index' and how can I make use of it?

'Work Index' is to measuring energy in size reduction what the 'meter' is to

measuring distance.

It is a standard measure that brings all size reduction circuits onto a common basis
for comparison.
It starts with Bond's Work Index equation:

W is the work (energy) input per ton.

WI is the work index

F80 is the 80% passing size of the circuit feed, and
P80 is the 80% passing size of the circuit product, in microns
For example, a grinding circuit is processing 450 t/h (of dry feed) with a mill drawing
3,150 kW (at the pinion). The circuit feed is 80% passing 2,500 µm, and the circuit
product is 80% passing 212 µm.

The Work Input, W = 3150/450 = 7.0 kWh/t

Then WIo , the "Operating Work Index" of this circuit, is calculated as follows:

10 10
7.0𝑘𝑊ℎ/𝑡 = 𝑊𝐼𝑜( − )
212 2500

𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑊𝐼𝑜 = 14.4 𝑘𝑊ℎ/𝑡

We can now estimate the needed W if, for example, we accept a grind P80 of 250
µm.

10 10
𝑊 = 14.4 − = 6.2 𝑘𝑊ℎ/𝑡
250 2500

So with the same mill power we can increase the tonnage to

3150𝑘𝑊 𝑡
= 508
6.2𝑘𝑊ℎ/𝑡 ℎ
Estimating the new production rate by changing one of the variables is just one of
the ways you can use this equation.

Note that if we make the feed size very large, the term 10/√F80 would approach a
value of zero.

If at the same time we make the P80 equal to 100 um, the term 10/√P80 would
equal one, and W, the Work Input would equal the Work Index.

So the Work Index of this circuit is the equivalent amount of energy (W) it would
use to reduce this ore from a very large size to a P80 of 100 µm.
For any circuit, whether a crushing circuit, a rod mill, or a closed ball mill circuit,
the Work Index always means the equivalent amount of energy to reduce one ton of
the ore from a very large size to 100 µm.

Just as the meter is used to measure and compare distances, the 'Work Index' thus
measures and compares energy usage of size reduction processes.
Calculate the 'Work Index Efficiency' of your grinding circuit

Work Index Efficiency is defined as the ratio between the test work index (WIt)
and the operating work index (WIo).

For any given circuit, when Wlo < Wlt, the circuit is more efficient than that
average, and when Wlo > Wlt, less efficient.
For the previous case, Operating Work Index was calculated to be 14.4 kWh/t.

The Bond Ball Mill Test Work Index of the ore was measured to be 15.8 kWh/t.

Then,
Work Index Efficiency equals 15.8 / 14.4 = 1.10, or 110%.

This circuit is, therefore, 10% more efficient than the average circuit upon which
the Bond design method is based.
By calculating your circuit's Work Index Efficiency, you can compare it to the Bond
average of 100%.

Thanks to the amazing standardization of size reduction that the concept of "Work
Index" provides, you can also compare it to the efficiency of other circuits, both
similar and dissimilar.

And you can monitor efficiency increases as you work through a grinding circuit
efficiency improvement program.
Reference

1. F.C. Bond, "Crushing and Grinding Calculations", British Chemical Engineering, June, 1961, pp.378-385.

2. Metcom Tech Grinding Bulletin