Number Systems MODULE - 1

Algebra

1 Notes

NUMBER SYSTEMS

From time immemorial human beings have been trying to have a count of their
belongings- goods, ornaments, jewels, animals, trees, sheeps/goats, etc. by using various
techniques
- putting scratches on the ground/stones
- by storing stones - one for each commodity kept/taken out.
This was the way of having a count of their belongings without having any knowledge of
counting.
One of the greatest inventions in the history of civilization is the creation of numbers. You
can imagine the confusion when there were no answers to questions of the type “How
many?”, “How much?” and the like in the absence of the knowledge of numbers. The
invention of number system including zero and the rules for combining them helped people
to reply questions of the type:
(i) How many apples are there in the basket?
(ii) How many speakers have been invited for addressing the meeting?
(iii) What is the number of toys on the table?
(iv) How many bags of wheat have been the yield from the field?
The answers to all these situations and many more involve the knowledge of numbers and
operations on them. This points out to the need of study of number system and its extensions
in the curriculum. In this lesson, we will present a brief review of natural numbers, whole
numbers and integers. We shall then introduce you about rational and irrational numbers in
detail. We shall end the lesson after discussing about real numbers.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to
• illustrate the extension of system of numbers from natural numbers to real
(rationals and irrational) numbers

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• identify different types of numbers;

• express an integer as a rational number;
• express a rational number as a terminating or non-terminating repeating decimal,
Notes
and vice-versa;
• find rational numbers between any two rationals;
• represent a rational number on the number line;
• cites examples of irrational numbers;

• represent 2, 3, 5 on the number line;

• find irrational numbers betwen any two given numbers;

• round off rational and irrational numbers to a given number of decimal places;
• perform the four fundamental operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division on real numbers.

1.1 EXPECTED BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE

Basic knowledge about counting numbers and their use in day-to-day life.

1.2 RECALL OF NATURAL NUMBERS, WHOLE NUMBERS

AND INTEGERS
1.2.1 Natural Numbers

Recall that the counting numbers 1, 2, 3, ... constitute the system of natural numbers.
These are the numbers which we use in our day-to-day life.
Recall that there is no greatest natural number, for if 1 is added to any natural number, we
get the next higher natural number, called its successor.
We have also studied about four-fundamental operations on natural numbers. For, example,
4 + 2 = 6, again a natural number;
6 + 21 = 27, again a natural number;
22 – 6 = 16, again a natural number, but
2 – 6 is not defined in natural numbers.
Similarly, 4 × 3 = 12, again a natural number
12 × 3 = 36, again a natural number

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12 6
= 6 is a natural number but is not defined in natural numbers. Thus, we can say that
2 4

i) a) addition and multiplication of natural numbers again yield a natural number but
Notes
b) subtraction and division of two natural numbers may or may not yield a natural
number
ii) The natural numbers can be represented on a number line as shown below.

• • • • • • • • •
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ...........

iii) Two natural numbers can be added and multiplied in any order and the result obtained
is always same. This does not hold for subtraction and division of natural numbers.
1.2.2 Whole Numbers

(i) When a natural number is subtracted from itself we can not say what is the left out
number. To remove this difficulty, the natural numbers were extended by the number
zero (0), to get what is called the system of whole numbers
Thus, the whole numbers are
0, 1, 2, 3, ...........
Again, like before, there is no greatest whole number.
(ii) The number 0 has the following properties:
a+0=a=0+a
a – 0 = a but (0 – a) is not defined in whole numbers
a×0=0=0×a
Division by zero (0) is not defined.
(iii) Four fundamental operations can be performed on whole numbers also as in the case
of natural numbers (with restrictions for subtraction and division).
(iv) Whole numbers can also be represented on the number line as follows:
• • • • • • • • • •
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ...........
1.2.3 Integers

While dealing with natural numbers and whole numbers we found that it is not always
possible to subtract a number from another.

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For example, (2 – 3), (3 – 7), (9 – 20) etc. are all not possible in the system of natural
numbers and whole numbers. Thus, it needed another extension of numbers which allow
such subtractions.
Thus, we extend whole numbers by such numbers as –1 (called negative 1), – 2 (negative
Notes
2) and so on such that
1 + (–1) = 0, 2 + (–2) = 0, 3 + (–3) = 0..., 99 + (– 99) = 0, ...
Thus, we have extended the whole numbers to another system of numbers, called integers.
The integers therefore are
..., – 7, – 6, – 5, – 4, – 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, ...
1.2.4 Representing Integers on the Number Line

We extend the number line used for representing whole numbers to the left of zero and
mark points – 1, – 2, – 3, – 4, ... such that 1 and – 1, 2 and – 2, 3 and – 3 are equidistant
from zero and are in opposite directions of zero. Thus, we have the integer number line as
follows:
• • • • • • • • •
.......... –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4.......
We can now easily represent integers on the number line. For example, let us represent
– 5, 7, – 2, – 3, 4 on the number line. In the figure, the points A, B, C, D and E respectively
represent – 5, 7, – 2, – 3 and 4.

A D C E B
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
–7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
We note here that if an integer a > b, then ‘a’ will always be to the right of ‘b’, otherwise
vise-versa.
For example, in the above figure 7 > 4, therefore B lies to the right of E. Similarly,
– 2 > – 5, therefore C (– 2) lies to the right of A (–5).
Conversely, as 4 < 7, therefore 4 lies to the left of 7 which is shown in the figure as E is to
the left of B
∴ For finding the greater (or smaller) of the two integers a and b, we follow the following
rule:
i) a > b, if a is to the right of b
ii) a < b, if a is to the left of b
Example 1.1: Identify natural numbers, whole numbers and integers from the following:-
15, 22, – 6, 7, – 13, 0, 12, – 12, 13, – 31
Solution: Natural numbers are: 7, 12, 13, 15 and 22
whole numbers are: 0, 7, 12, 13, 15 and 22
Integers are: – 31, – 13, – 12, – 6, 0, 7, 12, 13, 15 and 22

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Example 1.2: From the following, identify those which are (i) not natural numbers (ii) not
whole numbers
– 17, 15, 23, – 6, – 4, 0, 16, 18, 22, 31
Solution: i) – 17, – 6, – 4 and 0 are not natural numbers Notes
ii) – 17, – 6, – 4 are not whole numbers
Note: From the above examples, we can say that
i) all natural numbers are whole numbers and integers also but the vice-versa is
not true
ii) all whole numbers are integers also
You have studied four fundamental operations on integers in earlier classes.
Without repeating them here, we will take some examples and illustrate them
here
Example 1.3: Simplify the following and state whether the result is an integer or not
12 × 4, 7 ÷ 3, 18 ÷ 3, 36 ÷ 7, 14 × 2, 18 ÷ 36, 13 × (–3)
Solution: 12 × 4 = 48; it is an integer
7
7÷3= ; It is not an integer
3
18 ÷ 3 = 6; It is an integer
36
36 ÷ 7 = ; It is not an integer.
7
14 × 2 = 28, It is an integer
18
18 ÷ 36 = ; It is not an integer
36
13 × (–3) = – 39; It is an integer
Example 1.4: Using number line, add the following integers:
(i) 9 + (– 5) (ii) (– 3) + (– 7)
Solution: B 5
9
(i) A
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
–7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

A represents 9 on the number line. Going 5 units to the left of A, we reach the point
B, which represents 4.
∴ 9 + (–5) = 4

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(ii) B 7 A –3
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
– 10 –9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Starting from zero (0) and going three units to the left of zero, we reach the point
Notes A, which represents – 3. From A going 7 units to the left of A, we reach the point
B which represents – 10.
∴ (–3) + (–7) = – 10

1.3 RATIONAL NUMBERS

Consider the situation, when an integer a is divided by another non-zero integer b. The
following cases arise:
(i) When ‘a’ is a multiple of ‘b’

a
Suppose a = mb, where m is a natural number or integer, then =m
b
(ii) When a is not a multiple of b

a
In this case is not an integer, and hence is a new type of number. Such a number is
b
called a rational number.

p
Thus, a number which can be put in the form q , where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0, is
called a rational number

2 5 6 11
Thus, − , , , are all rational numbers.
3 −8 2 7

1.3.1 Positive and Negative Rational Numbers

p
(i) A rational number q is said to be a positive rational number if p and q are both
positive or both negative integers

3 5 − 3 − 8 − 12
Thus , , , , are all positive rationals.
4 6 − 2 − 6 − 57

p
(ii) If the integes p and q are of different signs, then q is said to be a negaive rational
number.

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− 7 6 − 12 16
Thus, , , , are all negaive rationals.
2 −5 4 −3

1.3.2 Standard form of a Rational Number

Notes
We know that numbers of the form

−p p −p p
, , and
q −q −q q

are all rational numbers, where p and q are positive integers

We can see that

−p ⎛ p ⎞ − p − (− p ) p p (− p ) = − p ,
= −⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ , = = , =
q ⎝ q ⎠ − q − (− q ) q − q − (− q ) q

In each of the above cases, we have made the denominator q as positive.

p
A rational number , where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0, in which q is positive (or
q
made positive) and p and q are co-prime (i.e. when they do not have a common factor
other than 1 and –1) is said to be in standard form.

2 −2 −5 −3
Thus the standard form of the rational number is . Similarly, and are
−3 3 6 5
rational numbers in standard form.
Note: “A rational number in standard form is also referred to as “a rational number in its
lowest form”. In this lesson, we will be using these two terms interchangably.

18 2
For example, rational number can be written as in the standard form (or the lowest
27 3
form) .

25 −5
Similarly, , in standard form (or in lowest form) can be written as (cancelling out
− 35 7
5 from both numerator and denominator).

Some Important Results

(i) Every natural number is a rational number but the vice-versa is not always true.
(ii) Every whole number and integer is a rational number but vice-versa is not always true.

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Example 1.5: Which of the following are rational numbers and which are not?

5 15 18 7
− 2, ,−17, , ,−
3 7 5 6
Notes
Solution:

−2 p
(i) –2 can be written as , which is of the form q , q ≠ 0. Therefore, –2 is a rational
1
number.

5 p
(ii) is a rational number, as it is of the form q , q ≠ 0
3

− 17
(iii) –17 is also a rational number as it is of the form
1

15 18 −7
(iv) Similarly, , and are all rational numbers according to the same argument
7 5 6
Example 1.6: Write the following rational numbers in their lowest terms:

− 24 12 − 21
(i) (ii) (iii)
192 168 49
Solution:

− 24 − 3× 8 −1
(i) = =
192 3× 8× 8 8

1 − 24
− is the lowest form of the rational number
8 192

12 12 1
(ii) = =
168 12 × 14 14

1 12
∴ is the lowest form of the rational number
14 168

− 21 − 3× 7 − 3
(iii) = =
49 7×7 7

−3 − 21
∴ is the lowest form of the rational number
7 49

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1.4 EQUIVALENT FORMS OF A RATIONAL NUMBER

A rational number can be written in an equivalent form by multiplying/dividing the numerator
and denominator of the given rational number by the same number.
Notes
For example

2 2× 2 4 2 2× 4 8 2 × 8 16
= = , = = , =
3 3× 2 6 3 3 × 4 12 3 × 8 24

4 8 16 2
∴ , , etc. are equivalent forms of the rational number
6 12 24 3

Similarly

3 6 21 27
= = = = ...
8 16 56 72

4 8 12 28
and = = = = ...
7 14 21 49

3 4
are equivalent forms of and respectively.
8 7

Example 1.7: Write five equivalent forms of the following rational numbers:

3 −5
(i) (ii)
17 9

Solution:

3 3× 2 6 3 3 × 4 12 3 × (− 3) −9
= = , = = , =
17 17 × 2 34 17 17 × 4 68 17 × (− 3) − 51
(i)

3× 8 24 3 7 21
= , × =
17 × 8 136 17 7 119

3
∴ Five equivalent forms of are
17

6 12 − 9 24 21
, , , ,
34 68 − 51 136 119

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−5
(ii) As in part (i), five equivalent forms of are
9

Notes − 10 − 15 − 20 − 60 − 35
, , , ,
18 27 36 108 63

1.5 RATIONAL NUMBERS ON THE NUMBER LINE

1
We know how to represent integers on the number line. Let us try to represent on the
2
1
number line. The rational number is positive and will be represented to the right of zero.
2
1 1
As 0 < <1, lies between 0 and 1. Divide the distance OA in two equal parts. This
2 2
1
can be done by bisecting OA at P. Let P represent . Similarly R, the mid-point of OA’,
2
1
represents the rational number − .
2

A’ R O P A
–2 –1 0 1 1 2 3
2

4
Similarly, can be represented on the number line as below:
3
C’ B’ A’ O A P B C D

–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4

4/3
4 4
As 1 < < 2, therefore lies between 1 and 2. Divide the distance AB in three equal
3 3
parts. Let one of this part be AP

4 1
Now = 1 + = OA + AP = OP
3 3

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4
The point P represents on the number line.
3

1.6 COMPARISON OF RATIONAL NUMBERS Notes

In order to compare two rational numbers, we follow any of the following methods:

(i) If two rational numbers, to be compared, have the same denominator, compare their
numerators. The number having the greater numerator is the greater rational number.

5 9
Thus for the two rational numbers and , with the same positive denominator
17 17

9 5
17, > as 9 > 5
17 17
9 5
∴ >
17 17

(ii) If two rational numbers are having different denominators, make their denominators
equal by taking their equivalent form and then compare the numerators of the resulting
rational numbers. The number having a greater numerator is greater rational number.

3 6
For example, to compare two rational numbers and , we first make their
7 11
denominators same in the following manner:
3 × 11 33 9 × 7 42
= and =
7 × 11 77 11× 7 77

42 33 6 3
As 42 > 33, > or >
77 77 11 7
(iii) By plotting two given rational numbers on the number line we see that the rational
number to the right of the other rational number is greater.

2 3
For example, take and , we plot these numbers on the number line as below:
3 4

2
A (3) B
–2 –1 0 (3) 1 2 3 4
4

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2 3 2 3
0< < 1 and 0 < < 1. It means and both lie between 0 and 1. By the method
3 4 3 4
2 3
Notes of dividing a line into equal number of parts, A represents and B represents
3 4

3 2 2 3
As B is to the right of A, > or <
4 3 3 4

2 3 3
∴ Out of and , is the greater number.
3 4 4

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1.1

1. Identify rational numbers and integers from the following:
−3 5 12 3 15
4, , ,−36, , , , −6
4 6 7 −8 7
2. From the following identify those which are not :
(i) natural numbers
(ii) whole numbers
(iii) integers
(iv) rational numbers

7 −3 5 3 4
− ,16, ,−15,0, , ,−
4 7 17 − 4 3
3. By making the following rational numbers with same denominator, simplify the following
and specify whether the result in each case is a natural number, whole number, integer
or a rational number:

7 10
(i) 3 + (ii) − 3 + (iii) − 8 − 13 (iv) 12 − 12
3 4
9 1 5
(v) − (vi) 2 × (vii) 8 ÷ 3
2 2 7

4. Use the number line to add the following:-

(i) 9 + (–7) (ii) (–5) + (–3) (iii) (–3) + (4)
5. Which of the following are rational numbers in lowest term?

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8 5 − 3 − 6 2 3 15
, , , , ,
12 7 12 7 27 24
6. Which of the following rational numbers are integers?
Notes
15 − 5 13 27 7 × 3 − 6
− 10, , , , , ,
5 15 5 9 14 − 2
7. Write 3 rational numbers equivalent to given rational numbers:
2 − 5 17
, ,
5 6 3
8. Represent the following rational numbers on the number line.
2 3 1
, ,
5 4 2
9. Compare the following rational numbers by (i) changing them to rational numbers in
equivalent forms (ii) using number line:

2 3 3 7 –2 −1
(a) and (b) and (c) and
3 4 5 9 3 2
3 5 −7 3
(d) and (e) and
7 11 6 2

1.7 FOUR FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS ON RATIONAL

NUMBERS
1.7.1 Addition of Rational Numbers
p r
(a) Consider the addition of rational numbers ,
q q

p r p+r
+ =
q q q
For example

2 5 2+5 7
(i) + = =
3 3 3 3
3 9 3 + 9 12
(ii) + = =
17 17 17 17
14 ⎛ − 5 ⎞ 14 − 5 9
and (iii) +⎜ ⎟= = =3
3 ⎝ 3 ⎠ 3 3

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p r
(b) Consider the two rational numbers and .
q s

Notes p r ps rq ps + rq
+ = + =
q s qs sq qs

For example,

3 2 3 × 3 + 4 × 2 9 + 8 17
(i) + = = =
4 3 4×3 12 12
4 7 − 4 × 8 + 5 × 7 35 − 32 3
(ii) − + = = =
5 8 5×8 40 40

From the above two cases, we generalise the following rule:

(a) The addition of two rational numbers with common denominator is the rational number
with common denominator and numerator as the sum of the numerators of the two
rational numbers.
(b) The sum of two rational numbers with different denominators is a rational number with
the denominator equal to the product of the denominators of two rational numbers and
the numerator equal to sum of the product of the numerator of first rational number
with the denominator of second and the product of numerator of second rational
number and the denominator of the first rational number.
Let us take sone examples:

Example 1.8: Add the following rational numbers:

2 6 4 −3 5 −3
(i) and (ii) and (iii) − and
7 7 17 17 11 11

2 6 2+6 8
Solution: (i) + = =
7 7 7 7

2 6 8
∴ + =
7 7 7

4 (− 3) 4 + (− 3) 4 − 3 1
(ii) + = = =
17 17 17 17 17

4 (− 3) 1
∴ + =
17 17 17

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⎛ 5 ⎞ ⎛ − 3 ⎞ (− 5) + (− 3) − 5 − 3 − 8
(iii) ⎜ − ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟= = =
⎝ 11 ⎠ ⎝ 11 ⎠ 11 11 11

⎛ 5⎞ ⎛ 3⎞ 8
∴⎜ − ⎟ + ⎜ − ⎟ = − Notes
⎝ 11 ⎠ ⎝ 11 ⎠ 11

Example 1.9: Add each of the following rational numbers:

3 1 2 3 5 4
(i) and (ii) and (iii) and −
4 7 7 5 9 15
3 1
Solution: (i) We have +
4 7

3 × 7 1× 4
= +
4× 7 7× 4
21 4 21 + 4
= + =
28 28 28
25
=
28

3 1 25 ⎡ 3 × 7 + 4 × 1 21 + 4 25 ⎤
∴ + = or = = ⎥
4 7 28 ⎢⎣ 4 × 7 28 28 ⎦
2 3
(ii) +
7 5

2 × 5 3× 7
= +
7 × 5 5× 7
10 21
= +
35 35
10 + 21 31
= =
35 35
2 3 31 ⎡ 2 × 5 + 3× 7 10 + 21 31⎤
∴ + = or ⎢ = = ⎥
7 5 35 ⎣ 35 35 35⎦

5 (− 4 )
(iii) +
9 15

5 × 15 (− 4 )× 9
= +
9 × 15 15 × 9
75 (− 36 )
= +
135 135
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75 − 36 39 3 × 13 13
= = = =
135 135 3 × 45 45
5 (− 4 ) 13 ⎡ 5 × 15 + 9 × (− 4 ) 75 − 36 39 13 ⎤
∴ + = or ⎢ = = =
135 45 ⎥⎦
Notes
9 15 45 ⎣ 9 × 15 135
1.7.2 Subtraction of Rational Numbers

p r p−r
(a) − =
q q q
p r ps − qr
(b) − =
q s qs

Example 1.10: Simplify the following:

7 1 3 2
(i) − (ii) −
4 4 5 12
7 1 7 −1 6 2 × 3 3
Solution: (i) − = = = =
4 4 4 4 2× 2 2
3 2 3 × 12 2 × 5
(ii) − = −
5 12 5 × 12 12 × 5
36 10 36 − 10
= − =
60 60 60
26 13 × 2 13
= = =
60 30 × 2 30
1.7.3 Multiplication and Division of Rational Numbers
⎛ p⎞ ⎛r⎞
(i) Multiplication of two rational number ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ and ⎜ ⎟ , q ≠ 0, s ≠ 0 is the rational
⎝q⎠ ⎝s⎠
pr
number where qs ≠ 0
ps
product of numerators
=
product of denominators
p r
(ii) Division of two rational numbers and , such that q ≠ 0, s ≠ 0, is the rational
q s
ps
number , where qr ≠ 0
qr

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⎛ p⎞ ⎛r⎞ p ⎛s⎞
In other words ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ÷ ⎜ ⎟ = × ⎜ ⎟
⎝ q⎠ ⎝s⎠ q ⎝r⎠
Or (First rational number) × (Reciprocal of the second rational number)
Notes
Let us consider some examples.
Example 1.11: Multiply the following rational numbers:

3 2 5 ⎛−2⎞ 7 ⎛−2⎞
(i) and (ii) and ⎜ ⎟ (iii) and ⎜ ⎟
7 9 6 ⎝ 19 ⎠ 13 ⎝ −5⎠

3 2 3× 2 3× 2 2
Solution: (i) × = = =
7 9 7 × 9 7 × 3 × 3 21

⎛3⎞ ⎛2⎞ 2
∴⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ 7 ⎠ ⎝ 9 ⎠ 21

5 ⎛ − 2 ⎞ 5 × (− 2 )
(ii) ×⎜ ⎟=
6 ⎝ 19 ⎠ 6 × 19

2×5 5
=− =−
2 × 3 × 19 57

⎛5⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ 5
∴⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ − ⎟ = −
⎝ 6 ⎠ ⎝ 19 ⎠ 57

7 ⎛ − 2 ⎞ ⎛ 7 ⎞⎛ − (− 2 ) ⎞
(iii) ×⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
13 ⎝ − 5 ⎠ ⎝ 13 ⎠⎝ 5 ⎠

7 2 7 × 2 14
= × = =
13 5 13 × 5 65

⎛ 7 ⎞ ⎛ − 2 ⎞ 14
∴⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟=
⎝ 13 ⎠ ⎝ − 5 ⎠ 65

Example 1.12: Simply the following:

⎛3⎞ ⎛ 7 ⎞ 9 ⎛ 105 ⎞ ⎛ 87 ⎞ ⎛ 29 ⎞
(i) ⎜ ⎟ ÷ ⎜ ⎟ (ii) ÷⎜− ⎟ (iii) ⎜ ⎟ ÷ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 12 ⎠ 16 ⎝ 12 ⎠ ⎝ 27 ⎠ ⎝ 18 ⎠

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⎛3⎞ ⎛ 7 ⎞
Solution: (i) ⎜ ⎟÷⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 12 ⎠

Notes ⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 12 ⎞ ⎡ 7 12 ⎤
= ⎜ ⎟×⎜ ⎟ ⎢⎣Reciprocal of 12 is 7 ⎥⎦
⎝4⎠ ⎝ 7 ⎠

3 × 12 3 × 3 × 4 9
= = =
4× 7 7×4 7

⎛3⎞ ⎛ 7 ⎞ 9
∴⎜ ⎟ ÷ ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 12 ⎠ 7

⎛ 9 ⎞ ⎛ − 105 ⎞
(ii) ⎜ ⎟÷⎜ ⎟
⎝ 16 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

⎛9⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎡ - 105 2 ⎤
⎜ ⎟×⎜ ⎟ ⎢⎣Reciprocal of 2 is - 105 ⎥⎦
⎝ 16 ⎠ ⎝ − 105 ⎠

9× 2 3× 3× 2
=− =−
2 × 8 × 3 × 35 2 × 8 × 3 × 35

−3 −3
= =
8 × 35 280

⎛ 9 ⎞ ⎛ − 105 ⎞ − 3
∴⎜ ⎟ ÷ ⎜ ⎟=
⎝ 16 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ 280

⎛ 87 ⎞ ⎛ 29 ⎞
(iii) ⎜ ⎟ ÷⎜ ⎟
⎝ 27 ⎠ ⎝ 18 ⎠

⎛ 87 ⎞ ⎛ 18 ⎞ 87 18 29 × 3 × 2 × 9 2
= ⎜ ⎟×⎜ ⎟ = × = =
⎝ 27 ⎠ ⎝ 29 ⎠ 27 29 9 × 3 × 29 1

⎛ 87 ⎞ ⎛ 29 ⎞ 2
∴⎜ ⎟ ÷ ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ 27 ⎠ ⎝ 18 ⎠ 1

20 Mathematics Secondary Course

Number Systems MODULE - 1
Algebra

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1.2

1. Add the following rational numbers:
Notes
3 6 2 6 3 −7 1 3
(i) , (ii ) , − (iii) , (iv) ,
7 7 15 15 20 − 20 8 8
2. Add the following rational numbers:
3 5 17 5 2 −5
(i) , (ii) , (iii) ,
2 3 7 9 5 7
3. Perform the indicated operations:

⎛ 7 −5⎞ 3 ⎛ 7 3⎞ ⎛ 3⎞
(i) ⎜ − + ⎟+ (ii) ⎜ + ⎟ + ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 8 12 ⎠ 16 ⎝ 3 4⎠ ⎝ 5⎠
4. Subtract:-
7 13 7 5 3 9
(i) from (ii) from − (iii) from
15 15 3 3 7 24
5. Simplify:-

⎛ 1 7 1⎞ 5 13 3
(i) ⎜ 3 + − 2 ⎟ (ii) + −6
⎝ 5 5 6⎠ 2 4 4
6. Multiply:-
2 5 3 − 33 − 11 − 27
(i) by (ii) − by (iii) by
11 6 11 35 3 77
7. Divide:
1 1 −7 −4 35 −7
(i) by (ii) by (iii) by
2 4 4 5 33 22
8. Simplify the following:

⎛ 2 7 ⎞ 8 37 ⎡⎛ 3 2 ⎞ 1 ⎤
(i)⎜ + ⎟ × ÷ (ii) ⎢⎜ − ⎟ ÷ ⎥ × 21
⎝ 3 8 ⎠ 25 15 ⎣⎝ 4 3 ⎠ 4 ⎦

16 −3
9. Divide the sum of and by their difference.
7 14
13 39
10. A number when multiplied by gives . Find the number.
3 12

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MODULE - 1 Number Systems
Algebra

1.8 DECIMAL REPRESENTATION OF A RATIONAL

NUMBER
You are familiar with the division of an integer by another integer and expressing the result
Notes as a decimal number. The process of expressing a rational number into decimal form is to
carryout the process of long division using decimal notation.
Let us consider some examples.
Example 1.13: Represent each one of the following into a decimal number:

12 − 27 13
(i) (ii) (iii)
5 25 16
Solution: i) Using long division, we get

2 .4
5 12.0 12
10 Hence, = 2.4
2.0 5
2.0
×
ii) 25 − 27 (–1.08
25 – 27
200 Hence, = –1.08
25
200
×
0.8125
iii) 16 13.0000
128
20
16 13
Hence, = 0.8125
40 16
32
80
80
×
From the above examples, it can be seen that the division process stops after a finite
number of steps, when the remainder becomes zero and the resulting decimal number has
a finite number of decimal places. Such decimals are known as terminating decimals.
Note: Note that in the above division, the denominators of the rational numbers had only
2 or 5 or both as the only prime factors.

12 12 × 2 24
Alternatively, we could have written as = = 2.4 and similarly for the others
5 5× 2 10

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Number Systems MODULE - 1
Algebra
Let us consider another example.
Example 14: Write the decimal representation of each of the following:

7 2 5
(a ) (b ) (c ) Notes
3 7 11
2.33
Solution: (a) 3 7.00 Here the remainder 1 repeats.
6 ∴ The decimal is not a terminating decimal
1.0
9 7
= 2.333... or 2.3
1.0 3
9
1.00

0.28571428
(b) 7 2.000
Here when the remainder is 3, the digit after
14
that start repeating
60
56 2
= 0.285714
40 7
35
50 Note: A bar over a digit or a group of digits
implies that digit or that group of digits starts
49
repeating itself indefinitely.
10
7
30
28
20
14
60
56
4
0.454
(c) 11 5.00
Here again when the remainder is 5, the digits
44
after 5 start repeating
60
55 5
∴ = 0.45
50 11
44
50...

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MODULE - 1 Number Systems
Algebra
From the above, it is clear that in cases where the denominator has factors other than 2 or
5, the decimal representation starts repeating. Such decimals are called non-terminating
repeating decimals.

Notes Thus, we see from examples 1.13 and 1.14 that the decimal representation of a rational
number is

(i) either a terminating decimal (and the remainder is zero after a finite number of steps)
(ii) or a non-terminating repeating decimal (where the division will never end)
∴ Thus, a rational number is either a terminating decimal or a non-terminating repeating
decimal

1.8 EXPRESSING DECIMAL EXPANSION OF A RATIONAL

NUMBER IN p/q FORM
Let us explain it through examples

p
Example 1.15: Express (i) 0.48 and (ii) 0.1357 in form
q

48 12
Solution: (i) 0.48 = =
100 25

1375 55 11
(ii) 0.1375 = = =
10000 400 80

p
Example 1.16: Express (i) 0.666... (ii) 0.374374... in form
q
Solution: (i) Let x = 0.666... (A)
∴ 10 x = 6.666... (B)

2
(B) – (A) gives 9 x = 6 or x =
3

(ii) Let x = 0.374374374.... (A)

1000 x = 374.374374374.... (B)
(B) – (A) gives 999 x = 374

374
or x =
999

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Number Systems MODULE - 1
Algebra

374
∴ 0.374374374 ... =
999

The above example illustrates that:

Notes
A terminating decimal or a non-terminating recurring decimal represents a rational
number

Note: The non- terminating recurring decimals like 0.374374374... are written as 0.374 .
The bar on the group of digits 374 indicate that the group of digits repeats again and again.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1.3

1. Represent the following rational numbers in the decimal form:
31 12 12 75 91
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)
80 25 8 12 63
2. Represent the following rational numbers in the decimal form:

2 5 25
(i) (ii) (iii)
3 7 11

p
3. Represent the following decimals in the form .
q
(a) (i) 2.3 (ii) – 3.12 (iii) –0.715 (iv) 8.146
(b) (i) 0.333 (ii) 3.42 (iii) – 0.315315315...

1.9 RATIONAL NUMBERS BETWEEN TWO RATIONAL

NUMBERS
Is it possible to find a rational number between two given rational numbers. To explore
this, consider the following examples.

3 6
Example 1.17: Find a rational number between and
4 5

1⎛3 6⎞
Solution: Let us try to find the number ⎜ + ⎟
2⎝4 5⎠

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MODULE - 1 Number Systems
Algebra

1 ⎛ 15 + 24 ⎞ 39
= ⎜ ⎟=
2 ⎝ 20 ⎠ 40

Notes 3 3 × 10 30
Now = =
4 4 × 10 40

6 6 × 8 48
and = =
5 5 × 8 40

30 39 48
Obviously < <
40 40 40

39 3 6
i.e. is a rational number between the rational numbers and .
40 4 5

3 39 6
Note: = 0.75, = 0.975 and = 1.2
4 40 5

∴ 0.75 < 0.975 < 1.2

3 39 6
or < <
4 40 5
∴ This can be done by either way:

(i) reducing each of the given rational number with a common base and then taking
their average
or (ii) by finding the decimal expansions of the two given rational numbers and then
taking their average.
The question now arises, “How many rationals can be found between two given rationals?
Consider the following examples.

1 3
Example 1.18: Find 3 rational numbers between and .
2 4
1 1× 8 8
Solution: = =
2 2 × 8 16
3 3 × 4 12
and = =
4 4 × 4 16
8 9 10 11 12
As < < < <
16 16 16 16 16

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Number Systems MODULE - 1
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∴ We have been able to find 3 rational numbers

9 10 11 1 3
, and between and
16 16 16 2 4
Notes
In fact, we can find any number of rationals between two given numbers.

1 50 50
Again = =
2 2 × 50 100

3 3 × 25 75
= =
4 4 × 25 100

50 51 52 53 72 73 74 75
As < < < < ..... < < < < < .... (i)
100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

1 3
∴ we have been able to find 24 rational numbers between and as given in
2 4
(i) above.
We can continue in this way further.
Note: From the above it is clear that between any two rationals an infinite number of
rationals can be found.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1.4

1. Find a rational number between the following rational numbers:

3 4 3 1
(i) and (ii) 5 and 6 (iii) − and
4 3 4 3

2. Find two rational numbers between the following rational numbers:

2 1 2 1
(i) – and (ii) − and −
3 2 3 4

3. Find 5 rational numbers between the following rational numbers:

(i) 0.27 and 0.30 (ii) 7.31 and 7.35
(iii) 20.75 and 26.80 (iv) 1.001 and 1.002

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MODULE - 1 Number Systems
Algebra

1.10 IRRATIONAL NUMBERS

We have seen that the decimal expansion of a rational number is either terminating or is a
non-terminating and repeating deimal.
Notes
Are there decimals which are neither terminating nor non-terminating but repeating decimals?
Consider the following decimal:
0.10 100 1000 10000 1....... (i)
You can see that this decimal has a definite pattern and it can be written indefinitely, and
there is no block of digits which is repeating. Thus, it is an example of a non-terminating
and non-repeating decimal. A similar decimal is given as under:
0.1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13..... (ii)
Can you write the next group of digits in (i) and (ii)? The next six digits in (i) are 000001...
and in (ii) they are 14 15 16 ...
Such decimals as in (i) and (ii) represent irrational numbers.
Thus, a decimal expansion which is neither terminating nor is repeating represents
an irrational number.

1.11 INADEQUACY OF RATIONAL NUMBERS

Can we measure all the lengths in terms of rational numbers? Can we measure all weights
in terms of rational numbers?
A B
Let us examine the following situation:
Consider a square ABCD, each of whose sides is 1 unit.
Naturally the diagonal BD is of length 2 units. 2 units

one unit
It can be proved that 2 is not a rational number, as there
is no rational, whose square is 2, [Proof is beyond the scope
of this lesson]. D one unit C
We conclude that we can not exactly measure the lengths of all line-segments using rationals,
in terms of a given unit of length. Thus, the rational numbers are inadequate to measure all
lengths in terms of a given unit. This inadequacy necessitates the extension of rational
numbers to irrationals (which are not rational)
We have also read that corresponding to every rational number, there corresponds a point
on the number line. Consider the converse of this statement:
Given a point on the number line, will it always correspond to a rational number? The
answer to this question is also “No”. For clarifying this, we take the following example.
On the number line take points O, A, B, C and D representing rational 0, 1, 2, –1 and –2
respectively. At A draw AA′⊥ to OA such that AA′ = 1 unit

28 Mathematics Secondary Course

Number Systems MODULE - 1
Algebra
A′

D C O A B
P Notes
–2 –1 0 1 2

∴ OA′ = 12 + 12 = 2 units. Taking O as centre and radius OA′, if we draw an arc, we

reach the point P, which represents the number 2 .

As 2 is irrational, we conclude that there are points on the number line (like P) which
are not represented by a rational number. Similarly, we can show that we can have points
like 3 , 2 3 , 5 2 etc, which are not represented by rationals.

∴ The number line, consisting of points corresponding to rational numbers, has gaps on it.
Therefore, the number line consists of points corresponding to rational numbers and irrational
numbers both.

We have thus extended the system of rational numbers to include irrational numbers also.
The system containing rationals and irrationals both is called the Real Number System.

The system of numbers consisting of all rational and irrational numbers is called the system
of real numbers.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1.5

1. Write the first three digits of the decimal representation of the following:

2, 3, 5

2. Represent the following numbers on the real number line:

2 3
(i) (ii) 1 + 2 (iii)
2 2

1.12 FINDING IRRATIONAL NUMBER BETWEEN TWO

GIVEN NUMBERS
Let us illustrate the process of finding an irrational number between two given numbers
with the help of examples.
Example 1.19: Find an irrational number between 2 and 3.

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MODULE - 1 Number Systems
Algebra

Solution: Consider the number 2× 3

We know that 6 approximately equals 2.45.

Notes ∴ It lies between 2 and 3 and it is an irrational number.

Example 1.20: Find an irrational number lying between 3 and 2.

3+2
Solution: Consider the number
2

3 1.732
= 1+ ≈ 1+ = 1.866
2 2

3+2
∴ ≈ 1.866 lies betwen 3 (≈ 1.732) and 2
2

3+2
∴ The required irrational number is
2

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1.6

1. Find an irrational number between the following pairs of numbers

(i) 2 and 4 (ii) 3 and 3 (iii) 2 and 3

2. Can you state the number of irrationals between 1 and 2? Illustrate with three examples.

1.13 ROUNDING OFF NUMBERS TO A GIVEN NUMBER

OF DECIMAL PLACES
It is sometimes convenient to write the approximate value of a real number upto a desired
number of decimal places. Let us illustrate it by examples.

Example 1.21: Express 2.71832 approximately by rounding it off to two places of

decimals.

Solution: We look up at the third place after the decimal point. In this case it 8, which is
more than 5. So the approximate value of 2.71832, upto two places of decimal is 2.72.

Example 1.22: Find the approximate value of 12.78962 correct upto 3 places of decimals.

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Number Systems MODULE - 1
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Solution: The fourth place of decimals is 6 (more than 5) so we add 1 to the third place to
get the approximate value of 12.78962 correct upto three places of decimals as 12.790.
Thus, we observe that to round off a number to some given number of places, we observe
the next digit in the decimal part of the number and proceed as below
Notes
(i) If the digit is less than 5, we ignore it and state the answer without it.
(ii) If the digit is 5 or more than 5, we add 1 to the preceeding digit to get the required
number upto desired number of decimal places.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1.7

1. Write the approximate value of the following correct upto 3 place of decimals.
(i) 0.77777 (ii) 7.3259 (iii) 1.0118
(iv) 3.1428 (v) 1.1413
______________________________________________________________

LET US SUM UP
• Recall of natural numbers, whole numbers, integers with four fundamental operations
is done.
• Representation of above on the number line.
• Extension of integers to rational numbers - A rational number is a number which can
be put in the form p/q, where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0.
• When q is made positive and p and q have no other common factor, then a rational
number is said to be in standard form or lowest form.
• Two rational numbers are said to be the equivalent form of the number if standard
forms of the two are same.
• The rational numbers can be represented on the number line.
• Corresponding to a rational number, there exists a unique point on the number line.
• The rational numbers can be compared by
• reducing them with the same denominator and comparing their numerators.
• when represented on the number line, the greater rational number lies to the right
of the other.

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MODULE - 1 Number Systems
Algebra

• As in integers, four fundamental operations can be performed on rational numbers

also.
• The decimal representation of a rational number is either terminating or non-terminating
Notes repeating.
• There exist infinitely many rational numbers between two rational numbers.
• There are points other than those representing rationals on the number line. That shows
inadequacy of system of rational numbers.
• The sytem of rational numbers is extended to real numbers.
• Rationals and irrationals together constitute the system of real numbers.
• We can always find an irrational number between two given numbers.
• The decimal representation of an irrational number is non-terminating non repeating.
• We can find the approximate value of a rational or an irrational number upto a given
number of decimals.

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. From the following pick out:
(i) natural numbers
(ii) integers which are not natural numbers
(iii) rationals which are not natural numbers
(iv) irrational numbers
6 −3 3 11
− 3,17 , , ,0, − 32 , , , 2 , 2 + 3
7 8 14 6
2. Write the following integers as rational numbers:
(i) – 14 (ii) 13 (iii) 0 (iv) 2
(v) 1 (vi) –1 (vii) –25
3. Express the following rationals in lowest terms:
6 14 − 17 13
, , ,
8 21 153 273
4. Express the following rationals in decimal form:

(i ) 11 (ii)
8
(iii)
14
(iv)
15
(v)
98
80 25 8 6 35

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Number Systems MODULE - 1
Algebra

15 7
(vi) (vii) − (viii )115 (ix ) − 17 (x)
126
7 6 11 13 36

p
5. Represent the following decimals in form: Notes
q

(i) 2.4 (ii) – 0.32 (iii) 8.14 (iv) 3.24

(v) 0.415415415...
6. Find a rational number betwen the following rational numbers:

(i ) 3 and 7 (ii) − 2 and − 3 (iii) −

4
and
1
4 8 5 3
7. Find three rational numbers between the following rational numbers:

3 −3
(i) and (ii) 0.27 and 0.28 (iii) 1.32 and 1.34
4 4
8. Write the rational numbers corresponding to the points O, P, Q, R, S and T on the
number line in the following figure:
R S O P Q T

–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

9. Find the sum of the following rational numbers:

3 −7 7 5 3 7 9 2 18 7
(i) , (ii) − , (iii) , (iv) , (v) ,−
5 5 9 9 5 3 5 3 7 6
10. Find the product of the following rationals:

3 7 19 2 15 − 14
(i) , (ii) , (iii) ,
5 3 5 3 7 5
11. Write an irrational number between the following pairs of numbers:

(i) 1 and 3 (ii) 3 and 3 (iii) 2 and 5 (iv) − 2 and 2

12. How many rational numbers and irrational numbers lie between the numbers 2 and 7?
13. Find the approximate value of the following numbers correct to 2 places of decimals:
(i) 0.338 (ii) 3.924 (iii) 3.14159 (iv) 3.1428

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MODULE - 1 Number Systems
Algebra

14. Write the value of following correct upto 3 places of decimals:

3
(i) (ii) 2 + 2 (iii) 1.7326 (iv) 0.9999...
4
Notes
15. Simplify the following as irrational numbers. The first one is done for you.

(i) 12 3 + 5 3 − 7 3 = 3 [12 + 5 − 7 ] = 10 3

(ii) 3 2 − 2 8 + 7 2

(iii) 3 2 × 2 3 × 5 6

( )
(iv) [ 8 × 3 2 × 6 2 ] ÷ 36 2

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1.1
1. Integers: 4, – 36, – 6

−3 5 12 − 3 15
Rational Numbers: 4, , ,−36, , , , −6
4 6 7 8 7

7 3 5 3 4
2. (i) − ,− ,−15,0. ,− ,−
4 7 17 4 3

7 3 5 3 4
(ii) − ,− ,−15, ,− ,−
4 7 17 4 3

7 3 5 3 4
(iii) − ,− , ,− ,−
4 7 17 4 3
(iv) All are rational numbers.

16 1
3. (i) , rational (ii) − , rational (iii) –21, integer and rational
3 2
(iv) zero, whole number, integer and rational (v) 4, All

10 8
(vi) , rational (vii) , rational
7 3
4. (i) 2 (ii) – 8 (iii) 1

34 Mathematics Secondary Course

Number Systems MODULE - 1
Algebra

5 −6 2 3
5. , ,
7 7 27

15 27 − 6 Notes
6. − 10, , ,
5 9 −2

2 4 6 8 5 10 15 20 17 34 51 68
7. (i) = = = (ii) − = − = − = − (iii) = = =
5 10 15 20 6 12 18 24 3 6 9 12
8. (i) (ii) 0 3/4 1
2/5
–1 0 1 2

(iii) 1
0 1
2

3 2 7 3 −1 − 2 5 3
9. (a) > (b) > (c) > (d) >
4 3 9 5 2 3 11 7

3 7
(e) >−
2 6
1.2

9 4 1 1
1. (i) (ii) − (iii) (iv)
7 15 2 2

19 188 11
2. (i) (ii) (iii) −
6 63 35

53 149
3. (i) − (ii)
48 60

2 −3
4. (i) (ii) – 4 (iii)
5 56

73
5. (i) (ii) – 1
30

5 9 9
6. (i) (ii) (iii)
33 35 7

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MODULE - 1 Number Systems
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35 10
7. (i) 2 (ii) (iii) −
16 3

Notes 1
8. (i) (ii) 7
5

29
9.
35

3
10.
4
1.3

1. (i) 0.3875 (ii) 0.48 (iii) 1.5 (iv) 6.25 (v) 1.4

2. (i) 0.6 (ii) 0.714285 (iii) 2.27

23 78 143 4073
3. (a) (i) (ii) − (iii) − (iv)
10 25 200 500

1 113 35
(b) (i) (ii) (iii) –
3 33 111
1.4

25 −5
1. (i) (ii) 5.5 (iii)
24 24
2. (i) 0.2 and 0.3 (ii) – 0.30, – 0.35
3. (i) 0.271, 0.275, 0, 281, 0.285, 0.291
(ii) 7.315, 7.320 7.325, 7.330, 7.331
(iii) 21.75, 22.75, 23.75, 24.75, 25.75
(iv) 1.0011, 1.0012, 1.0013, 1.0014, 1.0015
Note: Can be other answers as well.
1.5
1. 1.414, 1.732, 2.236

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Number Systems MODULE - 1
Algebra
2. (i) 2/2
0 1
0.707
1+ 2 Notes
(ii)
0 1 2 2.414 3

3/2

(iii)
0 1 2

1.6

2+ 3
1. (i) 5 (ii) 3 + 1 (iii)
2
2. Infinitely many:
1.0001, 1.0002, ....., 1.0010, 1.0011,....., 1.0020, 1.0021, .....
1.7
1. (i) 0.778 (ii) 7.326 (iii) 1.012 (iv) 3.143 (v) 1.141

ANASWERS TO TERMINAL EXERCISE

1. Natural: 17,
Integers but not natural numbers, –3, 0, – 32

6 −3 3 11
Rationals but not natural numbers: − 3, , ,0,−32, ,
7 8 14 6

Irrationals but not rationals: 2 , 2 + 3

14 13 0 2
2. (i) − (ii) (iii) (iv)
1 1 1 1

1 −1 − 25
(v) (vi) (vii)
1 1 1

3 2 1 1
3. , ,− ,
4 3 9 21

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MODULE - 1 Number Systems
Algebra

4. (i) 0.1375 (ii) 0.32 (iii) 1.75 (iv) 2.5 (v) 2.8

(vi) 2.142857 (vii) − 1.166 (viii) 10.45 (ix) − 1.307692 (x) 3.5

Notes 12 −8 407 107 415

5. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)
5 25 50 33 999

13
6. (i) (ii) – 2.5 (iii) zero
16
7. (i) 0.50, 0.25, 0.00 (ii) 0.271, 0.274, 0.277 (iii) 1.325. 1.33, 1.335

8. (i) R: – 3.8 (ii) S: – 0.5 (iii) O: 0.00 (iv) S: – 0.33 (v) Q: 3.5

(vi) T: 7.66

4 2 44 37 59
9. (i) − (ii) − (iii) (iv) (v)
5 9 15 15 42

7 38
10. (i) (ii) (iii) – 6
5 15

2
11. (i) 3 (ii) 1 + 3 (iii) 3 (iv)
2
12. Infinitely many
13. (i) 0.34 (ii) 3.92 (iii) 3.14 (iv) 3.14
14. (i) 0.75 (ii) 3.414 (iii) 1.733 (iv) 1.000

15. (ii) 6 2 (iii) 180 (iv) 2

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Exponents and Radicals MODULE - 1
Algebra

Notes
2
EXPONENTS AND RADICALS

We have learnt about multiplication of two or more real numbers in the earlier lesson. You
can very easily write the following
4 × 4 × 4 = 64,11 × 11 × 11 × 11 = 14641 and
2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 256
Think of the situation when 13 is to be multiplied 15 times. How difficult is it to write?
13 × 13 × 13 ×.................15 times?
This difficulty can be overcome by the introduction of exponential notation. In this lesson,
we shall explain the meaning of this notation, state and prove the laws of exponents and
learn to apply these. We shall also learn to express real numbers as product of powers of
prime numbers.
In the next part of this lesson, we shall give a meaning to the number a1/q as qth root of a.
We shall introduce you to radicals, index, radicand etc. Again, we shall learn the laws of
radicals and find the simplest form of a radical. We shall learn the meaning of the term
“rationalising factor’ and rationalise the denominators of given radicals.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to
• write a repeated multiplication in exponential notation and vice-versa;
• identify the base and exponent of a number written in exponential notation;
• express a natural number as a product of powers of prime numbers uniquely;
• state the laws of exponents;
p
• explain the meaning of a0, a–m and a q ;

• simplify expressions involving exponents, using laws of exponents;

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MODULE - 1 Exponents and Radicals
Algebra

• identify radicals from a given set of irrational numbers;

• identify index and radicand of a surd;

Notes • state the laws of radicals (or surds);

• express a given surd in simplest form;
• classify similar and non-similar surds;
• reduce surds of different orders to those of the same order;
• perform the four fundamental operations on surds;
• arrange the given surds in ascending/descending order of magnitude;
• find a rationalising factor of a given surd;

1 1
• rationalise the denominator of a given surd of the form a + b x and x+ y ,
where x and y are natural numbers and a and b are integers;
• simplify expressions involving surds.

EXPECTED BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE

• Prime numbers
• Four fundamental operations on numbers
• Rational numbers
• Order relation in numbers.

2.1 EXPONENTIAL NOTATION

Consider the following products:
(i) 7 × 7 (ii) 3 × 3 × 3 (iii) 6 × 6 × 6 × 6 × 6
In (i), 7 is multiplied twice and hence 7 × 7 is written as 72.
In (ii), 3 is multiplied three times and so 3 × 3 × 3 is written as 33.
In (iii), 6 is multiplied five times, so 6 × 6 × 6 × 6 × 6 is written as 65.
72 is read as “7 raised to the power 2” or “second power of 7”. Here, 7 is called base and
2 is called exponent (or index)
Similarly, 33 is read as “3 raised to the power 3”or “third power of 3”. Here, 3 is called the
base and 3 is called exponent.
Similarly, 65 is read as “6 raised to the power 5”or “Fifth power of 6”. Again 6 is base and
5 is the exponent (or index).

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From the above, we say that
The notation for writing the product of a number by itself several times is called the
Exponential Notation or Exponential Form.
Thus, 5 × 5 × .... 20 times = 520 and (–7) × (–7) × .... 10 times = (–7)10 Notes

In 520, 5 is the base and exponent is 20.

In (–7)10, base is –7 and exponent is 10.
Similarly, exponential notation can be used to write precisely the product of a ratioinal
number by itself a number of times.
16
3 3 ⎛3⎞
Thus, × × .........16 times = ⎜ ⎟
5 5 ⎝5⎠
10
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
and ⎜ − ⎟ × ⎜ − ⎟ × ..........10 times = ⎜ – ⎟
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
In general, if a is a rational number, multiplied by itself m times, it is written as am.
Here again, a is called the base and m is called the exponent
Let us take some examples to illustrate the above discussion:
Example 2.1: Evaluate each of the following:
3 4

(i ) ⎛⎜ 2 ⎞⎟ ⎛ 3⎞
(ii) ⎜ − ⎟
⎝7⎠ ⎝ 5⎠

⎛ 2 ⎞ 2 2 2 (2 )
3 3
8
Solution: (i) ⎜ ⎟ = × × = 3=
⎝ 7 ⎠ 7 7 7 (7 ) 343

⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞⎛ 3 ⎞⎛ 3 ⎞⎛ 3 ⎞ (− 3)
4 4
81
(ii) ⎜ − ⎟ = ⎜ − ⎟⎜ − ⎟⎜ − ⎟⎜ − ⎟ = =
⎝ 5 ⎠ ⎝ 5 ⎠⎝ 5 ⎠⎝ 5 ⎠⎝ 5 ⎠ (5)
5
625
Example 2.2: Write the following in exponential form:
(i) (–5) × (–5) × (–5) × (–5) × (–5) × (–5) × (–5)

⎛3⎞ ⎛3⎞ ⎛3⎞ ⎛3⎞

(ii) ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 11 ⎠ ⎝ 11 ⎠ ⎝ 11 ⎠ ⎝ 11 ⎠
Solution: (i) (–5) × (–5) × (–5) × (–5) × (–5) × (–5) × (–5) = (–5)7
4
⎛3⎞ ⎛3⎞ ⎛3⎞ ⎛3⎞ ⎛3⎞
(ii) ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 11 ⎠ ⎝ 11 ⎠ ⎝ 11 ⎠ ⎝ 11 ⎠ ⎝ 11 ⎠

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Example 2.3: Express each of the following in exponential notation and write the base
and exponent in each case.

Notes 125
(i) 4096 (ii) (iii) – 512
729
Solution: (i) 4096 = 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 Alternatively 4096 = (2)12
= (4)6 Base = 2, exponent =12
Here, base = 4 and exponent = 6
3
125 5 5 5 ⎛5⎞
(ii) = × × =⎜ ⎟
729 9 9 9 ⎝ 9 ⎠

⎛5⎞
Here, base = ⎜ ⎟ and exponent = 3
⎝9⎠
(iii) 512 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 29
Here, base = 2 and exponent = 9
Example 2.4: Simplify the following:
3 4
⎛3⎞ ⎛4⎞
⎜ ⎟ ×⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠ ⎝3⎠

3
⎛3⎞ 3 3 3 33
Solution: ⎜ ⎟ = × × = 3
⎝2⎠ 2 2 2 2
4
⎛4⎞ 44
Similarly ⎜ ⎟ = 4
⎝3⎠ 3
3 4
⎛3⎞ ⎛4⎞ 33 4 4
×
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 3× 4
⎝2⎠ ⎝3⎠ 2 3

33 16 ×16 32
= × =
8 34 3
Example 2.5: Write the reciprocal of each of the following and express them in exponential
form:
2 9
⎛3⎞ ⎛ 5⎞
5
(i) 3 (ii) ⎜ ⎟ (iii) ⎜ − ⎟
⎝4⎠ ⎝ 6⎠

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Solution: (i) 35 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3
= 243
5
1 ⎛1⎞ Notes
∴ Reciprocal of 3 =5 =⎜ ⎟
243 ⎝ 3 ⎠

2
⎛3⎞ 32
(ii) ⎜ ⎟ = 2
⎝4⎠ 4

2 2
⎛3⎞ 42 ⎛ 4 ⎞
∴ Reciprocal of ⎜ ⎟ = 2 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝4⎠ 3 ⎝3⎠

(− 5)9
9
⎛ 5⎞
(iii) ⎜− ⎟ =
⎝ 6⎠ 69

9 9
⎛ 5⎞ −6 ⎛−6⎞
9

∴ Reciprocal of ⎜ − ⎟ = 9 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 6⎠ 5 ⎝ 5 ⎠

p
From the above example, we can say that if is any non-zero rational number and m is
q
m m
⎛ p⎞ ⎛q⎞
any positive integer, then the reciprocal of ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ is ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ .
⎝q⎠ ⎝ p⎠

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2.1

1. Write the following in exponential form:

(i) (–7) × (–7) × (–7) × (–7)

⎛3⎞ ⎛3⎞
(ii) ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ × .... 10 times
⎝4⎠ ⎝4⎠

⎛ 5⎞ ⎛ 5⎞
(iii) ⎜ − ⎟ × ⎜ − ⎟ × .... 20 times
⎝ 7⎠ ⎝ 7⎠

2. Write the base and exponent in each of the following:

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MODULE - 1 Exponents and Radicals
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8
⎛ 2⎞
(i) (–3) 5 4
(ii) (7) (iii) ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 11 ⎠
Notes 3. Evaluate each of the following

4 4 3
⎛3⎞ ⎛ –2⎞ ⎛ 3⎞
(i) ⎜ ⎟ (ii) ⎜ ⎟ (iii) ⎜ – ⎟
⎝7⎠ ⎝ 9 ⎠ ⎝ 4⎠

4. Simplify the following:

5 6
⎛7⎞ ⎛3⎞
(i) ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟
⎝3⎠ ⎝7⎠

2 2
⎛ 5⎞ ⎛ 3⎞
(ii) ⎜ − ⎟ ÷ ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 6⎠ ⎝ 5⎠

5. Find the reciprocal of each of the following:

4
⎛ 3⎞
5
(i) 3 (ii) (–7) 4
(iii) ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 5⎠

2.2 PRIME FACTORISATION

Recall that any composite number can be expressed as a product of prime numbers. Let
us take the composite numbers 72, 760 and 7623.
2 72
(i) 72 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3
2 36
= 23 × 32 2 18 2 760
3 9 2 380
(ii) 760 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 5 × 19 3 2 190
3 7623 5 95
= 23 × 51 ×191
3 2541 19
(iii) 7623 = 3 × 3 × 7 × 11 ×11 7 847
11 121
= 32 × 71 × 112 11
We can see that any natural number, other than 1, can be expressed as a product of
powers of prime numbers in a unique manner, apart from the order of occurrence of
factors. Let us consider some examples
Example 2.6: Express 24300 in exponential form.
Solution: 24300 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 2 × 2 × 5 × 5 × 3

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∴ 24300 = 22 × 35 ×52
Example 2.7: Express 98784 in exponential form.
Solution: 2 98784
Notes
2 49392
2 24696
2 12348 ∴ 98784 = 25 × 32 × 73
2 6174
3 3087
3 1029
7 343
7 49
7

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2.2

1. Express each of the following as a product of powers of primes, i.e, in exponential form:

(i) 429 (ii) 648 (iii) 1512

2. Express each of the following in exponential form:

(i) 729 (ii) 512 (iii) 2592

1331 243
(iv) (v) −
4096 32

2.3 LAWS OF EXPONENTS

Consider the following

(i) 32 × 33 = (3 × 3) × (3 × 3 × 3) = (3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3)
= 35 = 32 + 3
(ii) (–7)2 × (–7)4 = [(–7) × (–7)] × [(–7) × (–7) × (–7) × (–7)]
= [ (–7) × (–7) × (–7) × (–7) × (–7) × (–7)]
= (–7)6 = (–7)2+4
3 4
⎛3⎞ ⎛3⎞ ⎛3 3 3⎞ ⎛3 3 3 3⎞
(iii) ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ × × ⎟ × ⎜ × × × ⎟
⎝4⎠ ⎝4⎠ ⎝4 4 4⎠ ⎝4 4 4 4⎠

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MODULE - 1 Exponents and Radicals
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⎛3 3 3 3 3 3 3⎞
=⎜ × × × × × × ⎟
⎝4 4 4 4 4 4 4⎠
Notes 7 3+ 4
⎛3⎞ ⎛3⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟
⎝4⎠ ⎝4⎠
(iv) a3 × a4 = (a × a × a) × (a × a × a × a) = a7 = a3+4
From the above examples, we observe that
Law 1: If a is any non-zero rational number and m and n are two positive integers, then
am × an = am+n
3 5
⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 3⎞
Example 2.8: Evaluate ⎜ − ⎟ × ⎜ − ⎟ .
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠

3
Solution: Here a = − , m = 3 and n = 5.
2

3 5 3+ 5 8
⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞ 6561
∴ ⎜− ⎟ ×⎜− ⎟ = ⎜− ⎟ = ⎜− ⎟ =
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ 256

Example 2.9: Find the value of

2 3
⎛7⎞ ⎛7⎞
⎜ ⎟ ×⎜ ⎟
⎝4⎠ ⎝4⎠
Solution: As before,
2 3 2+3 5
⎛7⎞ ⎛7⎞ ⎛7⎞ ⎛ 7 ⎞ 16807
⎜ ⎟ ×⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ =
⎝4⎠ ⎝4⎠ ⎝4⎠ ⎝4⎠ 1024

Now study the following:

75 7 × 7 × 7 × 7 × 7
(i) 7 ÷ 7 = 3 =
5 3 = 7 × 7 = 7 2 = 7 5−3
7 7×7×7

(− 3)7 = (− 3)× (− 3)× (− 3)× (− 3)× (− 3)× (− 3)× (− 3)

(ii) (–3) ÷ (–3) =
7 4
(− 3)4 (− 3)× (− 3)× (− 3)× (− 3)
= (− 3)(− 3)(− 3) = (− 3)3 = (–3)7– 4

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From the above, we can see that
Law 2: If a is any non-zero rational number and m and n are positive integers (m > n), then
am ÷ an = am–n
Notes
16 13
⎛ 35 ⎞ ⎛ 35 ⎞
Example 2.10: Find the value of ⎜ ⎟ ÷ ⎜ ⎟ .
⎝ 25 ⎠ ⎝ 25 ⎠
16 13
⎛ 35 ⎞ ⎛ 35 ⎞
Solution: ⎜ ⎟ ÷⎜ ⎟
⎝ 25 ⎠ ⎝ 25 ⎠
16 −13 3 3
⎛ 35 ⎞ ⎛ 35 ⎞ ⎛7⎞ 343
=⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ 25 ⎠ ⎝ 25 ⎠ ⎝5⎠ 125
In Law 2, m < n ⇒ n > m,
1
then a m ÷ a n = a −(n − m ) = m−n
a
Law 3: When n > m

1
am ÷ an = m−n
a
6 9
⎛3⎞ ⎛3⎞
Example 2.11: Find the value of ⎜ ⎟ ÷ ⎜ ⎟
⎝7⎠ ⎝7⎠

3
Solution: Here a = , m = 6 and n = 9.
7

6 9 1
⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞ 9−6
∴ ⎜ ⎟ ÷⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝7⎠ ⎝7⎠ ⎝7⎠

7 3 343
= =
33 27
Let us consider the following:

(i) (3 )
3 2
= 33 × 33 = 33+3 = 36 = 33×2
5
⎡⎛ 3 ⎞ 2 ⎤ ⎛ 3 ⎞ 2 ⎛ 3 ⎞ 2 ⎛ 3 ⎞ 2 ⎛ 3 ⎞ 2 ⎛ 3 ⎞ 2
(ii) ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟
⎢⎣⎝ 7 ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎝ 7 ⎠ ⎝ 7 ⎠ ⎝ 7 ⎠ ⎝ 7 ⎠ ⎝ 7 ⎠

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MODULE - 1 Exponents and Radicals
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2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2 10 2×5
⎛3⎞ ⎛3⎞ ⎛3⎞
⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟
⎝7⎠ ⎝7⎠ ⎝7⎠
Notes
From the above two cases, we can infer the following:
Law 4: If a is any non-zero rational number and m and n are two positive integers, then

(a )
m n
= a mn
Let us consider an example.
3
⎡⎛ 2 ⎞ 2 ⎤
Example 2.12: Find the value of ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢⎝ 5 ⎠ ⎦⎥

3
⎡⎛ 2 ⎞ 2 ⎤ ⎡ 2 ⎤ 2×3 ⎛ 2 ⎞6 64
Solution: ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ = ⎜ ⎟ =
⎢⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎣ 5 ⎦
5 ⎝ 5 ⎠ 15625

2.3.1 Zero Exponent

Recall that a m ÷ a n = a m − n , if m > n

1
= n−m , if n > m
a
Let us consider the case, when m = n

∴ a m ÷ a m = a m−m

am
⇒ m = a0
a
⇒ 1 = a0

Thus, we have another important law of exponents,.

Law 5: If a is any rational number other than zero, then ao = 1.
Example 2.13:Find the value of
0 0
⎛2⎞ ⎛ −3⎞
(i) ⎜ ⎟ (ii) ⎜ ⎟
⎝7⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
0
⎛2⎞
Solution: (i) Using a = 1, we get ⎜ ⎟ = 1
0
⎝7⎠

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0
⎛ −3⎞
(ii) Again using a = 1, we get ⎜0 ⎟ = 1.
⎝ 4 ⎠
Notes

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2.3

1. Simplify and express the result in exponential form:

3 2 1 2 3
⎛3⎞ ⎛3⎞ ⎛ 7⎞ ⎛ 7⎞ ⎛ 7⎞
2
(i) (7) ×(7) 3
(ii) ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ (iii) ⎜ − ⎟ × ⎜ − ⎟ × ⎜ − ⎟
⎝4⎠ ⎝4⎠ ⎝ 8⎠ ⎝ 8⎠ ⎝ 8⎠

2. Simplify and express the result in exponential form:

8 2 18 3
⎛3⎞ ⎛3⎞ ⎛−7⎞ ⎛−7⎞
(i) (− 7 ) ÷ (− 7 )
9 7
(ii) ⎜ ⎟ ÷ ⎜ ⎟ (iii) ⎜ ⎟ ÷⎜ ⎟
⎝4⎠ ⎝4⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠
3. Simplify and express the result in exponential form:

2 5
⎡⎛ 3 ⎞3 ⎤ ⎡⎛ 5 ⎞3 ⎤
( )
(i) 26 3
(ii) ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎥⎦
(iii) ⎢⎜ − ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ 9 ⎠ ⎥⎦

5 0 0 3
⎛ 11 ⎞ ⎛ 15 ⎞ ⎛ 7⎞ ⎛ 7⎞
(iv) ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ (v) ⎜ − ⎟ × ⎜ − ⎟
⎝3⎠ ⎝7⎠ ⎝ 11 ⎠ ⎝ 11 ⎠
4. Which of the following statements are true?
5 2 7
⎛3⎞ ⎛3⎞ ⎛3⎞
3
(i) 7 × 7 = 7 3 6
(ii) ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 11 ⎠ ⎝ 11 ⎠ ⎝ 11 ⎠

4 2
⎡⎛ 4 ⎞5 ⎤ ⎛ 4 ⎞9 ⎡⎛ 3 ⎞ 6 ⎤ ⎛ 3 ⎞8
(iii) ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = ⎜ ⎟ (iv) ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = ⎜ ⎟
⎢⎣⎝ 9 ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎝ 9 ⎠ ⎢⎣⎝ 19 ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎝ 19 ⎠

0 2
⎛3⎞ ⎛ 3⎞ 9
(v) ⎜ ⎟ = 0 (vi) ⎜ − ⎟ = −
⎝ 11 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ 4

5 0 5
⎛ 8 ⎞ ⎛7⎞ ⎛ 8 ⎞
(vii) ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 15 ⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠ ⎝ 15 ⎠

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2.4 NEGATIVE INTEGERS AS EXPONENTS

1
Notes i) We know that the reciprocal of 5 is . We write it as 5–1 and read it as 5 raised to
5
power –1.
1
ii) The reciprocal of (–7) is − . We write it as (–7)–1 and read it as (–7) raised to the
7
power –1.
1
iii) The reciprocal of 52 = . We write it as 5–2 and read it as ‘5 raised to the power (–2)’.
52
From the above all, we get
If a is any non-zero rational number and m is any positive integer, then the reciprocal of am
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ i.e. m ⎟ is written as a–m and is read as ‘a raised to the power (–m)’. Therefore,
⎝ a ⎠

1
m
= a −m
a
Let us consider an example.
Example 2.14: Rewrite each of the following with a positive exponent:
−2 −7
⎛3⎞ ⎛ 4⎞
(i) ⎜ ⎟ (ii) ⎜ − ⎟
⎝8⎠ ⎝ 7⎠
Solution:
−2 2
⎛ 3⎞ 1 1 82 ⎛ 8 ⎞
(i) ⎜ ⎟ = 2
= = =⎜ ⎟
⎝8⎠ ⎛ 3⎞ 32 32 ⎝ 3 ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎝8⎠ 82

−7 7
⎛ 4⎞ 1 77 ⎛ 7⎞
(ii) ⎜ − ⎟ = = = ⎜− ⎟
⎝ 7⎠ ⎛ 4⎞
7
(− 4) ⎝ 4 ⎠
7

⎜− ⎟
⎝ 7⎠
From the above example, we get the following result:
p
If is any non-zero rational number and m is any positive integer, then
q
−m m
⎛ p⎞ qm ⎛ q ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = m = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ .
⎝q⎠ p ⎝ p⎠

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2.5 LAWS OF EXPONENTS FOR INTEGRAL EXPONENTS

After giving a meaning to negative integers as exponents of non-zero rational numbers, we
can see that laws of exponents hold good for negative exponents also.
Notes
For example.

−4 3 3 3– 4
⎛3⎞ ⎛3⎞ 1 ⎛3⎞ 3
(i) ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ = 4
×⎜ ⎟ =
⎝5⎠ ⎝5⎠ ⎛3⎞ ⎝5⎠ 5
⎜ ⎟
⎝5⎠
−2 −3 − 2 −3
⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ 2⎞ 1 1 1 ⎛ 2⎞
(ii) ⎜ − ⎟ × ⎜ − ⎟ = 2
× 3
= 2+3
= ⎜− ⎟
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ 2⎞ ⎝ 3⎠
⎜− ⎟ ⎜− ⎟ ⎜− ⎟
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
−3 −7 7 7 −3
⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 3⎞ 1 1 1 ⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 3⎞
(iii) ⎜ − ⎟ ÷ ⎜ − ⎟ = 3
÷ 7
= 3
×⎜− ⎟ = ⎜− ⎟
⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ 4⎠ ⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 3⎞ ⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ 4⎠
⎜− ⎟ ⎜− ⎟ ⎜− ⎟
⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ 4⎠
3 3
⎛ ⎛ 2 ⎞ − 2 ⎞ ⎡⎛ 7 ⎞ 2 ⎤ ⎛ 7 ⎞ 6 ⎛ 2 ⎞ −6 ⎛ 2 ⎞ − 2×3
(iv) ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ = ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎝ 7 ⎠ ⎟ ⎢⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 7 ⎠ ⎝7⎠
⎝ ⎠ ⎣ ⎦

Thus, from the above results, we find that laws 1 to 5 hold good for negative exponents
also.

∴ For any non-zero rational numbers a and b and any integers m and n,

1. am × an = am+n

2. am ÷ an = am–n if m > n

= an–m if n > m

3. (am)n = amn

4. (a × b)m = am × bm

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2.4

−2
⎛ −3⎞ p
1. Express ⎜ ⎟ as a rational number of the form :
⎝ 7 ⎠ q

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2. Express as a power of rational number with positive exponent:

4
⎛3⎞
−4 ⎡⎛ 3 ⎞ −3 ⎤
Notes (i) ⎜ ⎟ (ii) 125 × 12 −3 (iii) ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎝7⎠ ⎢⎣⎝ 13 ⎠ ⎥⎦

3. Express as a power of a rational number with negative index:

5
⎛3⎞
4 ⎡⎛ 3 ⎞ 2 ⎤
(i) ⎜ ⎟
⎝7⎠
[ ]
(ii) (7 )2
5
(iii) ⎢⎜ − ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎦⎥

4. Simplify:
−3 7 −3 4 −4 −7
⎛3⎞ ⎛3⎞ ⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ 7⎞ ⎛ 7⎞
(i) ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ (ii) ⎜ − ⎟ × ⎜ − ⎟ (iii) ⎜ − ⎟ ÷ ⎜ − ⎟
⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 5⎠ ⎝ 5⎠

5. Which of the following statements are true?

(i) a–m × an = a–m–n
(ii) (a–m)n = a–mn
(iii) am × bm = (ab)m

m
⎛a⎞
(iv) a ÷ b = ⎜ ⎟
m m

⎝b⎠

(v) a–m × ao = am

2.6 MEANING OF ap/q

You have seen that for all integral values of m and n,
am × an = am+n
What is the method of defining a1/q, if a is positive rational number and q is a natural
number.
Consider the multiplication
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + .....q times
a × a × a ........× a = a
q q q q q q q

q times
q
= aq = a

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1
In other words, the qth power of a q = a or

1
in other words a q is the qth root of a and is written as q a . Notes
For example,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4
+ + +
74 ×74 ×74 ×74 = 74 4 4 4
= 7 4 = 71 = 7
1
or 7 4 is the fourth root of 7 and is written as 4 7 ,
Let us now define rational powers of a
If a is a positive real number, p is an integer and q is a natural number, then
p
q
aq = ap
We can see that
p p p p p p p p
+ + + .....q times .q
a × a × a ........× a = a
q q q q q q q
=a q
= ap
q times
p
q
∴a = a pq

∴ ap/q is the qth root of ap

2
Consequently, 7 3 is the cube root of 72.
Let us now write the laws of exponents for rational exponents:
(i) am × an = am+n
(ii) am ÷ an = am–n
(iii) (am)n = amn
(iv) (ab)m = am bm
m
⎛a⎞ am
(v) ⎜ ⎟ = m
⎝b⎠ b

Let us consider some examples to verify the above laws:

Example 2.15: Find the value of
−3 / 4
1 2
⎛ 16 ⎞
(i) (625) 4
(ii) (243) 5
(iii) ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 81 ⎠

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Solution:
1 1
(625)4 = (5 × 5 × 5 × 5) 4 = (54 )4 = 5
1 1 4×
(i) 4
=5
Notes
2 2
( )
2 2 5×
(ii) (243)5 = (3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3) 5 = 35 5 =3 5
= 32 = 9

−3 −3
⎛ 16 ⎞ 4 ⎛ 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 ⎞ 4
(iii) ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 81 ⎠ ⎝ 3× 3× 3× 3 ⎠

−3
⎛ −3 ⎞
⎡⎛ 2 ⎞ 4 ⎤ 4 ⎛ 2 ⎞ 4×⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠ ⎛ 2 ⎞ −3 ⎛ 3 ⎞ 3 27
= ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = ⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ =
⎣⎢⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎦⎥ ⎝3⎠ ⎝3⎠ ⎝2⎠ 8

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2.5

1. Simplify each of the following:
2
−
⎛ 27 ⎞ 3
(i) (16)
3
4 (ii) ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 125 ⎠

2. Simplify each of the following:

1 1
(i) (625)− 4 ÷ (25)− 2

1 1 3
−
⎛ 7 ⎞ 4 ⎛ 7 ⎞2 ⎛ 7 ⎞4
(ii) ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟
⎝8⎠ ⎝8⎠ ⎝8⎠

3 1 3
−
⎛ 13 ⎞ 4 ⎛ 13 ⎞ 4 ⎛ 13 ⎞ 2
(iii) ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 16 ⎠ ⎝ 16 ⎠ ⎝ 16 ⎠

2.7 SURDS
We have read in first lesson that numbers of the type 2 , 3 and 5 are all irrational
numbers. We shall now study irrational numbers of a particular type called radicals or
surds.

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A surd is defined as a positive irrational number of the type n x , where it is not possible to
find exactly the nth root of x, where x is a positive rational number.

The number n
x is a surd if and only if Notes

(i) it is an irrational number

(ii) it is a root of the positive rational number
2.7.1 Some Terminology

In the surd n x , the symbol is called a radical sign. The index ‘n’ is called the order
of the surd and x is called the radicand.
Note: i) When order of the surd is not mentioned, it is taken as 2. For example, order
of ( )
7 = 2 7 is 2.

ii) 3
8 is not a surd as its value can be determined as 2 which is a rational.

iii) 2 + 2 , although an irrational number, is not a surd because it is the square

root of an irrational number.

2.8 PURE AND MIXED SURD

i) A surd, with rational factor is 1 only, other factor being rrational is called a pure surd.

For example, 5 16 and 3 50 are pure surds.

ii) A surd, having rational factor other than 1 alongwith the irrational factor, is called a
mixed surd.

For example, 2 3 and 3 3 7 are mixed surds.

2.9 ORDER OF A SURD

In the surd 53 4 , 5 is called the co-efficient of the surd, 3 is the order of the surd and 4
is the radicand. Let us consider some examples:
Example 2.16: State which of the following are surds?
(i) 49 (ii) 96 (iii) 3 81 (iv) 3 256

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Solution: (i) 49 = 7, which is a rational number.

∴ 49 is not a surd.
Notes
(ii) 96 = 4 × 4 × 6 = 4 6
∴ 96 is an irrational number.
⇒ 96 is a surd.

(iii) 3
81 = 3 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 33 3 , which is irrational

∴ 3
81 is a surd.

(iv) 3
256 = 3 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 = 43 4

∴ 3 256 is irrational.

⇒ 3
256 is a surd
∴ (ii), (iii) and (iv) are surds.
Example 2.17: Find “index” and “radicand” in each of the following:

(i) 5 117 (ii) 162 (iii) 4 213 (iv) 4 214

Solution: (i) index is 5 and radicand is 117.
(ii) index is 2 and radicand is 162.
(iii) index is 4 and radicand is 213.
(iv) index is 4 and radicand is 214.
Example 2.18: Identify “pure” and “mixed” surds from the following:

(i) 42 (ii) 4 3 18 (iii) 2 4 98

Solution: (i) 42 is a pure surd.

(ii) 4 3 18 is a mixed surd.

(iii) 2 4 98 is a mixed surd.

2.10 LAWS OF RADICALS

Given below are Laws of Radicals: (without proof):

(i) [ a] = a
n
n

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(ii) n
a n b = n ab

n
a n a
(iii) n
= Notes
b b

where a and b are positive rational numbers and n is a positive integer.

Let us take some examples to illustrate.
Example 2.19: Which of the following are surds and which are not? Use laws of radicals
to ascertain.

(i) 5 × 80 (ii) 2 15 ÷ 4 10

(iii) 3 4 × 3 16 (iv) 32 ÷ 27

Solution: (i) 5 × 80 = 5 × 80 = 400 = 20 .

which is a rational number.

∴ 5 × 80 is not a surd.

2 15 15
(ii) 2 15 ÷ 4 10 = =
4 10 2 10

15 15 3
= = = , which is irrational.
2 × 2 ×10 40 8

∴ 2 15 ÷ 4 10 is a surd.

(iii) 3
4 × 3 16 = 3 64 = 4 ⇒ It is not a surd.

32 32
(iv) 32 ÷ 27 = = , which is irrational
27 27

∴ 32 ÷ 27 is a surd.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2.6

1. For each of the following, write index and the radicand:
(i) 4 64 (ii) 6 343 (iii) 119

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2. State which of the following are surds:

(i) 3 64 (ii) 4 625 (iii) 6 216

Notes
(iv) 5 × 45 (v) 3 2 × 5 6

3. Identify pure and mixed surds out of the following:

(i) 32 (ii) 2 3 12 (iii) 13 3 91 (iv) 35

2.11 LAWS OF SURDS

Recall that the surds can be expressed as numbers with fractional exponents. Therefore,
laws of indices studied in this lesson before, are applicable to them also. Let us recall them
here:

1 1 1
(i) n
x. n y = xy or x .y = ( xy )n
n n n

1 1
n
x x xn ⎛ x ⎞n
(ii) =n or 1 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
yn ⎝ ⎠
n y y y

1 1
⎛ 1 ⎞m 1
⎛ 1 ⎞n
(iii)
m n
x = mn x = n m
x or ⎜⎜ x n ⎟⎟ = x mn = ⎜⎜ x m ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

m m
( )
1
(iv) n
x m = x n or x m n = xn

p pn
( ) ( )
1 1
(v) n
x p = mn x pn or x p m = x m = x mn = x pn mn

Here, x and y are positive rational numbers and m, n and p are positive integers.
Let us illustrate these laws by examples:
1 1 1
(i) 3
3 3
8 = 3 × 8 = (24)3 = 3 24 = 3 3 × 8
3 3

1 1
(5)3 ⎛ 5 ⎞3
=⎜ ⎟ =3
5
(ii) 1
(9)3 ⎝9⎠ 9

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1
3 ⎛ 1 ⎞3
1 1

(iii)
3 2
7 = 7 = ⎜⎜ 7 2 ⎟⎟ = 7 6 = 6 7 = 2×3 7 = 2
2 3
7
⎝ ⎠
Notes
3 9
( )
1
(iv) 5
43 = 4 3 5
= 4 = 4 = 15 49 = 3×5 43×3
5 15

Thus, we see that the above laws of surds are verified.

An important point: The order of a surd can be changed by multiplying the index of the
surd and index of the radicand by the same positive number.

For example 3
2 = 6 22 = 6 4

and 4
3 = 8 32 = 8 9

2.12 SIMILAR (OR LIKE) SURDS

Two surds are said to be similar, if they can be reduced to the same irrational factor,
without consideration for co-efficient.

For example, 3 5 and 7 5 are similar surds. Again consider 75 = 5 3 and

12 = 2 3 . Now 75 and 12 are expressed as 5 3 and 2 3 . Thus, they are
similar surds.

2.13 SIMPLEST (LOWEST) FORM OF A SURD

A surd is said to be in its simplest form, if it has

a) smallest possible index of the sign

b) no fraction under radical sign
c) no factor of the form an, where a is a positive integer, under the radical sign of index n.

125 3 125 ×12 5 3

For example, 3 = = 12
18 18 ×12 6
Let us take some examples.
Example 2.20: Express each of the following as pure surd in the simplest form:

3
(i) 2 7 (ii) 44 7 (iii) 32
4

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Solution:

(i) 2 7 = 2 2 × 7 = 4 × 7 = 28 , which is a pure surd.

Notes
(ii) 44 7 = 4 4 4 × 7 = 4 256 × 7 = 4 1792 , which is a pure surd.

3 9
(iii) 32 = 32 × = 18 , which is a pure surd.
4 16
Example 2.21: Express as a mixed surd in the simplest form:

(i) 128 (ii) 6 320 (iii) 3 250

Solution:

(i) 128 = 64 × 2 = 8 2 ,

which is a mixed surd.

(ii) 6
320 = 6 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 5

= 6 26 × 5 = 26 5 , which is a mixed surd.

(iii) 3
250 = 3 5 × 5 × 5 × 2 = 53 2 , which is a mixed surd.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2.7

1. State which of the following are pairs of similar surds:
(i) 8 , 32 (ii) 5 3 ,6 18 (iii) 20 , 125
2. Express as a pure surd:
5
(i) 7 3 (ii) 3 3 16 (iii) 24
8
3. Express as a mixed surd in the simplest form:
(i) 3 250 (ii) 3 243 (iii) 4 512

2.14 FOUR FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS ON SURDS

2.14.1 Addition and Subtraction of Surds

As in rational numbers, surds are added and subtracted in the same way.

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For example, 5 3 + 17 3 = (5 + 17 ) 3 = 22 3

and 12 5 − 7 5 = [12 − 7 ] 5 = 5 5
Notes
For adding and subtracting surds, we first change them to similar surds and then perform
the operations.

For example i) 50 + 288

= 5 × 5 × 2 + 12 ×12 × 2

= 5 2 + 12 2 = 2 (5 + 12 ) = 17 2

ii) 98 − 18

= 7 × 7 × 2 − 3× 3× 2

= 7 2 − 3 2 = (7 − 3) 2 = 4 2

Example 2.22: Simplify each of the following:

(i) 4 6 + 2 54

(ii) 45 6 − 3 216

Solution: (i) 4 6 + 2 54

= 4 6 + 2 3× 3× 6

= 4 6 + 6 6 = 10 6

(ii) 45 6 − 3 216

= 45 6 − 3 6 × 6 × 6

= 45 6 − 18 6

= 27 6

Example 2.23: Show that

24 45 − 16 20 + 245 − 47 5 = 0

Solution: 24 45 − 16 20 + 245 − 47 5

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= 24 3 × 3 × 5 − 16 2 × 2 × 5 + 7 × 7 × 5 − 47 5

= 72 5 − 32 5 + 7 5 − 47 5
Notes
= 5 [72 − 32 + 7 − 47 ]

= 5 × 0 = 0 = RHS

Example 2.24: Simplify: 23 16000 + 83 128 − 33 54 + 4 32

Solution: 23 16000 = 23 10 ×10 ×10 × 8 × 2 = 2 ×10 × 23 2 = 403 2

83 128 = 83 4 × 4 × 4 × 2 = 323 2

33 54 = 33 3 × 3 × 3 × 2 = 93 2

4
32 = 24 2
∴ Required expression

= 403 2 + 323 2 − 93 2 + 24 2
= (40 + 32 − 9)3 2 + 24 2
= 633 2 + 24 2

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2.8

Simplify each of the following:
1. 175 + 112
2. 32 + 200 + 128
3. 3 50 + 4 18
4. 108 − 75
5. 3
24 + 3 81 − 83 3
6. 63 54 − 23 16 + 43 128
7. 12 18 + 6 20 − 6 147 + 3 50 + 8 45

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2.14.2 Multiplication and Division in Surds

Two surds can be multiplied or divided if they are of the same order. We have read that the
order of a surd can be changed by multiplying or dividing the index of the surd and index
Notes
of the radicand by the same positive number. Before multiplying or dividing, we change
them to the surds of the same order.
Let us take some examples:

3 × 2 = 3× 2 = 6 [ 3 and 2 are of same order ]

12
12 ÷ 2 = = 6
2

Let us multiply 3 and 3 2

3 = 6 33 = 6 27
3
2 =6 4

∴ 3 × 3 2 = 6 27 × 6 4 = 6 108

3 6 27 6 27
and 3
= =
2 64 4
Let us consider an example:
Example 2.25:(i) Multiply 53 16 and 113 40 .

(ii) Divide 153 13 by 66 5 .

Solution: (i) 53 16 × 113 40

= 5 ×11× 3 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 2 × 2 × 2 × 5

= 55 × 2 × 23 2 3
5
= 220 3 10

153 13 5 6 132 5 6 169

(ii) 6 = . 6 =
6 5 2 5 2 5

Example 2.26: Simplify and express the result in simplest form:

2 50 × 32 × 2 72

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Solution: 2 50 = 2 5 × 5 × 2 = 10 2

32 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 4 2
Notes
2 72 = 2 × 6 2 = 12 2
∴ Given expression

= 10 2 × 4 2 × 12 2

= 960 2

2.15 COMPARISON OF SURDS

To compare two surds, we first change them to surds of the same order and then compare
their radicands along with their co-efficients. Let us take some examples:

1 3
1
Example 2.27: Which is greater or ?
4 3

3
1 6 ⎛1⎞ 1
Solution: = ⎜ ⎟ =6
4 ⎝4⎠ 64

1 6 1
3 =
3 9

1 1 1 1 1 1
> ⇒6 >6 ⇒3 >
9 64 9 64 3 4

Example 2.28: Arrange in ascending order: 3 2 , 3 and 6

5.
Solution: LCM of 2, 3, and 6 is 6.

∴ 3 2 = 6 22 = 6 4

3 = 6 33 = 6 27

6
5=6 5

Now 6
4 < 6 5 < 6 27

⇒3 2<6 5< 3

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2.9

1. Multipliy 3 32 and 53 4 . Notes

2. Multipliy 3 and 3 5 .

3. Divide 3 135 by 3
5.

4. Divide 2 24 by 3
320 .

5. Which is greater 4 5 or 3 4 ?

6. Which in smaller: 5 10 or 4 9 ?

7. Arrange in ascending order:

3 6 3
2, 3, 4
8. Arrange in descending order:
3 4 3
2, 3, 4

2.16 RATIONALISATION OF SURDS

Consider the products:
1 1
(i) 3 2 × 3 2 = 3

7 4
(ii) 511 × 511 = 5

1 3
(iii) 7 4 × 7 4 = 7
In each of the above three multiplications, we see that on multiplying two surds, we get the
result as rational number. In such cases, each surd is called the rationalising factor of the
other surd.

(i) 3 is a rationalising factor of 3 and vice-versa.

(ii) 11
54 is a rationalising factor of 11 57 and vice-versa.

(iii) 4
7 is a rationalising factor of 4 73 and vice-versa.

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In other words, the process of converting surds to rational numbers is called rationalisation
and two numbers which on multiplication give the rational number is called the rationalisation
factor of the other.
Notes
For example, the rationalising factor of x is x , of 3 + 2 is 3 − 2 .
Note:

(i) The quantities x − y and x + y are called conjugate surds. Their sum and product
are always rational.
(ii) Rationalisation is usually done of the denominator of an expression involving irrational
surds.
Let us consider some examples.

Example 2.29: Find the rationalising factors of 18 and 12 .

Solution: 18 = 3× 3× 2 = 3 2

∴ Rationalising factor is 2 .

12 = 2× 2×3 = 2 3 .
∴ Rationalising factor is 3 .

2+ 5
Example 2.30: Rationalise the denominator of .
2− 5

2+ 5 ( 2+ 5 )( 2+ 5
=
) ( 2+ 5 )
2

Solution:
2− 5
=
( 2− 5 )( 2+ 5 ) −3

7 + 2 10 7 2
=− =− − 10
3 3 3

4+3 5
Example 2.31: Rationalise the denominator of .
4−3 5

4+3 5 (
4+3 5 4+3 5 )( )
Solution:
4−3 5
=
(
4−3 5 4+3 5 )( )
16 + 45 + 24 5 61 24
= =− − 5
16 − 45 29 29

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1
Example 2.32: Rationalise the denominator of .
3 − 2 +1

1 ( 3 − 2 −1 ) Notes
Solution:
3 − 2 +1
=
[( 3 − 2 +1 ) ][( 3 − 2 −1 ) ]
3 − 2 −1 3 − 2 −1
=
=
( )
3 − 2 −1
2
4−2 6

3 − 2 −1 4 + 2 6
= ×
4−2 6 4+2 6

4 3 −4 2 −4+6 2 −4 3 −2 6
=
16 − 24

2 −2− 6 6− 2+2
=− =
4 4

3+ 2 2
Example 2.33: If = a + b 2 , find the values of a and b.
3− 2

3+ 2 2 3+ 2 2 3+ 2 9+ 4+9 2
Solution: = × =
3− 2 3− 2 3+ 2 9−2

13 + 9 2 13 9
= = + 2 =a+b 2
7 7 7

13 9
⇒a= , b=
7 7

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2.10

1. Find the rationalising factor of each of the following:
(i) 3 49 (ii) 2 + 1 (iii) 3 x 2 + 3 y 2 + 3 xy
2. Simplify by rationalising the denominator of each of the following:
12 2 3 11 − 5 3 +1
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
5 17 11 + 5 3 −1

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2+ 3 2− 3
3. Simplify: +
2− 3 2+ 3
Notes 1
4. Rationalise the denominator of
3 − 2 −1
1
5. If a = 3 + 2 2 . Find a + .
a

2+5 7
6. If = x + 7 y , find x and y.
2−5 7
______________________________________________________________

LET US SUM UP
• a × a × a × ..... m times = am is the exponential form, where a is the base and m is the
exponent.
• Laws of exponent are:
m
⎛a⎞ am
m
(i) a × a = a n m+n
(ii) a ÷ a = a
m n m–n
(iii) (ab) = a b m m m
(iv) ⎜ ⎟ = m
⎝b⎠ b

1
(v) a m ( ) n
= a mn (vi) ao = 1 (vii) a
−m
=
am
p
• a = ap
q q

• An irrational number n x is called a surd, if x is a rational number and nth root of x is

not a rational number.

• In n
x , n is called index and x is called radicand.
• A surd with rational co-efficient (other than 1) is called a mixed surd.
• The order of the surd is the number that indicates the root.

• The order of n
x is n
• Laws of radicals (a > 0, b > 0)
n

[ a] = a
a n a
(i) n
n
(ii) a × b = ab
n n n (iii) n
=
b b

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• Operations on surds
1 1
1 1
1 1
⎛ 1
⎞m 1
⎛ ⎞ 1 n ⎛ x ⎞n
xn
= ⎜⎜ x ⎟⎟ ; 1 ⎜⎜ y ⎟⎟
=
1
x × y = ( xy ) ; ⎜⎜ x
n n n n ⎟ =x
⎟
mn m
Notes
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ yn ⎝ ⎠

m a an
(x ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1
m n
=x ; n m
x = a mn
x an
or x a m
=x =x m mn
= x an mn

• Surds are similar if they have the same irrational factor.

• Similar surds can be added and subtracted.
• Orders of surds can be changed by multiplying index of the surds and index of the
radicand by the same positive number.
• Surds of the same order are multiplied and divided.
• To compare surds, we change surds to surds of the same order. Then they are compared
by their radicands alongwith co-efficients.
• If the product of two surds is rational, each is called the rationalising factor of the
other.

• x + y is called rationalising factor of x − y and vice-versa.

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Express the following in exponential form:
(i) 5 × 3 × 5 × 3 × 7 × 7 × 7 × 9 × 9

⎛−7⎞ ⎛−7⎞ ⎛−7⎞ ⎛−7⎞

(ii) ⎜ ⎟×⎜ ⎟×⎜ ⎟×⎜ ⎟
⎝ 9 ⎠ ⎝ 9 ⎠ ⎝ 9 ⎠ ⎝ 9 ⎠
2. Simplify the following:
3 2 3
⎛ 5⎞ ⎛7⎞ ⎛3⎞
(i) ⎜ − ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 6⎠ ⎝5⎠ ⎝7⎠
2 2
⎛ 3 ⎞ 35 ⎛ 1 ⎞
(ii) ⎜ ⎟ × × ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 7 ⎠ 27 ⎝ 5 ⎠
3. Simplify and express the result in exponential form:
(i) (10 )2 × (6 )2 × (5)2

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20 20
⎛ 37 ⎞ ⎛ 37 ⎞
(ii) ⎜ − ⎟ ÷ ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 19 ⎠ ⎝ 19 ⎠
Notes 5
⎡⎛ 3 ⎞3 ⎤
(iii) ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ 13 ⎠ ⎥⎦
4. Simplify each of the following:
(i) 3o + 7o + 37o – 3 (ii) ( 7o + 3o) ( 7o – 3o)
5. Simplify the following:
−3 5
⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ 2⎞
(i) (32 ) ÷ (32 )
12 −6
(ii) (111) × (111)6 −5
(iii) ⎜ − ⎟ × ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 9⎠ ⎝ 9⎠

−3 11 x
⎛3⎞ ⎛3⎞ ⎛3⎞
6. Find x so that ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝7⎠ ⎝7⎠ ⎝7⎠

−2 −9 2 x +1
⎛3⎞ ⎛3⎞ ⎛3⎞
7. Find x so that ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 13 ⎠ ⎝ 13 ⎠ ⎝ 13 ⎠
8. Express as a product of primes and write the answers of each of the following in
exponential form:
(i) 6480000 (ii) 172872 (iii) 11863800
9. The star sirus is about 8.1 × 1013 km from the earth. Assuming that the light travels at
3.0 × 105 km per second, find how long light from sirus takes to reach earth.
10. State which of the following are surds:

36
(i) (ii) 9 729 (iii) 3 5 +1 (iv) 4 3125
289
11. Express as a pure surd:

(i) 32 3 (ii) 53 4 (iii) 55 2

12. Express as a mixed surd in simplest form:

(i) 4 405 (ii) 5 320 (iii) 3 128

13. Which of the following are pairs of similar surds?

(i) 112 , 343 (ii) 3 625 , 3 3125 × 25 (iii) 6 216 , 250

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14.Simplify each of the following:

5 1
(i) 4 48 − +6 3
2 3 Notes

(ii) 63 + 28 − 175

(iii) 8 + 128 − 50
15. Which is greater?

(i) 2 or 3
3 (ii) 3 6 or 4 8

16. Arrange in descending order:

(i) 3 , 3 4 , 4 5 (ii) 2 , 3 , 3 4

17. Arrange in ascending order:

3
16 , 12 , 6 320
18. Simplify by rationalising the denominator:

3 12 5 −2
(i) (ii) (iii)
6− 7 7− 3 5+2

19. Simplify each of the following by rationalising the denominator:

1 1
(i) (ii)
1+ 2 − 3 7 + 5 − 12

5+ 2 3
20. If = a + b 3, find the values of a and b, where a and b are rational numbers.
7+4 3

1
21. If x = 7 + 4 3 , find the value of x + .
x

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

2.1
10 20
⎛3⎞ ⎛ −5⎞
1. (i) (–7) 4
(ii) ⎜ ⎟ (iii) ⎜ ⎟
⎝4⎠ ⎝ 7 ⎠

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2. Base Exponent
(i) – 3 5
Notes (ii) 7 4

2
(iii) − 8
11

81 16 27
3. (i) (ii) (iii) −
2401 6561 64

3 625
4. (i) (ii)
7 324

5 4 4
⎛1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 5⎞
5. (i) ⎜ ⎟ (ii) ⎜ − ⎟ (iii) ⎜ − ⎟
⎝3⎠ ⎝ 7⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
2.2
1. (i) 31 × 111 × 131 (ii) 23 × 34 (iii) 23 × 33 × 71
2. (i) 36 (ii) 29 (iii) 25 × 34

113 (− 7 )3
(iv) 12 (v)
2 25
2.3
5 6
⎛3⎞ ⎛ 7⎞
1. (i) (7) 5
(ii) ⎜ ⎟ (iii) ⎜ − ⎟
⎝4⎠ ⎝ 8⎠

6 15
⎛3⎞ ⎛ 7⎞
2. (i) (–7) 2
(ii) ⎜ ⎟ (iii) ⎜ − ⎟
⎝4⎠ ⎝ 8⎠

6 15
⎛3⎞ ⎛ 5⎞
3. (i) 2 18
(ii) ⎜ ⎟ (iii) ⎜ − ⎟
⎝4⎠ ⎝ 9⎠

5 3
⎛ 11 ⎞ ⎛ 7⎞
(iv) ⎜ ⎟ (v) ⎜ − ⎟
⎝3⎠ ⎝ 11 ⎠
4. True: (i), (ii), (vii)
False: (iii), (iv), (v), (vi)

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2.4

49
1.
9
Notes
4 12
⎛7⎞ ⎛ 13 ⎞
2. (i) ⎜ ⎟ (ii) 12 2
(iii) ⎜ ⎟
⎝3⎠ ⎝3⎠

−4 −10 −10
⎛7⎞ ⎛1⎞ ⎛ 4⎞
3. (i) ⎜ ⎟ (ii) ⎜ ⎟ (iii) ⎜ − ⎟
⎝3⎠ ⎝7⎠ ⎝ 3⎠

81 2 343
4. (i) (ii) − (iii) −
16 3 125
5. True: (ii), (iii), (iv)
2.5

25
1. (i) 8 (ii)
9

7 13
2. (i) 1 (ii) (iii)
8 16
2.6
1. (i) 4, 64 (ii) 6, 343 (iii) 2, 119
2. (iii), (iv)
3. Pure: (i), (iv)
Mixed: (ii), (iii)
2.7
1. (i), (iii)

75
2. (i) 147 (ii) 3 432 (iii)
8

3. (i) 53 2 (ii) 33 9 (iii) 44 2

2.8

1. 9 7 2. 22 2 3. 27 2 4. 3

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5. − 3 3 6. 303 2 7. 51 2 + 36 5 − 42 3

2.9
Notes
216
1. 203 2 2. 33 5 3. 3 4. 6
25

5. 3
4 6. 4
9 7. 6
3, 3 2 , 3 4 8. 3
4 , 4 3, 3 2
2.10

1. (i) 3 7 (ii) 2 − 1 (iii) 3 x − 3 y

12 2 51 8 55
2. (i) 5 (ii) (iii) − (iv) 2 + 3
5 17 3 3
3. 14

4. −
1
4
[
2+ 6 + 2 ]
5. 6

179 20 7
6. − −
171 171

ANSWERS TO TERMINAL EXERCISE

4
⎛ 7⎞
1. (i) 52 × 32 × 73 × 92 (ii) ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 9⎠

5 1
2. (i) − (ii)
56 105

15
⎛3⎞
4
3. (i) 2 × 3 × 5 2 4
(ii) 1 (iii) ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 13 ⎠
4. (i) zero (ii) zero
2
⎛2⎞
5. (i) (32) 18
(ii) 111 (iii) ⎜ ⎟
⎝9⎠

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6. x = 8
7. x = – 6
8. 27 × 34 × 54
Notes
9. 33 × 107 seconds
10. (ii), (iii), (iv)

11. (i) 2 27 (ii) 3 500 (iii) 5 6250

12. (i) 34 5 (ii) 25 10 (iii) 43 2

13. (i), (ii)

127
14. (i) 3 (ii) zero (iii) 5 2
6

15. (i) 3 3 (ii) 3 6

16. (i) 3 , 3 4 , 4 5 (ii) 3 , 3 4 , 2

17. 3 16 , 6 320 , 12

(
18. (i) − 3 6 + 7 ) (
(ii) 3 7 + 3 ) (ii) 9 − 4 5

2+ 2 + 6 7 5 + 5 7 + 2 105
19. (i) (ii)
4 70
20. a = 11, b = –6
21. 14

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Notes
3
ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS AND
POLYNOMIALS

So far, you had been using arithmetical numbers, which included natural numbers, whole
numbers, fractional numbers, etc. and fundamental operations on those numbers. In this
lesson, we shall introduce algebraic numbers and some other basic concepts of algebra
like constants, variables, algebraic expressions, special algebraic expressions, called
polynomials and four fundamental operations on them.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to
• identify variables and constants in an expression;
• cite examples of algebraic expressions and their terms;
• understand and identify a polynomial as a special case of an algebraic expression;
• cite examples of types of polynomials in one and two variables;
• identify like and unlike terms of polynomials;
• determine degree of a polynomial;
• find the value of a polynomial for given value(s) of variable(s), including zeros
of a polynomial;
• perform four fundamental operations on polynomials.

EXPECTED BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE

• Knowledge of number systems and four fundamental operations.
• Knowledge of other elementary concepts of mathematics at primary and upper primary
levels.

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3.1 INTRODUCTION TO ALGEBRA

1 3
You are already familiar with numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, ...., , ,.... 2 ,... etc. and operations of
2 4 Notes
addition (+), subtraction (–), multiplication (×) and division (÷) on these numbers. Sometimes,
letters called literal numbers, are also used as symbols to represent numbers. Suppose
we want to say “The cost of one book is twenty rupees”.
In arithmetic, we write : The cost of one book = ` 20
In algebra, we put it as: the cost of one book in rupees is x. Thus x stands for a number.
Similarly, a, b, c, x, y, z, etc. can stand for number of chairs, tables, monkeys, dogs, cows,
trees, etc. The use of letters help us to think in more general terms.
Let us consider an example, you know that if the side of a square is 3 units, its perimeter is
4 × 3 units. In algebra, we may express this as
p=4s
where p stands for the number of units of perimeter and s those of a side of the square.
On comparing the language of arithmetic and the language of algebra we find that the
language of algebra is
(a) more precise than that of arithmetic.
(b) more general than that of arithmetic.
(c) easier to understand and makes solutions of problems easier.
A few more examples in comparative form would confirm our conclusions drawn above:
Verbal statement Algebraic statement
(i) A number increased by 3 gives 8 a+3=8
(ii) A number increased by itself gives 12 x + x = 12, written as 2x = 12
(iii) Distance = speed × time d = s × t, written as d = st
(iv) A number, when multiplied by itself b × b + 5 = 9, written as b2 + 5 = 9
and added to 5 gives 9
(v) The product of two successive natural y × (y + 1) = 30, wrtten as y (y + 1) = 30,
numbers is 30 where y is a natural number.
Since literal numbers are used to represent numbers of arithmetic, symbols of operation +,
–, × and ÷ have the same meaning in algebra as in arithmetic. Multiplication symbols in
algebra are often omitted. Thus for 5 × a we write 5a and for a × b we write ab.

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3.2 VARIABLES AND CONSTANTS

Consider the months — January, February, March, ....., December of the year 2009. If
we represent ‘the year 2009’ by a and ‘a month’ by x we find that in this situation ‘a’ (year
Notes 2009) is a fixed entity whereas x can be any one of January, February, March, ...., December.
Thus, x is not fixed. It varies. We say that in this case ‘a’ is a constant and ‘x’ is a
variable.
Similarly, when we consider students of class X and represent class X by, say, b and a
student by, say, y; we find that in this case b (class X) is fixed and so b is a constant and y
(a student) is a variable as it can be any one student of class X.
Let us consider another situation. If a student stays in a hostel, he will have to pay fixed
room rent, say, ` 1000. The cost of food, say ` 100 per day, depends on the number of
days he takes food there. In this case room rent is constant and the number of days, he
takes food there, is variable.
Now think of the numbers.

3 4 21
4, − 14, 2 , , − , 3x, y, 2z
2 15 8

3 4
You know that 4, − 14, 2 , , and − are real numbers, each of which has a fixed
2 15
21
value while 3x, y and 2z contain unknown x, y and z respectively and therefore do
8
not have fixed values like 4, –14, etc. Their values depend on x, y and z respectively.
Therefore, x, y and z are variables.
Thus, a variable is literal number which can have different values whereas a constant
has a fixed value.
In algebra, we usually denote constants by a, b, c and variables x, y, z. However, the
context will make it clear whether a literal number has denoted a constant or a variable.

3.3 ALBEGRAIC EXPRESSIONS AND POLYNOMIALS

Expressions, involving arithmetical numbers, variables and symbols of operations are called
1 x ax + by + cz
algebraic expressions. Thus, 3 + 8, 8x + 4, 5y, 7x – 2y +6, , ,
2 x y − 2 x + y + z are
all algebraic expressions. You may note that 3 + 8 is both an arithmetic as well as algebraic
expression.
An algebraic expression is a combination of numbers, variables and arithmetical
operations.

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One or more signs + or – separates an algebraic expression into several parts. Each part
along with its sign is called a term of the expression. Often, the plus sign of the first term is
omitted in writing an algebraic expression. For example, we write x – 5y + 4 instead of
writing + x – 5y + 4. Here x, – 5y and 4 are the three terms of the expression.
Notes
1 1
In xy, is called the numerical coefficient of the term and also of xy. coefficient of x is
3 3
1 1
y and that of y is x. When the numerical coefficient of a term is +1 or –1, the ‘1’ is
3 3
usually omitted in writing. Thus, numerical coefficent of a term, say, x2y is +1 and that of
–x2y is –1.
An algebraic expression, in which variable(s) does (do) not occur in the denominator,
exponents of variable(s) are whole numbers and numerical coefficients of various
terms are real numbers, is called a polynomial.
In other words,

(i) No term of a polynomial has a variable in the denominator;

(ii) In each term of a polynomial, the exponents of the variable(s) are non-negative integers;
and
(iii) Numerical coefficient of each term is a real number.
1 7 1 3
a – b+ and x − 2y + xy − 8 are all polynomials
2
Thus, for example, 5, 3x –y ,
3 2 4
2
1
whereas x − , x + y and x 3 + 5 are not polynomials.
3

x
x2 +8 is a polynomial in one variable x and 2x2 + y3 is a polynomial in two variables x and
y. In this lesson, we shall restrict our discussion of polynomials including two variables
only.
General form of a polynomial in one variable x is:
a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ....+anxn
where coefficients a0, a1, a2, ....an are real numbers, x is a variable and n is a whole
number. a0, a1x, a2x2, ...., anxn are (n + 1) terms of the polynomial.
An algebraic expression or a polynomial, consisting of only one term, is called a monomial.
1 2 3
Thus, –2, 3y, –5x2, xy, x y are all monomials.
2
An algebraic expression or a polynomial, consisting of only two terms, is called a binomial.
Thus, 5 + x, y2 – 8x, x3 – 1 are all bionomials.

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An algebraic expression or a polynomial, consisting of only three terms, is called a trinomial.
Thus x + y + 1, x2 + 3x + 2, x2 + 2xy + y2 are all trinomials.
The terms of a polynomial, having the same variable(s) and the same exponents of
Notes the variable(s), are called like terms.
For example, in the expression
3xy + 9x + 8xy – 7x + 2x2
the terms 3xy and 8 xy are like terms; also 9x and –7x are like terms whereas 9x and 2x2
are not like terms. Terms that are not like, are called unlike terms. In the above expression
3xy and –7x are also unlike terms.
Note that arithmetical numbers are like terms. For example, in the polynomials
x2 + 2x + 3 and x3 – 5, the terms 3 and – 5 are regrded as like terms since 3 = 3x0 and
– 5 = – 5x0.
The terms of the expression
2x2 – 3xy + 9y2 – 7y + 8
are all unlike, i.e., there are no two like terms in this expression.
Example 3.1: Write the variables and constants in 2x2y + 5.
Solution: Variables : x and y
Constants: 2 and 5
Example 3.2: In 8x2y3, write the coefficient of
(i) x2y3 (ii) x2 (iii) y3
Solution: (i) 8x2y3 = 8 × (x2y3)
∴ Coefficient of x2y3 is 8
(ii) 8x2y3 = 8y3 ×(x2)
∴ Coefficient of x2 is 8y3.
(iii) 8x2y3 = 8x2 ×(y3)
∴ Coefficient of y3 is 8x2.
Example 3.3: Write the terms of expression

5 1
3x 2 y − x− y+2
2 3
Solution: The terms of the given expression are

5 1
3x2y, − x, − y , 2
2 3

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Example 3.4: Which of the following algebraic expressions are polynomials?

1 1
(i) + x 3 − 2x 2 + 6 x (ii) x +
2 x
Notes
2 2 3
(iii) 2x + 3x –5 x + 6 (iv) 5 – x – x – x

Solution: (i) and (iv) are polynomials.

1
In (ii), second term is = x −1 . Since second term contains negative exponent
x
of the variable, the expression is not a polynomial.
1
In (iii) , third term is − 5 x = −5x 2 . Since third term contains fractional exponent
of the variable, the expression is not a polynomial.
Example 3.5: Write like terms, if any, in each of the following expressions:

1 2
(ii) x − 2 y − x + 3y − 8
2
(i) x + y + 2
2

2 1 5 1
(iii) 1 – 2xy + 2x2y – 2xy2 + 5x2y2 (iv) y− z+ y+
3 3 3 3

Solution: (i) There are no like terms in the expression.

1 2
(ii) x2 and − x are like terms, also –2y and 3 y are like terms
2
(iii) There are no like terms in the expression.

2
(iv) y and 5 y are like terms
3 3

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3.1

1. Write the variables and constants in each of the following:
2 1 4 2 3
(i) 1 + y (ii) x+ y+7 (iii) x y
3 3 5

2 5 1 1
(iv) xy + (v) 2x2 + y2 – 8 (vi) x +
5 2 x

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2. In 2x2y, write the coefficient of

(i) x2y (ii) x2 (iii) y
3. Using variables and operation symbols, express each of the following verbal statements
Notes as algebraic statements:
(i) three less than a number equals fifteen.
(ii) A number increased by five gives twenty-two.
4. Write the terms of each of the following expressions:
1
(iii) x y − 2xy −
2 2
(i) 2 + abc (ii) a + b + c + 2
2

1 3 2
(iv) x y
8
5. Identify like terms, if any, in each of the following expressions:
1 2 1 2
(i) – xy2 + x2y + y2 + yx (ii) 6a + 6b – 3ab + a b + ab
3 4

1 2
(iii) ax2 + by2 + 2c – a2x – b2y – c
3
6. Which of the following algebraic expressions are polynomials?
1 3
(i) x +1 (ii) 52 – y2 – 2 (iii) 4x–3 + 3y
3

1
(iv) 5 x + y + 6 (v) 3x2 – 2y
2
(vi) y2 – +4
y2
7. Identify each of the following as a monomial, binomial or a trinomial:
1 3 3
(i) x3 + 3 (ii) xy (iii) 2y2 + 3yz + z2
3
(iv) 5 – xy – 3x2y2 (v) 7 – 4x2y2 (vi) – 8x3y3

3.4 DEGREE OF A POLYNOMIAL

The sum of the exponents of the variables in a term is called the degree of that term. For
1 2
example, the degree of x y is 3 since the sum of the exponents of x and y is 2 + 1, i.e.,
2
3. Similarly, the degree of the term 2x5 is 5. The degree of a non-zero constant, say, 3 is 0
since it can be written as 3 = 3 × 1 = 3 × x0, as x0 = 1.

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A polynomial has a number of terms separated by the signs + or –. The degree of a
polynomial is the same as the degree of its term or terms having the highest
degree and non-zero coefficient.
For example, consider the polynomial Notes
3x4y3 + 7 xy5 – 5x3y2 + 6xy
It has terms of degrees 7, 6, 5, and 2 respectively, of which 7 is the highest. Hence, the
degree of this polynomial is 7.
A polynomial of degree 2 is also called a quadratic polynomial. For example,
3 – 5x + 4x2 and x2 + xy + y2 are quadratic polynomials.
Note that the degree of a non-zero constant polynomial is taken as zero.
When all the coefficients of variable(s) in the terms of a polynomial are zeros, the polynomial
is called a zero polynomial. The degree of a zero polynomial is not defined.

3.5 EVALUATION OF POLYNOMIALS

We can evaluate a polynomial for given value of the variable occuring in it. Let us understand
the steps involved in evaluation of the polynomial 3x2 – x + 2 for x = 2. Note that we
restrict ourselves to polynomials in one variable.
Step 1: Substitute given value(s) in place of the variable(s).
Here, when x = 2, we get 3 × (2)2 – 2 +2
Step 2: Simplify the numerical expression obtained in Step 1.
3 × (2)2 –2 + 2 = 3 × 4 = 12
Therefore, when x = 2, we get 3x2 – x + 2 = 12
Let us consider another example.
Example 3.6: Evaluate
1
(i) 1 – x5 + 2x6 + 7 x for x =
2
3 2
(ii) 5x + 3x – 4x – 4 for x = 1
1
Solution: (i) For x = , the value of the given polynomial is:
2
5 6
⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞ 1
= 1 − ⎜ ⎟ + 2⎜ ⎟ + 7 ×
⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠ 2
1 1 7
= 1− + +
32 32 2

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9 1
= =4
2 2

Notes (ii) For x = 1, the value of the given polynomial is:

5 × (1)3 + 3 × (1)2 – 4 × 1 – 4
=5+3–4–4=0

3.6 ZERO OF A POLYNOMIAL

The value(s) of the variable for which the value of a polynomial in one variable is zero is
(are) called zero(s) of the polynomial. In Example 3.6(ii) above, the value of the
polynomial 5x3 + 3x2 – 4x – 4 for x = 1 is zero. Therefore, we say that x = 1 is a zero of
the polynomial 5x3 + 3x2 – 4x – 4.
Let us consider another example.
Example 3.7: Determine whether given value is a zero of the given polynomial:
(i) x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 2; x = – 1
(ii) x4 – 4x3 + 6x2 – 4x + 1; x = 1
Solution: (i) For x = – 1, the value of the given polynomial is
(–1)3 + 3 × (–1)2 + 3 × (–1) + 2
=–1+3–3+2
= 1 (≠0)
Hence, x = – 1 is not a zero of the given polynomial.
(ii) For x = 1, the value of the given polynomial is
(1)4 – 4 × (1)3 + 6 × (1)2 – 4 × 1 +1
= 1 – 4 + 6 – 4 +1
=0
Hence, x = 1 is a zero of the given polynomial.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3.2

1. Write the degree of each of the following monomials:
18 7 7 3
(i) x (ii) y (iii) 10 x (iv) 27
5 8

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2. Rewrite the following monomials in increasing order of their degrees:
2 2
– 3x6, x , 9x, – 25x3, 2.5
9
Notes
3. Determine the degree of each of the following polynomials:

(i) 5x6y4 + 1 (ii) 105 + xy3 (iii) x2 + y2 (iv) x2y + xy2 – 3xy + 4

4. Evaluate each of the following polynomials for the indicated value of the variable:

(i) x2 – 25 for x = 5 (ii) x2 + 3x – 5 for x = –2

2 3 4 2 7
(iii) x + x − for x = – 1 (iv) 2x3 – 3x2 – 3x + 12 for x = – 2
3 5 5

5. Verify that each of x = 2 and x = 3 is a zero of the polynomial x2 – 5x + 6.

3.7 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF POLYNOMIALS

You are now familiar that polynomials may consist of like and unlike terms. In adding
polynomials, we add their like terms together. Similarly, in subtracting a polynomial from
another polynomial, we subtract a term from a like term. The question, now, arises ‘how
do we add or subtract like terms?’ Let us take an example.
Suppose we want to add like terms 2x and 3x. The procedure, that we follow in arithmetic,
we follow in algebra too. You know that
5 × 6 + 5 × 7 = 5 × (6 + 7)
6 × 5 + 7 × 5 = (6 + 7) × 5
Therefore, 2x + 3x = 2 × x + 3 × x
= (2 + 3) × x
=5×x
= 5x
Similarly, 2xy + 4 xy = (2 + 4) xy = 6xy
3x2y + 8x2y = (3 + 8)x2y = 11x2y
In the same way, since
7 × 5 – 6 × 5 = (7 – 6) × 5 = 1 × 5
∴ 5y – 2y = (5 – 2) × y = 3y
and 9x2y2 – 5x2y2 = (9 – 5)x2y2 = 4x2y2

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In view of the above, we conclude:
1. The sum of two (or more) like terms is a like term whose numerical coefficient is
the sum of the numerical coefficients of the like terms.
Notes
2. The difference of two like terms is a like term whose numerical coefficient is the
difference of the numerical coefficients of the like terms.
Therefore, to add two or more polynomials, we take the following steps:
Step 1: Group the like terms of the given polynomials together.
Step 2: Add the like terms together to get the sum of the given polynomials.
Example 3.8: Add – 3x + 4 and 2x2 – 7x – 2
Solution: (–3x + 4) + (2x2 – 7x – 2)
= 2x2 + (–3x –7x) + (4 – 2)
= 2x2 + (–3 – 7)x + 2
= 2x2 + (–10)x + 2
= 2x2 – 10x + 2
∴ (–3x + 4) + (2x2 – 7x – 2) = 2x2 – 10x + 2
Polynomials can be added more conveniently if
(i) the given polynomials are so arranged that their like terms are in one column, and
(ii) the coefficients of each column (i.e. of the group of like terms) are added
Thus, Example 3.8 can also be solved as follows:
–3x + 4
2x2 –7x – 2
2x2 + (–7 –3)x + (4– 2)
∴ (–3x + 4) + (2x2 – 7x – 2) = 2x2 – 10x + 2
3 7
Example 3.9: Add 5x + 3y − and − 2x + y +
4 4
3
Solution: 5x + 3y −
4
7
− 2x + y +
4
⎛7 3⎞
3x + 4y + ⎜ − ⎟
⎝4 4⎠
= 3x + 4y + 1

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⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 7⎞
∴ ⎜ 5x + 3y − ⎟ + ⎜ − 2x + y + ⎟ = 3x + 4y + 1
⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ 4⎠

3 3 x3 Notes
Example 3.10: Add x + x 2 + x + 1 and x 4 − − 3x + 1
2 2

3 2
Solution: x + x2 + x + 1
2

1
+ x4 − x3 – 3x + 1
2

⎛3 1⎞
x 4 + ⎜ − ⎟ x 3 + x 2 + (1 − 3)x + (1 + 1)
⎝2 2⎠

= x 4 + x3 + x 2 − 2x + 2

⎛3 2 ⎞ ⎛ 4 x ⎞
3
∴ ⎜ x + x + x + 1⎟ + ⎜ x − − 3x + 1⎟⎟ = x 4 + x 3 + x 2 − 2 x + 2
2
⎜
⎝2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
In order to subtract one polynomial from another polynomial, we go through the following
three steps:
Step 1: Arrange the given polynomials in columns so that like terms are in one column.
Step 2: Change the sign (from + to – and from – to +) of each term of the polynomial to
be subtracted.
Step 3: Add the like terms of each column separately.
Let us understand the procedure by means of some examples.
2 2
Example 3.11: Subtract − 4x + 3x + from 9x 2 − 3x − .
2

3 7
2
Solution: 9x 2 − 3x −
7
2
− 4x 2 + 3x +
3
+ – –

(9 + 4)x 2 + (− 3 − 3)x + ⎛⎜ − 2 − 2 ⎞⎟
⎝ 7 3⎠
20
= 13 x − 6 x −
2

21

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⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ 2⎞ 20
∴ ⎜ 9x 2 − 3x − ⎟ − ⎜ − 4x 2 + 3x + ⎟ = 13 x 2 − 6 x −
⎝ 7⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ 21

Notes Example 3.12: Subtract 3x – 5x2 + 7 + 3x3 from 2x2 –5 + 11x – x3.
Solution: – x3 + 2x2 + 11x – 5
3x3 – 5x2 + 3x + 7
– + – –
(–1–3)x3 + (2 + 5)x2 + (11 – 3)x + (–5 – 7)
= – 4x3 + 7x2 + 8x – 12
∴ (2x2 –5 + 11x – x3) – (3x – 5x2 + 7 + 3x3 ) = – 4x3 + 7x2 + 8x – 12
Example 3.13: Subtract 12xy – 5y2 – 9x2 from 15xy + 6y2 + 7x2.
Solution: 15xy + 6y2 + 7x2
12xy – 5y2 – 9x2
– + +
3xy + 11y2 + 16x2
Thus, (15xy + 6y2 + 7x2) – (12xy – 5y2 – 9x2 ) = 3xy + 11y2 + 16x2
We can also directly subtract without arranging expressions in columns as follows:
(15xy + 6y2 + 7x2) – (12xy – 5y2 – 9x2 )
= 15xy + 6y2 + 7x2 – 12xy + 5y2 + 9x2
= 3xy + 11y2 + 16x2
In the same manner, we can add more than two polynomials.
Example 3.14: Add polynomials 3x + 4y – 5x2, 5y + 9x and 4x – 17y – 5x2.
Solution: 3x + 4y – 5x2
9x + 5y
4x – 17y – 5x2
16x – 8y – 10x2

∴ (3x + 4y – 5x2) + (5y + 9x) + (4x – 17y – 5x2) = 16x – 8y – 10x2

Example 3.15: Subtract x2 – x – 1 from the sum of 3x2 – 8x + 11, – 2x2 + 12x and
– 4x2 + 17.

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Solution: Firstly we find the sum of 3x2 – 8x + 11, – 2x2 + 12x and – 4x2 + 17.
3x2 – 8x + 11
– 2x2 + 12x
– 4x2 + 17 Notes
– 3x2 + 4x + 28
Now, we subtract x2 – x – 1 from this sum.
– 3x2 + 4x + 28
x2 – x – 1
– + +
– 4x2 + 5x + 29
Hence, the required result is – 4x2 + 5x + 29.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3.3

1. Add the following pairs of polynomials:
2 2 3 2 1
(i) x + x + 1; x + x +5
3 7 4
7 3
(ii) x − x 2 + 1; 2x 2 + x – 3
5
7
(iii) 7x − 3x + 4y; 3x + 5x − 4x +
2 3 2
y
3
(iv) 2x3 + 7x2y – 5xy + 7; – 2x2y + 7x3 – 3xy – 7
2. Add:
(i) x2 – 3x + 5, 5 + 7x – 3x2 and x2 + 7

1 2 7 2 1
(ii) x + x − 5, x 2 + 5 + x and − x 2 − x
3 8 3 8
(iii) a2 – b2 + ab, b2 – c2 + bc and c2 – a2 + ca
(iv) 2a2 + 3b2, 5a2 – 2b2 + ab and – 6a2 – 5ab + b2
3. Subtract:
(i) 7x3 – 3x2 + 2 from x2 – 5x + 2
(ii) 3y – 5y2 + 7 + 3y3 from 2y2 – 5 + 11y – y3

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(iii) 2z3 + 7z – 5z2 + 2 from 5z + 7 – 3z2 + 5z3

(iv) 12x3 – 3x2 + 11x + 13 from 5x3 + 7x2 + 2x –4
4. Subtract 4a – b – ab + 3 from the sum of 3a – 5b + 3ab and 2a + 4b – 5ab.
Notes

3.8 MULTIPLICATION OF POLYNOMIALS

To multiply a monomial by another monomial, we make use of laws of exponents and the
rule of signs. For example,
3a × a2b2c2 = (3 × 1) a2+1 b2 c2 = 3a3b2c2
– 5x × 2 xy3 = (– 5 × 2) x1+1 y3 = – 10 x2y3

1 2 ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 1 ⎞ 1
− y z × ⎜ − ⎟ yz = ⎜ − ⎟⎜ − ⎟ y 2+1 z1+1 = y 3 z 2
2 ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 3 ⎠ 6

To multiply a polynomial by a monomial, we multiply each term of the polynomial by the

monomial. For example
x2y × (–y2 + 2xy + 1) = x2y × (–y2) + (x2y) × 2xy + (x2y) × 1
= – x2y3 + 2x3y2 + x2y
To multiply a polynomial by another polynomial, we multiply each term of one polynomial
by each term of the other polynomial and simplify the result by combining the terms. It is
advisable to arrange both the polynomials in increasing or decreasing powers of the variable.
For example,
(2n + 3) (n2 – 3n + 4) = 2n × n2 + 2n × (– 3n) + 2n × 4 + 3 × n2 + 3 × (–3n) +
3×4
= 2n3 – 6n2 + 8n + 3n2 – 9n + 12

= 2n3 – 3n2 – n + 12

Let us take some more examples.

Example 3.16: Find the product of (0.2x2 + 0.7 x + 3) and (0.5 x2 – 3x)

Solution: (0.2x2 + 0.7 x + 3) × (0.5 x2 – 3x)

= 0.2x2 × 0.5 x2 + 0.2x2 × (– 3x) + 0.7 x × 0.5 x2 + 0.7 x × (– 3x) + 3 ×

0.5x2 + 3× (– 3x) )

= 0.1x4 – 0.60x3 + 0.35x3 – 2.1x2 + 1.5 x2 – 9x

= 0.1 x4 – 0.25 x3 – 0.6x2 – 9x

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Example 3.17: Multiply 2x – 3 + x2 by 1 – x.

Solution: Arranging polynomials in decreasing powers of x, we get

(x2 + 2x – 3) × (– x + 1) = x2 × (–x) + x2 × (1) + 2x × (–x) + 2x × 1 – 3 × (–x) Notes

–3×1
= – x3 + x2 – 2x2 + 2x + 3x – 3
= – x3 – x2 + 5x – 3
Alternative method:
x2 + 2x – 3 one polynomial
–x +1 other polynomial
3 2
– x – 2x + 3x
+ x2 + 2x – 3 Partial products
3 2
– x – x + 5x – 3 Product

3.9 DIVISION OF POLYNOMIALS

To divide a monomial by another monomial, we find the quotient of numerical coefficients
and variable(s) separately using laws of exponents and then multiply these quotients. For
example,
25 x 3 y 3 25 x 3 y 3
(i) 25 x 3 y 3 ÷ 5 x 2 y = = × 2×
5x 2 y 5 x y
1 2
=5×x ×y
= 5xy2
12ax 2 − 12 a x 2
(ii) − 12ax 2 ÷ 4x = − = × ×
4x 4 1 x
= – 3ax
To divide a polynomial by a monomial, we divide each term of the polynomial by the
monomial. For example,

(i) (15x 3
)
− 3 x 2 + 18 x ÷ 3 x =
15 x 3 3 x 2 18 x
3x
− +
3x 3x
= 5x2 – x + 6

− 8x 2 10x
(ii) (− 8x 2
)
+ 10x ÷ (− 2x ) = +
− 2x − 2x

⎛ − 8 ⎞⎛ x ⎞ 10 x
2
=⎜ ⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ×
⎝ − 2 ⎠⎝ x ⎠ (− 2) x
= 4x – 5

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The process of division of a polynomial by another polynomial is done on similar lines as in

arithmetic. Try to recall the process when you divided 20 by 3.

6 Quotient
Notes Divisor 3 20 Dividend
18
2 Remainder
The steps involved in the process of division of a polynomial by another polynomial are
explained below with the help of an example.
Let us divide 2x2 + 5x + 3 by 2x + 3.
Step 1: Arrange the terms of both the polynomials in 2x + 3 2x 2 + 5x + 3
decreasing powers of the variable common to both
the polynomials.
x
Step 2: Divide the first term of the dividend by the first term 2x + 3 2 x 2 + 5x + 3
of the divisor to obtain the first term of the quotient.
Step 3: Multiply all the terms of the divisor by the first term
x
of the quotient and subtract the result from the
dividend, to obtain a remainder (as next dividend) 2x + 3 2 x + 5x + 3
2

Step 4: Divide the first term of the resulting dividend by the 2x2 + 3x
– –
first term of the divisor and write the result as the
2x + 3
second term of the quotient.
Step 5: Multiply all the terms of the divisor by the second
term of the quotient and subtract the result from x +1
the resulting dividend of Step 4. 2x + 3 2 x 2 + 5x + 3
Step 6: Repeat the process of Steps 4 and 5, till you get 2x2 + 3x
either the remainder zero or a polynomial having – –
the highest exponent of the variable lower than that 2x + 3
of the divisor. 2x +3
In the above example, we got the quotient x + 1 – –
and remainder 0. 0

Let us now consider some more examples.

Example 3.18 : Divide x3 – 1 by x – 1.
x2 + x +1
Solution: x − 1 x3 − 1
x3 – x2
–
+
2
x –1
x2 –x
–
+
x – 1

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x – 1
– +
0
2
We get quotient x + x + 1 and remainder 0.
Notes
Example 3.19: Divide 5x – 11 – 12x2 + 2x3 by 2x – 5.
Solution: Arranging the dividend in decreasing powers of x, we get it as
2x3 – 12x2 + 5x – 11

7 25
x2 − x −
2 4
So,
2x − 5 2x 3 − 12x 2 + 5x – 11
2x3 – 5x2
– +
– 7 x2 + 5x – 11
35
– 7 x2 + x
2
+ –
25
– x – 11
2
25 125
– x +
2 4
+ –
169
–
4
7 25 169
We get quotient x − x − and remainder –
2
.
2 4 4

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3.4

1. Multiply:
(i) 9b2c2 by 3b (ii) 5x3y5 by – 2xy
(iii) 2xy + y2 by – 5x (iv) x + 5y by x – 3y
2. Write the quotient:
(i) x 5 y 3 ÷ x 2 y 2 (
(ii) − 28y 7 z 2 ÷ − 4y 3 z 2 )
( )
(iii) a 4 + a 3b 5 ÷ a 2 (iv) − 15b c ÷ 3b c
5 6 2 4

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3. Divide and write the quotient and the remainder:

(i) x2 – 1 by x + 1 (ii) x2 – x + 1 by x + 1
(iii) 6x2 – 5x + 1 by 2x – 1 (iv) 2x3 + 4x2 + 3x + 1 by x +1
Notes

LET US SUM UP
• A literal number (unknown quantity), which can have various values, is called a variable.
• A constant has a fixed value.
• An algebraic expression is a combination of numbers, variables and arithmetical
operations. It has one or more terms joined by the signs + or –.
• Numerical coefficient of a term, say, 2xy is 2. Coefficient of x is 2y and that of y is 2x.
• Numerical coefficient of non-negative x is + 1 and that of – x is – 1.
• An algebraic expression, in which variable(s) does (do) not occur in the denominator,
exponents of variables are whole numbers and numerical coefficients of various terms
are real numbers, is called a polynomial.
• The standard form of a polynomial in one variable x is:
a0 + a1x + a2x2+ ....+ anxn (or written in reverse order) where a0, a1, a2, .... an are real
numbers and n, n–1, n–2, ...., 3, 2, 1 are whole numbers.
• An algebraic expression or a polynomial having one term is called a monomial, that
having two terms a bionomial and the one having three terms a trinomial.
• The terms of an algebraic expression or a polynomial having the same variable(s) and
same exponent(s) of variable(s) are called like terms. The terms, which are not like,
are called unlike terms.
• The sum of the exponents of variables in a term is called the degree of that term.
• The degree of a polynomial is the same as the degree of its term or terms having the
highest degree and non-zero numerical coefficient.
• The degree of a non-zero constant polynomial is zero.
• The process of substituting a numerical value for the variable(s) in an algebraic expression
(or a polynomial) is called evaluation of the algebraic expression (or polynomial).
• The value(s) of variable(s), for which the value of a polynomial is zero, is (are) called
zero(s) of the polynomial.
• The sum of two like terms is a like term whose numerical coefficient is the sum of the
numerical coefficients of the two like terms.

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• The difference of two like terms is a like term whose numerical coefficient is the
difference of the numerical coefficients of the two like terms.
• To multiply or divide a polynomial by a monomial, we multiply or divide each term of
the polynomial separately using laws of exponents and the rule of signs. Notes
• To multiply a polynomial by a polynomial, we multiply each term of one polynomial by
each term of the other polynomial and simplify the result by combining like terms.
• To divide a polynomial by a polynomial, we usually arrange the terms of both the
polynomials in decreasing powers of the variable common to both of them and take
steps of division on similar lines as in arithmetic in case of numbers.

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Mark a tick () against the correct alternative:
(i) The coefficient of x4 in 6x4y2 is
(A) 6 (B) y2 (C) 6y2 (D) 4
(ii) Numerical coefficient of the monomial –x2y4 is
(A) 2 (B) 6 (C) 1 (D) –1
(iii) Which of the following algebraic expressions is a polynomial?
1 2 1
(A) x − 8 + 3.7x (B) 2x + −4
2 2x

( ) (
(C) x 2 − 2y 2 ÷ x 2 + y 2 ) (D) 6 + x − x − 15x 2

(iv) How many terms does the expression 1 − 2a 2 b 3 − (7a )(2b ) + 3b 2 contain?
(A) 5 (B) 4 (C) 3 (D) 2
(v) Which of the following expressions is a binomial?
(A) 2x2y2 (B) x2 + y2 – 2xy
(C) 2 + x2 + y2 + 2x2y2 (D) 1 – 3xy3
(vi) Which of the following pairs of terms is a pair of like terms?
(A) 2a, 2b (B) 2xy3, 2x3y
1
(C) 3x2y, yx 2 (D) 8, 16 a
2
(vii)A zero of the polynomial x2 – 2x – 15 is
(A) x = – 5 (B) x = – 3

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(C) x = 0 (D) x = 3
(viii) The degree of the polynomial x3y4 + 9x6 – 8y5 + 17 is
(A) 7 (B) 17
Notes
(C) 5 (D) 6
2. Using variables and operation symbols, express each of the following verbal statements
as algebraic statement:
(i) A number added to itself gives six.
(ii) Four subtracted from three times a number is eleven.
(iii) The product of two successive odd numbers is thirty-five.
(iv) One-third of a number exceeds one-fifth of the number by two.
3. Determine the degree of each of the following polynomials:
(i) 327 (ii) x + 7x2y2 – 6xy5 – 18 (iii) a4x + bx3 where a and b are constants
(iv) c6 – a3x2y2 – b2x3y Where a, b and c are constants.
4. Determine whether given value is a zero of the polynomial:
(i) x2 + 3x – 40; x = 8
(ii) x6 – 1; x=–1
5. Evaluate each of the following polynomials for the indicated value of the variable:

3 2 4 5 1
(i) 2x − x + x + 7x at x =
3

2 5 2

4 3 1 2
(ii) y + y − 6y − 65 at y = −5
5 5

1 2 1
6. Find the value of n + n for n = 10 and verify that the result is equal to the sum of
2 2
first 10 natural numbers.
7. Add:

7 3 2 2 7 2 3 3
(i) x + x − 3x + and x 3 + x 2 − 3x +
3 5 5 3 5 5
(ii) x2 + y2 + 4xy and 2y2 – 4xy
(iii) x3 + 6x2 + 4xy and 7x2 + 8x3 + y2 + y3

2 2
(iv) 2x + 3x + and − 3x 5 + x − 3
5

3 5

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8. Subtract
(i) – x2 + y2 – xy from 0
(ii) a + b – c from a – b + c
Notes
(iii) x2 – y2x + y from y2x – x2 – y
(iv) – m2 + 3 mn from 3m2 – 3mn + 8
9. What should be added to x2 + xy + y2 to obtain 2x2 + 3xy?
10. What should be subtracted from – 13x + 5y – 8 to obtain 11x – 16y + 7?
11. The sum of two polynomials is x2 – y2 – 2xy + y – 7. If one of them is 2x2 + 3y2 – 7y
+ 1, find the other.
12. If A = 3x2 – 7x + 8, B = x2 + 8x – 3 and C = –5x2 – 3x + 2, find B + C –A.
13. Subtract 3x – y – xy from the sum of 3x – y + 2xy and – y – xy. What is the coefficient
of x in the result?
14. Multiply
(i) a2 + 5a – 6 by 2a + 1 (ii) 4x2 + 16x + 15 by x – 3
(iii) a2 – 2a + 1 by a – 1 (iv) a2 + 2ab + b2 by a – b
(v) x2 – 1 by 2x2 +1 (vi) x2 – x + 1 by x + 1

2 5 7 2 2 5
(vii) x + x + by x − x + x − 3 by 3x 2 + 4x + 1
2
(viii)
3 6 4 3 4
15. Subtract the product of (x2 – xy + y2) and (x + y) from the product of (x2 + xy + y2)
and (x – y).
16.Divide
(i) 8x3 + y3 by 2x + y (ii) 7x3 + 18x2 + 18x – 5 by 3x + 5
(iii) 20x2 – 15x3y6 by 5x2 (iv) 35a3 – 21a4b by (–7a3)
(v) x3 – 3x2 + 5x – 8 by x – 2 (vi) 8y2 + 38y + 35 by 2y + 7
In each case, write the quotient and remainder.

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

3.1
2 1 4
1. (i) y; 1 (ii) x, y; , ,7 (iii) x, y;
3 3 5

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2 1
(iv) x, y; , (v) x, y; 2, –8 (vi) x; None
5 2

Notes 2. (i) 2 (ii) 2y (iii) 2x2

3. (i) x – 3 = 15 (ii) x + 5 = 22

1
4. (i) 2, abc (ii) a,b,c, 2 (iii) x2y, – 2xy2, −
2

1 3 2
(iv) xy
8

1 2
5. (i) –xy2, + yx (ii) –3ab, + ab (iii) No like terms
3
6. (i) , (ii) and (v) 7. Monomials (ii) and (vi);
Binomials: (i) and (v); Trinomials : (iii) and (iv)
3.2
1. (i) 7 (ii) 3 (iii) 1 (iv) 0

2 2
2. 2.5, 9x, x , –25x3, – 3x6
9
3. (i) 10 (ii) 4 (iii) 2 (iv) 3

19
4. (i) 0 (ii) –7 (iii) − (iv) 6
15
3.3

23 2 5 7 3
1. (i) x + x+6 (ii) x + x2 + x − 2
11 4 5

19
(iii) 3x + 12x − 7x +
3 2
y (iv) 9x3 + 5x2y – 8xy
3
2. (i) –x2 + 4x + 17 (ii) 0
(iii) ab + bc +ca (iv) a2 + 2b2 – 4ab
3. (i) – 7x3 + 4x2 – 5x (ii) –4y3 + 7y2 + 8y – 12
(iii) 3z3 + 2z2 – 2z + 5 (iv) – 7x3 + 10x2 – 9x – 17
4. a – ab – 3

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3.4
1. (i) 27b3c2 (ii) –10 x4y6
(iii) – 10x2y – 5xy2 (iv) x2 + 2xy –15y2
2. (i) x3y (ii) 7y4 (iii) a2 + ab5 (iv) – 5b3c2 Notes
3. (i) x – 1; 0 (ii) x – 2; 3 (iii) 3x – 1; 0 (iv) 2x2 + 2x +1; 0

ANSWERS TO TERMINAL EXERCISE

1. (i) C (ii) D (iii) A (iv) B (v) D (vi) C (vii) B (viii) A
x x
2. (i) y + y = 6 (ii) 3y – 4 = 11 (iii) z (z + 2) = 35 (iv) − =2
3 5
3. (i) 0 (ii) 6 (iii) 3 (iv) 4
4. (i) No (ii) Yes
37
5. (i) (ii) 0
24
6. 55
7. (i) 3x3 + x2 – 6x + 2 (ii) x2 + 3y2
17 7
(iv) − x + x−
5
(iii) 9x3 + 13x2 + 4xy + y2 + y3
5 3
8. (i) x2 – y2 + xy (ii) 2c – 2b
(iii) 2y2x – 2x2 – 2y (iv) 4m2 – 6mn + 8
9. x2 + 2xy – y2
10. – 24x + 21y – 15
11. – x2 – 4y2 – 2xy + 8y – 8
12. – 7x2 + 12x – 9
13. 2xy – y; 2y
14. (i) 2a3 + 11a2 – 7a – 6 (ii) 4x3 + 4x2 – 33x – 45
(iii) a3 – 3a2 + 3a – 1 (iv) a3 + a2b – ab2 – b3
(v) 2x4 – x2 – 1 (vi) x3 + 1
13 2 x 35 77 3 10 2 43
(vii) x − x − − (viii) 2x + x − x − x −3
3 4

12 3 24 12 3 4
15. –2y3
16. (i) 4x2 –2xy + y2; 0 (ii) 9x2 – 9x + 21; –110
(iii) 4 – 3xy6; 0 (iv) – 5 + 3ab; 0
(iv) x2 – x + 3; – 2 (v) 4y + 5; 0

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Notes
4
SPECIAL PRODUCTS AND
FACTORIZATION

In an earlier lesson you have learnt multiplication of algebraic expressions, particularly

polynomials. In the study of algebra, we come across certain products which occur very
frequently. By becoming familiar with them, a lot of time and labour can be saved as in
those products, multiplication is performed without actually writing down all the steps. For
example, products, such as 108 × 108, 97 × 97, 104 × 96, 99 × 99 × 99, can be easily
calculated if you know the products (a + b)2, (a – b)2, (a + b) (a – b), (a – b)3 respectively.
Such products are called special products.
Factorization is a process of finding the factors of certain given products such as a2 – b2,
a3 + 8b3, etc. We will consider factoring only those polynomials in which coefficients are
integers.
In this lesson, you will learn about certain special products and factorization of certain
polynomials. Besides, you will learn about finding HCF and LCM of polynomials by
factorization. In the end you will be made familiar with rational algebraic expressions and
to perform fundamental operations on rational expressions.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to
• write formulae for special products (a ± b)2, (a + b) (a –b), (x + a) (x +b),
(a + b) (a2 – ab + b2), (a – b) (a2 + ab + b2), (a ± b)3 and (ax + b) (cx +d);
• calculate squares and cubes of numbers using formulae;
• factorise given polynomials including expressions of the forms a2 – b2, a3 ± b3;
• factorise polynomials of the form ax2 + bx + c (a ≠ 0) by splitting the middle
term;
• determine HCF and LCM of polynomials by factorization;

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• cite examples of rational expressions in one and two variables;

• perform four fundamental operations on rational expressions.
Notes
EXPECTED BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE
• Number system and four fundamental operations
• Laws of exponents
• Algebraic expressions
• Four fundamental operations on polynomials
• HCF and LCM of numbers
• Elementary concepts of geometry and mensuration learnt at primary and upper primary
levels.

4.1 SPECIAL PRODUCTS

Here, we consider some speical products which occur very frequently in algebra.

(1) Let us find (a + b)2

(a + b)2 = (a + b) (a + b)
= a(a + b) + b (a + b) [Distributive law]
= a2 + ab + ab + b2
= a2 + 2ab + b2
Geometrical verification
Concentrate on the figure, given here, on the right
D a H b C
2
(i) (a + b) = Area of square ABCD
b ab b2 b
= Area of square AEFG + I
G F
area of rectangle EBIF +
area of rectangle DGFH + a2 ab a
a
area of square CHFI
= a2 + ab + ab + b2
A E b B
= a2 + 2ab + b2 a

Thus, (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2

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(2) Let us find (a – b)2

(a – b)2 = (a – b) (a – b) [Distributive law]
= a(a – b) – b (a – b)
Notes
= a2 – ab – ab + b2
= a2 – 2ab + b2
Method 2: Using (a + b)2
We know that a – b = a + (–b)
∴ (a – b)2 = [a + (–b)]2
= a2 + 2 (a) (–b) + (–b)2
= a2 – 2ab + b2
Geometrical verification
Concentrate on the figure, given here, on the right
(a – b)2 = Area of square PQRS
X b P a–b S
= Area of square STVX –
[area of rectangle RTVW +
area of rectangle PUVX – a–b
b(a–b)
(a – b)2
area of square QUVW] a

= a2 – (ab + ab – b2) W Q a–b R

2
= a – ab –ab + b 2
b b2 b(a–b)
b
b U
= a2 – 2ab + b2 V a T

Thus, (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2

Deductions: We have
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 .....(1)
(a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2 .....(2)
(1) + (2) gives
(a + b)2 + (a – b)2 = 2(a2 + b2)
(1) – (2) gives
(a + b)2 – (a – b)2 = 4ab

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(3) Now we find the product (a + b) (a – b)
(a + b) (a – b) = a (a – b) + b (a – b) [Distributive law]
= a2 – ab + ab – b2 a J
A D Notes
2 2 a–b b
=a –b b
Geometrical verification I H

Observe the figure, given here, on the right

a a

a–b
(a + b) (a – b) = Area of Rectangle ABCD
= Area of Rectangle AEFD +
area of rectangle EBCF a–b F
E G
= Area of Rectangle AEFD + b b

Area of Rectangle FGHI B a–b C

= [Area of Rectangle AEFD + Area of rectangle FGHI

+ Area of square DIHJ] – Area of square DIHJ
= Area of square AEGJ – area of square DIHJ
= a2 – b2
Thus, (a + b) (a – b) = a2 – b2
The process of multiplying the sum of two numbers by their difference is very useful in
arithmetic. For example,
64 × 56 = (60 + 4) × (60 – 4)
= 602 – 42
= 3600 – 16
= 3584

(4) We, now find the product (x + a) (x + b)

(x + a) (x + b) = x (x + b) + a (x + b) [Distributive law]
= x2 + bx + ax + ab
= x2 + (a + b)x + ab
Thus , (x + a) (x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab
Deductions: (i) (x – a) (x – b) = x2 – (a + b)x + ab
(ii) (x – a) (x + b) = x2 + (b – a)x – ab

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Students are advised to verify these results.

(5) Let us, now, find the product (ax + b) (cx + d)
(ax + b) (cx + d) = ax (cx + d) + b (cx + d)
Notes
= acx2 + adx + bcx + bd
= acx2 + (ad + bc)x + bd
Thus, (ax + b) (cx + d) = acx2 + (ad + bc)x + bd
Deductions: (i) (ax – b) (cx – d) = acx2 – (ad + bc)x + bd
(ii) (ax – b) (cx + d) = acx2 – (bc – ad)x – bd
Students should verify these results.
Let us, now, consider some examples based on the special products mentioned above.
Example 4.1: Find the following products:

2
⎛3 ⎞
(i) (2a + 3b)2
(ii) ⎜ a − 6b ⎟
⎝2 ⎠
(iii) (3x + y) (3x – y) (iv) (x + 9) (x + 3)
(v) (a + 15) ( a – 7) (vi) (5x – 8) (5x – 6)
(vii) (7x – 2a) (7x + 3a) (viii) (2x + 5) (3x + 4)
Solution:
(i) Here, in place of a, we have 2a and in place of b, we have 3b.
(2a + 3b)2 = (2a)2 + 2(2a) (3b) + (3b)2
= 4a2 + 12ab + 9b2
(ii) Using special product (2), we get
2 2
⎛3 ⎞ ⎛3 ⎞ ⎛3 ⎞
⎜ a − 6b ⎟ = ⎜ a ⎟ − 2⎜ a ⎟(6b ) + (6b )
2

⎝2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠

9 2
= a − 18ab + 36b 2
4
(iii) (3x + y) (3x – y) = (3x)2 – y2 [using speical product (3)]
= 9x2 – y2
(iv) (x + 9) (x + 3) = x2 + (9 + 3)x + 9 × 3 [using speical product (4)]

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= x2 + 12x + 27
(v) (a + 15) ( a – 7) = a2 + (15 – 7)a – 15 × 7
= a2 + 8a – 105
Notes
(vi) (5x – 8) (5x – 6) = (5x)2 – (8 + 6) (5x) + 8 × 6
= 25x2 – 70x + 48
(vii) (7x – 2a) (7x + 3a) = (7x)2 + (3a – 2a) (7x) – (3a) (2a)
= 49x2 + 7ax – 6a2
(viii) (2x + 5) (3x + 4) = (2 × 3) x2 + ( 2 × 4 + 5 × 3)x + 5 × 4
= 6x2 + 23x + 20
Numerical calculations can be performed more conveniently with the help of special
products, often called algebraic formulae. Let us consider the following example.
Example 4.2: Using special products, calculate each of the following:
(i) 101 × 101 (ii) 98 × 98 (iii) 68 × 72
(iv) 107 × 103 (v) 56 × 48 (vi) 94 × 99
Solution: (i) 101 × 101 = 1012 = (100 +1)2
= 1002 + 2 × 100 ×1 + 12
= 10000 + 200 + 1
= 10201
(ii) 98 × 98 = 982 = (100 – 2)2
= 1002 – 2 × 100 × 2 + 22
= 10000 – 400 + 4
= 9604
(iii) 68 × 72 = (70 – 2) × (70 + 2)
= 702 – 22
= 4900 – 4
= 4896
(iv) 107 × 103 = (100 +7) (100+3)
= 1002 + (7 + 3) × 100 + 7 × 3
= 10000 + 1000 +21
= 11021

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(v) 56 × 48 = (50 +6) (50 – 2)
= 502 + (6 – 2) × 50 – 6 × 2
= 2500 + 200 – 12
Notes
= 2688
(vi) 94 × 99 = (100 – 6) (100 – 1)
= 1002 – (6 + 1) × 100 + 6 × 1
= 10000 – 700 +6
= 9306

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4.1

1. Find each of the following products:
(i) (5x + y)2 (ii) (x – 3)2 (iii) (ab + cd)2
2 2
⎛x ⎞ ⎛ z 1⎞
(iv) (2x – 5y) 2
(v) ⎜ + 1⎟ (vi) ⎜ − ⎟
⎝3 ⎠ ⎝ 2 3⎠

⎛ 4 ⎞⎛ 3⎞
(vii) (a2 + 5) (a2 – 5) (viii) (xy – 1) (xy + 1) (ix) ⎜ x + ⎟⎜ x + ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠⎝ 4⎠

⎛2 2 ⎞⎛ 2 2 1 ⎞
(x) ⎜ x − 3 ⎟⎜ x + ⎟ (xi) (2x + 3y) (3x + 2y) (xii) (7x + 5y) (3x – y)
⎝3 ⎠⎝ 3 3⎠

2. Simplify:

(i) (2x2 + 5)2 – (2x2 – 5)2 (ii) (a2 + 3)2 + (a2 – 3)2

(iii) (ax + by)2 + (ax – by)2 (iv) (p2 + 8q2)2 – (p2 – 8q2)2

3. Using special products, calculate each of the following:

(i) 102 × 102 (ii) 108 × 108 (iii) 69 × 69

(iv) 998 × 998 (v) 84 × 76 (vi) 157 × 143

(vii) 306 × 294 (viii) 508 × 492 (ix) 105 × 109

(x) 77 × 73 (xi) 94 × 95 (xii) 993 × 996

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4.2 SOME OTHER SPECIAL PRODUCTS

(6) Consider the binomial (a + b). Let us find its cube.
(a + b)3 = (a + b) (a + b)2 Notes

= (a + b) (a2 + 2ab + b2) [using laws of exponents)

= a (a2 + 2ab + b2) + b (a2 + 2ab + b2) [Distributive laws)
= a3 + 2a2b + ab2 + a2b + 2ab2 + b3
= a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3
= a3 + 3ab(a + b) + b3
Thus, (a + b)3 = a3 + 3ab(a + b) + b3
(7) We now find the cube of (a – b).
(a – b)3 = (a – b) (a – b)2
= (a – b) (a2 – 2ab + b2) [using laws of exponents)
= a (a2 – 2ab + b2) – b (a2 – 2ab + b2) [Distributive laws)
= a3 – 2a2b + ab2 – a2b + 2ab2 – b3
= a3 – 3a2b + 3ab2 – b3
= a3 – 3ab(a – b) – b3
Thus, (a – b)3 = a3 – 3ab(a – b) – b3
Note: You may also get the same result on replacing b by –b in
(a + b)3 = a3 + 3ab(a + b) + b3
(8) (a + b)(a2 – ab + b2) = a (a2 – ab + b2) + b(a2 – ab + b2) [Distributive law]
= a3 – a2b + ab2 + a2b – ab2 + b3
= a3 + b3
Thus, (a + b)(a2 – ab + b2) = a3 + b3
(9) (a – b)(a2 + ab + b2) = a (a2 + ab + b2) – b(a2 + ab + b2) [Distributive law]
= a3 + a2b + ab2 – a2b – ab2 – b3
= a3 – b3
Thus, (a – b)(a2 + ab + b2) = a3 – b3
Let us, now, consider some examples based on the above mentioned special products:

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Algebra
Example 4.3: Find each of the following products:
(i) (7x + 9y)3 (ii) (px – yz)3 (iii) (x – 4y2)3
3 3
Notes ⎛2 5 ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞
2
(iv) (2a + 3b ) 2 3
(v) ⎜ a − b ⎟ (vi) ⎜1 + c ⎟
⎝3 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠

Solution: (i) (7x + 9y)3 = (7x)3 + 3(7x) (9y) (7x + 9y) + (9y)3
= 343 x3 + 189 xy (7x + 9y) + 729y3
= 343x3 + 1323x2y + 1701xy2 + 729y3
(ii) (px – yz)3 = (px)3 – 3(px) (yz) (px – yz) – (yz)3
= p3x3 – 3pxyz (px – yz) – y3z3
= p3x3 – 3p2x2yz + 3pxy2z2 – y3z3
(iii) (x – 4y2)3 = x3 – 3x (4y2) (x – 4y2) – (4y2)3
= x3 – 12xy2 (x – 4y2) – 64y6
= x3 – 12x2y2 + 48xy4 – 64y6
(iv) (2a2 + 3b2)3= (2a2)3 + 3(2a2)(3b2) (2a2 + 3b2) + (3b2)3
= 8a6 + 18a2b2 (2a2 + 3b2) + 27b6
= 8a6 + 36a4b2 + 54a2b4 + 27b6
3 3 3
⎛2 5 ⎞ ⎛2 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞⎛ 5 ⎞⎛ 2 5 ⎞ ⎛5 ⎞
(v) ⎜ a − b ⎟ = ⎜ a ⎟ − 3⎜ a ⎟⎜ b ⎟⎜ a − b ⎟ − ⎜ b ⎟
⎝3 3 ⎠ ⎝3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠⎝ 3 ⎠⎝ 3 3 ⎠ ⎝3 ⎠

8 3 10 ⎛ 2 5 ⎞ 125 3
= a − ab⎜ a − b ⎟ − b
27 3 ⎝3 3 ⎠ 27

8 3 20 2 50 125 3
= a − a b + ab 2 − b
27 9 9 27

3 3
⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞
(vi) ⎜1 + c ⎟ = (1) + 3(1)⎜ c ⎟⎜1 + c ⎟ + ⎜ c ⎟
3

⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠

⎛ 4 ⎞ 64 3
= 1 + 4c⎜1 + c ⎟ + c
⎝ 3 ⎠ 27

16 2 64 3
= 1 + 4c + c + c
3 27

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Example 4.4: Using special products, find the cube of each of the following:
(i) 19 (ii) 101 (iii) 54 (iv) 47
Solution: (i) 193 = ( 20 – 1)3
Notes
= 203 – 3 × 20 × 1 (20 – 1) – 13
= 8000 – 60 (20 – 1) – 1
= 8000 – 1200 + 60 – 1
= 6859
(ii) 1013= ( 100 + 1)3
= 1003 + 3 × 100 × 1 (100 + 1) +13
= 1000000 + 300 × 100 + 300 + 1
= 1030301
(iii) 543= ( 50 + 4)3
= 503 + 3 × 50 × 4 (50 + 4) + 43
= 125000 + 600 (50 + 4) + 64
= 125000 + 30000 + 2400 + 64
= 157464
(iv) 473= ( 50 – 3)3
= 503 – 3 × 50 × 3 (50 – 3) – 33
= 125000 – 450 (50 – 3) – 27
= 125000 – 22500 + 1350 – 27
= 103823
Example 4.5: Without actual multiplication, find each of the following products:
(i) (2a + 3b) (4a2 – 6ab + 9b2)
(ii) (3a – 2b) (9a2 + 6ab + 4b2)
Solution: (i) (2a + 3b) (4a2 – 6ab + 9b2) = (2a + 3b) [(2a)2 – (2a) (3b) + (3b)2]
= (2a)3 + (3b)3
= 8a3 + 27b3
(ii) (3a – 2b) (9a2 + 6ab + 4b2) = (3a – 2b) [(3a)2 + (3a) (2b) + (2b)2]

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= (3a)3 – (2b)3
= 27a3 – 8b3
Example 4.6: Simplify:
Notes
(i) (3x – 2y)3 + 3 (3x – 2y)2 (3x + 2y) + 3(3x – 2y) (3x + 2y)2 + (3x + 2y)3
(ii) (2a – b)3 + 3 (2a – b) (2b – a) (a + b) + (2b – a)3
Solution: (i) Put 3x – 2y = a and 3x + 2y = b
The given expression becomes
a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3
= (a + b)3
= (3x – 2y + 3x + 2y)3
= (6x)3
= 216x3
(ii) Put 2a – b = x and 2b –a = y so that a + b = x + y
The given expression becomes
x3 + 3xy (x + y) + y3
= (x + y)3
= (a + b)3
= a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3
Example 4.7: Simplify:

857 × 857 × 857 − 537 × 537 × 537

(i)
857 × 857 + 857 × 537 + 537 × 537

674 × 674 × 674 + 326 × 326 × 326

(ii)
674 × 674 − 674 × 326 + 326 × 326
Solution: The given expression can be written as

857 3 − 537 3
857 2 + 857 × 537 + 537 2
Let 857 = a and 537 = b, then the expression becomes

a 3 − b3
=
( )
(a − b ) a 2 + ab + b 2 = a − b
a 2 + ab + b 2 a 2 + ab + b 2

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= 857 – 537
= 320
(ii) The given expression can be written as
Notes
6743 + 3263
674 2 − 674 × 326 + 326 2

(674 + 326)(6742 − 674 × 326 + 3262 )

=
674 2 − 674 × 326 + 326 2
= 674 + 326
= 1000

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4.2

1. Write the expansion of each of the following:
3
⎛ b⎞
(i) (3x + 4y) 3
(ii) (p – qr) 3
(iii) ⎜ a + ⎟
⎝ 3⎠

3 3 3
⎛a ⎞ ⎛1 2 2 2⎞ ⎛1 2 3 3 2⎞
(iv) ⎜ − b ⎟ (v) ⎜ a + b ⎟ (vi) ⎜ a x − 2b y ⎟
⎝3 ⎠ ⎝2 3 ⎠ ⎝3 ⎠
2. Using special products, find the cube of each of the following:
(i) 8 (ii) 12 (iii) 18 (iv) 23
(v) 53 (vi) 48 (vii) 71 (viii) 69
(ix) 97 (x) 99
3. Without actual multiplication, find each of the following products:
(i) (2x + y) (4x2 – 2xy + y2) (ii) (x – 2) ( x2 + 2x + 4)
(iii) (1 + x) ( (1 – x + x2) (iv) (2y – 3z2) (4y2 + 6yz2 + 9z4)

⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 2 3 1 2⎞
(v) (4x + 3y) (16x2 – 12xy + 9y2) (vi) ⎜ 3x − y ⎟⎜ 9x + xy + y ⎟
⎝ 7 ⎠⎝ 7 49 ⎠
4. Find the value of:
(i) a3 + 8b3 if a + 2b = 10 and ab = 15
[Hint: (a + 2b)3 = a3 + 8b3 + 6ab (a + 2b) ⇒ a3 + 8b3 = (a + 2b)3 – 6ab (a + 2b)]
(ii) x3 – y3 when x – y = 5 and xy = 66

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5. Find the value of 64x3 – 125z3 if

(i) 4x – 5z = 16 and xz = 12
3
Notes (ii) 4x – 5z = and xz = 6
5
6. Simplify:
(i) (2x + 5)3 – (2x – 5)3
(ii) (7x + 5y)3 – (7x – 5y)3 – 30y (7x + 5y) (7x – 5y)3
[Hint put 7x + 5y = a and 7x – 5y = b so that a – b = 10y]
(iii) (3x + 2y) (9x2 – 6xy + 4y2) – (2x + 3y) (4x2 – 6xy + 9y2)
(iv) (2x – 5) (4x2 + 10x + 25) – (5x + 1) (25x2 – 5x + 1)
7. Simplify:
875 × 875 × 875 + 125 × 125 × 125
(i)
875 × 875 − 875 × 125 + 125 × 125

678 × 678 × 678 − 234 × 234 × 234

(ii)
678 × 678 + 678 × 234 + 234 × 234

4.3 FACTORIZATION OF POLYNOMIALS

Recall that from 3 × 4 = 12, we say that 3 and 4 are factors of the product 12. Similarly,
in algebra, since (x + y) (x – y) = x2 – y2, we say that (x + y) and (x – y) are factors of the
product (x2 – y2).
Factorization of a polynomial is a process of writing the polynomial as a product of
two (or more) polynomials. Each polynomial in the product is called a factor of the
given polynomial.
In factorization, we shall restirct ourselves, unless otherwise stated, to finding factors of
the polynomials over integers, i.e. polynomials with integral coefficients. In such cases, it is
required that the factors, too, be polynomials over integers. Polynomials of the type
2x2 – y2 will not be considered as being factorable into ( 2x + y )( )
2 x − y because
these factors are not polynomials over integers.
A polynomial will be said to be completely factored if none of its factors can be further
expressed as a product of two polynomials of lower degree and if the integer coefficients
have no common factor other than 1 or –1. Thus, complete factorization of (x2 – 4x) is
x(x–4). On the other hand the factorization (4x2 – 1) (4x2 + 1) of (16x4 – 1) is not
complete since the factor (4x2 – 1) can be further factorised as (2x – 1) (2x + 1). Thus,
complete factorization of (16x4 – 1) is (2x – 1) (2x + 1) (4x2 +1).
In factorization, we shall be making full use of special products learnt earlier in this lesson.
Now, in factorization of polynomials we take various cases separately through examples.

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(1) Factorization by Distributive Property
Example 4.8: Factorise:
(i) 10a – 25 (ii) x2y3 + x3y2
Notes
(iii) 5ab (ax2 + y2) – 6mn(ax2 + y2) (iv) a(b – c)2 + b(b – c)
Solution: (i) 10a – 25 = 5 × 2a – 5 × 5
= 5 (2a – 5) [Since 5 is common to the two terms]
Thus, 5 and 2a – 5 are factors of 10a – 25
(ii) In x2y3 + x3y2, note that x2y2 is common (with greatest degree) in both
the terms.
∴ x2y3 + x3y2 = x2y2 × y + x2y2 × x
= x2y2 (y + x)
Therefore, x, x2, y, y2, xy, x2y, xy2, x2y2 and y + x are factors of x2y3 + x3y2
(iii) Note that ax2 + y2 is common in both the terms
∴ 5ab (ax2 + y2) – 6mn(ax2 + y2) = (ax2 + y2) (5ab – 6mn)
(iv) a(b – c)2 + b(b – c) = (b – c) × [a(b – c)] + (b – c) × b
= (b – c) × [a(b – c) + b]
= (b – c) × [ab – ac + b]

(2) Factorization Involving the Difference of Two Squares

You know that (x + y) (x – y) = x2 – y2. Therefore x + y and x – y are factors of x2 – y2.
Example 4.9: Factorise:
(i) 9x2 – 16y2 (ii) x4 – 81y4
(iii) a4 – (2b – 3c)2 (iv) x2 – y2 + 6y – 9
Solution: (i) 9x2 – 16y2 = (3x)2 – (4y)2 which is a difference of two squares.
= (3x + 4y) (3x – 4y)
(ii) x4 – 81y4 = (x2)2 – (9y2)
= (x2 + 9y2) (x2 – 9y2)
Note that x2 – 9y2 = (x)2 – (3y)2 is again a difference of the two squares.
x4 – 81y4 = (x2 + 9y2) [(x)2 –(3y)2]
= (x2 + 9y2) (x + 3y) (x – 3y)

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(iii) a4 – (2b – 3c)2 = (a2)2 – (2b – 3c)2

= [a2 + (2b – 3c)] [a2 – (2b – 3c)]
= (a2 + 2b – 3c) (a2 – 2b + 3c)
Notes
(iv) x2 – y2 + 6y – 9 = x2 – (y2 – 6y + 9) [Note this step)
= (x)2 – [(y)2 – 2 × y × 3 + (3)2]
= (x)2 – (y – 3)2
= [x + (y – 3)] [x – (y – 3)]
= (x + y – 3) (x – y + 3)
(3) Factorization of a Perfect Square Trinomial
Example 4.10 : Factorise
(i) 9x2 + 24xy + 16y2 (ii) x6 – 8x3 + 16
Solution: (i) 9x2 + 24xy + 16y2 = (3x)2 + 2 (3x) (4y) + (4y)2
= (3x + 4y)2
= (3x + 4y) (3x + 4y)
Thus, the two factors of the given polynomial are identical, each being
(3x + 4y).
(ii) x6 – 8x3 + 16 = (x3)2 – 2(x3) (4) + (4)2
= (x3 – 4)2
= (x3 – 4) (x3 – 4)
Again, the two factors of the given polynomial are identical, each being
(x3 – 4).
(4) Factorization of a Polynomial Reducible to the Difference of Two Squares
Example 4.11: Factorise
(i) x4 + 4y4 (ii) x4 + x2 + 1
Solution: (i) x4 + 4y4 = (x2)2 + (2y2)2
= (x2)2 + (2y2)2 + 2 (x2) (2y2) – 2 (x2) (2y2)
[Adding and subtracting 2 (x2) (2y2)]
= (x2 + 2y2)2 – (2xy)2
= (x2 + 2y2 + 2xy) (x2 + 2y2 – 2xy)

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(ii) x4 + x2 + 1 = (x2)2 + (1)2 + 2x2 – x2
[Adding and subtracting x2]
= (x2 + 1)2 – (x)2 Notes
2 2
= (x + x + 1) (x – x + 1)

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4.3

Factorise:
1. 10 xy – 15xz 2. abc2 – ab2c
3. 6p2 – 15pq + 27 p 4. a2 (b – c) + b (c – b)
5. 2a(4x – y)3 – b (4x – y)2 6. x(x + y)3 – 3xy (x + y)
7. 100 – 25p2 8. 1 – 256y8
9. (2x + 1)2 – 9x2 10. (a2 + bc)2 – a2 (b + c)2
11. 25x2 – 10x + 1 – 36y2 12. 49x2 – 1 – 14xy + y2
13. m2 + 14m + 49 14. 4x2 – 4x + 1
15. 36a2 + 25 + 60a 16. x6 – 8x3 + 16
17. a8 – 47a4 + 1 18. 4a4 + 81b4
19. x4 + 4 20. 9a4 – a2 + 16
21. Find the value of n if
(i) 6n = 23 × 23 – 17 × 17 (ii) 536 × 536 – 36 × 36 = 5n
(5) Factorization of Perfect Cube Polynomials
Example 4.12: Factorise:
(i) x3 + 6x2y + 12xy2 + 8y3 (ii) x6 – 3x4y2 + 3x2y4 – y6
Solution: (i) x3 + 6x2y + 12xy2 + 8y3
= (x)3 + 3x2 (2y) + 3x (2y)2 + (2y)3
= (x + 2y)3
Thus, the three factors of the given polynomial are identical, each
being x + 2y.
(ii) Given polynomial is equal to
(x2)3 – 3x2y2 (x2 – y2) – (y2)3
= (x2 – y2)3
= [(x + y) (x – y)]3 [Since x2 – y2 = (x + y) (x –y)]
= (x + y)3 (x – y)3

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(6) Factorization of Polynomials Involving Sum or Difference of Two Cubes

In special products you have learnt that
(x + y) (x2 – xy + y2) = x3 + y3
Notes
and (x – y) (x2 + xy + y2) = x3 – y3
Therefore, the factors of x3 + y3 are x + y and x2 – xy + y2 and
those of x3 – y3 are x – y and x2 + xy + y2
Now, consider the following example:
Example 4.13: Factorise
(i) 64a3 + 27b3 (ii) 8x3 – 125y3
(iii) 8 (x + 2y)3 – 343 (iv) a4 – a13
Solution: (i) 64a3 + 27b3 = (4a)3 + (3b)3
= (4a + 3b) [(4a)2 – (4a)(3b) + (3b)2]
= (4a + 3b) (16a2 – 12ab + 9b2)
(ii) 8x3 – 125y3 = (2x)3 – (5y)3
= (2x – 5y) [(2x)2 + (2x)(5y) + (5y)2]
= (2x – 5y) (4x2 + 10xy + 25y2)
(iii) 8 (x + 2y)3 – 343 = [2(x + 2y)]3 – (7)3
= [2(x + 2y) – 7] [22 (x + 2y)2 + 2(x + 2y) (7) + 72]
= (2x + 4y – 7) (4x2 + 16xy + 16y2 + 14x + 28y + 49)
(iv) a4 – a13 = a4 (1 – a9) [Since a4 is common to the two terms]
= a4 [(1)3 – (a3)3]
= a4 (1 – a3) (1 + a3 + a6)
= a4 (1 – a) (1 + a + a2) (1 + a3 + a6)
[Since 1 – a3 = (1 – a) (1 + a + a2)]

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4.4

Factorise:
1. a3 + 216b3 2. a3 – 343
3. x3 + 12x2y + 48xy2 + 64y3 4. 8x3 – 36x2y + 54xy2 – 27y3

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5. 8x3 – 125y3 – 60x2y + 150xy2 6. 64k3 – 144k2 + 108k – 27
7. 729 x6 – 8 8. x2 + x2 y6
9. 16a7 – 54ab6 10. 27b3 – a3 – 3a2 – 3a – 1
Notes
11. (2a – 3b)3 + 64c3 12. 64x3 – (2y – 1)3

(7) Factorising Trinomials by Splitting the Middle Term

You have learnt that
(x + a) (x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab = 1.x2 + (a + b)x + ab
and (ax + b) (cx + d) = acx2 + (ad + bc)x + bd
In general, the expressions given here on the right are of the form Ax2 + Bx + C which can
be factorised by multiplying the coefficient of x2 in the first term with the last term and
finding two such factors of this product that their sum is equal to the coefficient of x in the
second (middle) term. In other words, we are to determine two such factors of AC so that
their sum is equal to B. The example, given below, will clarify the process further.
Example 4.14:Factorise:
(i) x2 + 3x + 2 (ii) x2 – 10xy + 24y2
(iii) 5x2 + 13x – 6 (iv) 3x2 – x – 2
Solution: (i) Here, A = 1, B = 3 and C= 2; so AC = 1 × 2 = 2
Therefore we are to determine two factors of 2 whose sum is 3
Obviously, 1+2=3
(i.e. two factors of AC i.e. 2 are 1 and 2)
∴ We write the polynomial as
x2 + (1 + 2) x + 2
= x2 + x + 2x + 2
= x(x + 1) + 2(x + 1)
= (x + 1) (x + 2)
(ii) Here, AC = 24y2 and B = – 10y
Two factors of 24y2 whose sum is – 10y are –4y and –6y
∴ We write the given polynomial as
x2 – 4xy – 6xy + 24 y2
= x(x – 4y) – 6y(x – 4y)
= (x – 4y) (x – 6y)

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(iii) Here, AC = 5 × (–6) = – 30 and B = 13
Two factors of –30 whose sum is 13 are 15 and –2
∴ We write the given polynomial as
Notes
5x2 + 15x – 2x – 6
= 5x(x + 3) – 2(x + 3)
= (x + 3) (5x – 2)
(iv) Here, AC = 3 × (– 2) = – 6 and B = – 1
Two factors of – 6 whose sum is (–1) are (–3) and 2.
∴ We write the given polynomial as
3x2 – 3x + 2x –2
= 3x (x – 1) + 2(x –1)
= (x – 1) (3x + 2)

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4.5

Factorise:
1. x2 + 11x + 24 2. x2 – 15xy + 54y2
3. 2x2 + 5x – 3 4. 6x2 – 10xy – 4y2
5. 2x4 – x2 – 1 6. x2 + 13xy – 30y2
7. 2x2 + 11x + 14 8. 10y2 + 11y – 6
9. 2x2 – x – 1 10. (m – 1) (1 – m) + m + 109
2
11. (2a – b) – (2a – b) – 30 12. (2x + 3y)2 – 2(2x + 3y)(3x – 2y) – 3(3x – 2y)2
Hint put 2a – b = x Hint: Put 2x + 3y = a and 3x – 2y = b

4.4 HCF AND LCM OF POLYNOMIALS

(1) HCF of Polynomials
You are already familiar with the term HCF (Highest Common Factor) of natural numbers
in arithmetic. It is the largest number which is a factor of each of the given numbers. For
instance, the HCF of 8 and 12 is 4 since the common factors of 8 and 12 are 1, 2 and 4
and 4 is the largest i.e. highest among them.
On similar lines in algebra, the Highest Common Factor (HCF) of two or more given

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polynomials is the product of the polynomial(s) of highest degree and greatest
numerical coefficient each of which is a factor of each of the given polynomials.
For example, the HCF of 4(x + 1)2 and 6(x + 1)3 is 2(x + 1)2.
The HCF of monomials is found by multiplying the HCF of numerical coefficients of each Notes
of the monomials and the variable(s) with highest power(s) common to all the monomials.
For example, the HCF of monomials 12x2y3, 18xy4 and 24x3y5 is 6xy3 since HCF of 12,
18 and 24 is 6; and the highest powers of variable factors common to the polynomials are
x and y3.
Let us now consider some examples.
Example 4.15: Find the HCF of
(i) 4x2y and x3y2 (ii) (x – 2)3 (2x – 3) and (x – 2)2 (2x – 3)3
Solution: (i) HCF of numerical coefficients 4 and 1 is 1.
Since x occurs as a factor at least twice and y at least once in the given
polynomials, therefore, their HCF is
1 × x2 × y i.e. x2y
(ii) HCF of numerical coefficients 1 and 1 is 1.
In the given polynomials, (x – 2) occurs as a factor at least twice and
(2x – 3) at least once. So the HCF of the given polynomials is
1 × (x – 2)2 × (2x – 3) i.e. (x – 2)2 (2x – 3)
In view of Example 4.15 (ii), we can say that to determine the HCF of polynomials, which
can be easily factorised, we express each of the polynomials as the product of the factors.
Then the HCF of the given polynomials is the product of the HCF of numerical coefficients
of each of the polynomials and factor (s) with highest power(s) common to all the
polynomials. For further clarification, concentrate on the Example 4.16 given below.
Example 4.16:Find the HCF of
(i) x2 – 4 and x2 + 4x + 4
(ii) 4x4 – 16x3 + 12x2 and 6x3 + 6x2 – 72x
Solution: (i) x2 – 4 = (x + 2) (x – 2)
x2 + 4x + 4 = (x + 2)2
HCF of numerical coefficients = 1
HCF of other factors = (x + 2)1 = x + 2
Hence, the required HCF = x + 2
(ii) 4x4 – 16x3 + 12 x2 = 4x2 (x2 – 4x + 3)
= 4x2 (x – 1) (x – 3)

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6x3 + 6x2 – 72x = 6x (x2 + x – 12)
= 6x (x + 4) (x – 3)
Required HCF = 2x(x – 3) [Since HCF of numerical coefficient is 2)
Notes
= 2x2 – 6x
(2) LCM of Polynomials
Like HCF, you are also familiar with the LCM (Lowest Common Multiple or Least
Common Multiple) of natural numbers in arithmetic. It is the smallest number which is a
multiple of each of the given numbers. For instance, the LCM of 8 and 12 is 24 since 24
is the smallest among common multiples of 8 and 12 as given below:
Multiples of 8: 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56, 64, 72, 80, ...
Multiples of 12: 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, 84, 96, ....
Common multiple of 8 and 12: 24, 48, 72, ...
On similar lines in Algebra, the Lowest Common Multiple (LCM) of two or more
polynomials is the product of the polynomial(s) of the lowest degree and the smallest
numerical coefficient which are multiples of the corresponding elements of each of
the given polynomials.
For example, the LCM of 4(x + 1)2 and 6(x + 1)3 is 12(x + 1)3.
The LCM of monomials is found by multiplying the LCM of numerical coefficients of each
of the monomials and all variable factors with highest powers. For example, the LCM of
12x2y2z and 18x2yz is 36x2y2z since the LCM of 12 and 18 is 36 and highest powers
variable factors x, y and z are x2, y2 and z respectively.
Let us, now, consider some examples to illustrate.
Example 4.17: Find the LCM of
(i) 4x2y and x3y2 (ii) (x – 2)3 (2x – 3) and (x – 2)2 (2x – 3)3
Solution: (i) LCM of numerical coefficient 4 and 1 is 4.
Since highest power of x is x3 and that of y is y2,
the required LCM is 4x3y2
(ii) Obviously LCM of numerical coefficients 1 and 1 is 1.
In the given polynomials, highest power of the factor (x – 2) is (x – 2)3
and that of (2x – 3) is (2x – 3)3.
LCM of the given polynomials = 1 × (x – 2)3 × (2x – 3)3
= (x – 2)3 (2x – 3)3

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In view of Example 4.17 (ii), we can say that to determine the LCM of polynomials, which
can be easily factorised, we express each of the polynomials as the product of factors.
Then, the LCM of the given polynomials is the product of the LCM of the numerical
coefficients and all other factors with their highest powers which occur in factorization of
any of the polynoials. For further clarification, we take Example 4.18 given below. Notes

Example 4.18:Find the LCM of

(i) (x – 2) (x2 – 3x +2) and x2 – 5x + 6
(ii) 8(x3 – 27) and 12 (x5 + 27x2)
Solution: (i) (x – 2) (x2 – 3x +2) = (x – 2) (x – 2) (x – 1)
= (x – 2)2 (x – 1)
Also x2 – 5x + 6 = (x – 2) (x – 3)
LCM of numerical coefficients = 1
LCM of other factors = (x – 2)2 (x – 1) (x – 3)
Hence, the LCM of given polynomials = (x – 1) (x – 2)2 (x – 3)
(ii) 8(x3 – 27) = 8(x – 3) (x2 + 3x +9)
12 (x5 + 27x2) = 12x2 (x3 + 27)
= 12x2 (x + 3) (x2 – 3x + 9)
LCM of numerical coefficient 8 and 12 = 24
LCM of other factors = x2 (x – 3) (x + 3) (x2 + 3x + 9) (x2 – 3x + 9)
Hence, required LCM = 24x2 (x – 3) (x + 3) (x2 + 3x + 9) (x2 – 3x + 9)

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4.6

1. Find the HCF of the following polynomials:
(i) 27x4y2 and 3xy3 (ii) 48y7x9 and 12y3x5
(iii) (x + 1)3 and (x + 1)2 (x – 1) (iv) x2 + 4x + 4 and x + 2
(v) 18 (x + 2)3 and 24 (x3 + 8) (vi) (x + 1)2 (x + 5)3 and x2 + 10x + 25
(vii) (2x – 5)2 (x + 4)3 and (2x – 5)3 (x – 4) (viii) x2 – 1 and x4 – 1
(ix) x3 – y3 and x2 – y2 (x) 6(x2 – 3x + 2) and 18(x2 – 4x + 3)
2. Find the LCM of the following polynomials:
(i) 25x3y2 and 15xy (ii) 30 xy2 and 48 x3y4
(iii) (x + 1)3 and (x + 1)2 (x – 1) (iv) x2 + 4x + 4 and x + 2
(v) 18 (x + 2)3 and 24 (x3 + 8) (vi) (x + 1)2 (x + 5)3 and x2 + 10x + 25
(vii) (2x – 5)2 (x + 4)2 and (2x – 5)3 (x – 4) (viii) x2 – 1 and x4 – 1
(ix) x3 – y3 and x2 – y2 (x) 6(x2 – 3x + 2) and 18(x2 – 4x + 3)

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4.5 RATIONAL EXPRESSIONS

You are already familiar with integers and rational numbers. Just as a number, which can

Notes p
be expressed in the form where p and q (≠0) are integers, is called a rational number,
q
P
an algebraic expression, which can be expressed in the from , where P and Q (non-zero
Q
polynomials) are polynomials, is called a rational expression. Thus, each of the expressions

1 2 5
a + b2 −
x + 1 x 2 − 3x + 5 2 6 , x + 2y
2 2
, ,
x −1 x2 − 5 a+b 3x − y

is a rational expression in one or two variables.

Notes:

2
x2 +1
(1) The polynomial ‘x + 1’ is a rational expresion since it can be written as and
1
you have learnt that the constant 1 in the denominator is a polynomial of degree zero.

7
(2) The polynomial 7 is a rational expresion since it can be written as where both 7 and
1
1 are polynomials of degree zero.
(3) Obvioulsy a rational expression need not be a polynomial. For example rational

expression
1
x
( )
= x −1 is not a polynomial. On the contrary every polynomial is also a

rational expression.

2
1
a3 −
None of the expressions x + 2 , x 2 + 2 x + 3, b is a rational expression.
1− x a + ab + b 2
2

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4.7

1. Which of the following algebraic expressions are rational expressions?

2x − 3 8
(i) (ii)
4x − 1 x + y2
2

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2 3x 2 + 5 2x 2 − x + 3
(iii) (iv)
7 6x

⎛ 1⎞ 3
1 Notes
(v) 200 + 11 (vi) ⎜ a + ⎟ ÷ b
⎝ b⎠

(vii) y3 + 3yz (y + z) + z3 (vii) 5 ÷ (a + 3b)

2. For each of the following, cite two examples:
(i) A rational expression is one variable
(ii) A rational expression is two variables
(iii) A rational expression whose numerator is a binomial and whose denominator is
trinomial
(iv) A rational expression whose numerator is a constant and whose denominator is
a quadratic polynomial
(v) A rational expression in two variables whose numerator is a polynomial of degree
3 and whose denominator is a polynomial of degree 5
(vi) An algebraic expression which is not a rational expression

4.6 OPERATIONS ON RATIONAL EXPRESSIONS

Four fundamental operations on rational expressions are performed in exactly the same
way as in case of rational numbers.
(1) Addition and Subtraction of Rational Expressions
For observing the analogy between addition of rational numbers and that of rational
expressions, we take the following example. Note that the analogy will be true for subtraction,
multiplication and division of rational expressions also.
Example 4.19:Find the sum:
5 3 2x + 1 x + 2
(i) + (ii) +
6 8 x −1 x +1
5 3 5× 4 + 3× 3
Solution: (i) + =
6 8 24 LCM of 6 and 8.

20 + 9
=
24

29
=
24

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2x + 1 x + 2 (2x + 1)(x + 1) + (x + 2)(x − 1)

+
(ii)
x −1 x +1
=
(x − 1)(x + 1) LCM of (x – 1) and (x + 1)
Notes 2x 2 + 3x + 1 + x 2 + x − 2
=
x 2 −1

3x 2 + 4x − 1
=
x 2 −1
x −1 3x − 2
Example 4.20: Subtract from
x +1 3x + 1

3x − 2 x − 1 (x + 1)(3x − 2) − (x − 1)(3x + 1)
−
Solution:
3x + 1 x + 1
=
(3x + 1)(x + 1)

=
(
3x 2 + x − 2 − 3x 2 − 2x − 1) )
3x 2 + 4x + 1

3x − 1
=
3x + 4x + 1
2

Note: Observe that the sum and difference of two rational expressions are also rational
expressions.
Since the sum and difference of two rational expressions are rational expressions,
1
x+ (x ≠ 0) and x – 1 (x ≠ 0) are both rational expressions as x and 1 are both rational
x x x
1 3 1 2 1 3 1
expressions. Similarly, each of x + , x + 3 , x − 2 , x − 3 , etc. is a rational
2

x2 x x x
1 1
expression. These expresions create interest as for given value of x + or x – , we
x x
1 2 1 3 1 3 1
can determine values of x + , x − 2 , x + 3 , x − 3 etc. and in some case vice
2

x2 x x x
versa also. Let us concentrate on the following example.
Example 4.21:Find the value of
1 1 1 1
(i) x + if x − = 1 (ii) x + if x + = 4
2 4
2 4
x x x x

1 1 1 1
(iii) x – if x 4 + 4 = 119 (iv) x +
3
3
if x + = 3
x x x x

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1 1
(v) x − if x – = 5
3
3
x x
1
Solution: (i) We have x − =1 Notes
x
2
⎛ 1⎞
∴ ⎜ x − ⎟ = (1)
2

⎝ x⎠

1 1
⇒ x2 + 2
− 2× x × = 1
x x
1
⇒ x2 + 2 − 2 = 1
x
1
Hence, x 2 + 2 = 3
x
1
(ii) x + = 4
x
2
⎛ 1⎞
⇒ ⎜ x + ⎟ = (4 )
2

⎝ x⎠

1
⇒ x2 + + 2 = 16
x2
1
⇒ x2 + = 14
x2
2
⎛ 1 ⎞
⇒ ⎜ x 2 + 2 ⎟ = (14 )
2

⎝ x ⎠

1
⇒ x4 + + 2 = 196
x4
1
So, x 4 + = 194
x4
1
(iii) We have x + = 119
4

x4
2

( )
2 ⎛ 1 ⎞
⇒ x 2 + ⎜ 2 ⎟ + 2 = 119 + 2 = 121
⎝x ⎠

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2
⎛ 1 ⎞
⇒ ⎜ x 2 + 2 ⎟ = (11)
2

⎝ x ⎠

Notes 1 1
⇒ x2 + = 11 [since both x2 and are positive]
x2 x2
1
⇒ x2 + −2=9
x2
2
⎛ 1⎞
⇒ ⎜ x − ⎟ = (3)
2

⎝ x⎠

1
∴x − = ±3
x
1
(iv) We have x + =3
x
3
⎛ 1⎞
∴ ⎜ x + ⎟ = (3)
3

⎝ x⎠

1 1⎛ 1⎞
⇒ x3 + 3
+ 3 × x × ⎜ x + ⎟ = 27
x x⎝ x⎠

1
⇒ x3 + + 3(3) = 27
x3
1
∴ x3 + = 18
x3
1
(v) We have x − =5
x
3
⎛ 1⎞
∴ ⎜ x − ⎟ = (5)
3

⎝ x⎠

1 1⎛ 1⎞
⇒ x3 − 3
− 3 × x × ⎜ x − ⎟ = 125
x x⎝ x⎠

1
⇒ x3 − − 3(5) = 125
x3
1
∴ x3 − = 140
x3

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4.8

1. Find the sum of rational expressions: Notes

x2 +1 x 2 −1 x+2 x −1
(i) and (ii) and
x−2 x−2 x+3 x−2

x +1 1 3x + 2 x –5
and (iv) x 2 − 16 and
(iii)
(x – 1)2
x +1 (x + 4)2
x–2 x+2 x+2 x–2
(v) and (vi) and
x +3 x +3 x–2 x+2

x +1 x2 –1 3 2x + 1 – 2 2x + 1
(vii) and 2 (vii) and
x+2 x +1 3x 2
2x 2
2. Subtract

x –1 x+4 2x – 1 2x + 1
(i) from (ii) from
x−2 x+2 2x + 1 2x − 1

1 2 x +1
(iii) from x (iv) from 2
x x x −1

x2 +1 2x 2 + 3 1 2x 3 + x 2 + 3
from
(v)
x–4
from
x–4
(vi) x 2 + 2
(
x2 + 2 )
2

x+2 x–2 x +1 4x
(vii) 2(x 2 − 9 ) from from 2
(x + 3)2 (vii)
x −1 x −1
3. Find the value of
1 1 1 1
(i) a + when a + = 2 (ii) a + when a – = 2
2 2
2 2
a a a a
1 1 1 1
(iii) a + when a + = 2 (iv) a + when a + = 5
3 3
3 3
a a a a
1 1 1 1
3
(v) a – 3
when a – = 5 (vi) 8a +
3
3
when 2a + =5
a a 27a 3a
1 1 1 1
(vii) a + when a + = 3 (viii) a + when a 2 + 2 = 7, a > 0
3 3
3 3
a a a a

Mathematics Secondary Course 127

MODULE - 1 Special Products and Factorization
Algebra

1 1 1 1
(ix) a – when a 4 + 4 = 727 3
(x) a – 3
when a 4 + 4 = 34, a > 0
a a a a

Notes (2) Multiplication and Division of Rational Expressions

2 5
You know that the product of two rational numbers, say, and is given as
3 7
2 5 2 × 5 10 P R
× = = . Similarly, the product of two rational expressions, say, and
3 7 3 × 7 21 Q S
P R PR
where P, Q, R, S (Q, S ≠ 0) are polynomials is given by × = . You may observe
Q S QS
that the product of two rational expressions is again a rational expression.
Example 4.22: Find the product:

5x + 3 2x − 1 2x + 1 x − 1
(i) × (ii) ×
5x − 1 x + 1 x −1 x + 3

x 2 – 7x + 10 x 2 − 7x + 12
(iii) ×
(x − 4)2 x –5

5x + 3 2x − 1 (5x + 3)(2x − 1)
×
Solution: (i)
5x − 1 x + 1
=
(5x − 1)(x + 1)
10x 2 + x − 3
=
5x 2 + 4x − 1

2x + 1 x − 1 (2x + 1)(x − 1)
×
(ii)
x −1 x + 3
=
(x − 1)(x + 3)
2x + 1
= [Cancelling common factor (x –1) from
x +3
numerator and denominator]

x 2 – 7x + 10 x 2 − 7x + 12
×
(x 2
)(
– 7x + 10 x 2 − 7x + 12 )
(iii) =
(x − 4)2 x –5 (x − 4)2 (x – 5)
(x − 2)(x − 5)(x − 3)(x − 4)
=
(x − 4)2 (x − 5)

128 Mathematics Secondary Course

Special Products and Factorization MODULE - 1
Algebra

(x − 2)(x − 3)
=
(x − 4)
[Cancelling common factor (x –4) (x – 5) from numerator and denominator] Notes

x 2 − 5x + 6
=
x−4
Note: The result (product) obtained after cancelling the HCF from its numerator and
denominator is called the result (product) in lowest terms or in lowest form.

2
You are also familiar with the division of a rational number, say, by a rational number,
3
5 2 5 2 7 7 5
say, is given as ÷ = × where is the reciprocal of . Similarly, division of a
7 3 7 3 5 5 7
P R P R P S
rational expression by a non-zero rational expression is given by ÷ = ×
Q S Q S Q R
S R
where P, Q, R, S are polynomials and is the reciprocal expression of .
R S
Example 4.23: Find the reciprocal of each of the following rational expressions:

x 2 + 20 2y
(i) (ii) − (iii) x3 + 8
x 3 + 5x + 6 y −5
2

x 2 + 20 x 3 + 5x + 6
Solution: (i) Reciprocal of is
x 3 + 5x + 6 x 2 + 20

2y y2 − 5 5 − y2
(ii) Reciprocal of − 2 is − =
y −5 2y 2y

x3 + 8 1
(iii) Since x3 + 8 = , the reciprocal of x3 + 8 is 3
1 x +8
Example 4.24: Divide:
x2 +1 x −1
(i) by
x −1 x+2

x2 –1 x 2 − 4x − 5
(ii) by and express the result in lowest form.
x 2 − 25 x 2 + 4x − 5

Mathematics Secondary Course 129

MODULE - 1 Special Products and Factorization
Algebra

x2 +1 x −1 x 2 +1 x + 2
Solution: (i) ÷ = ×
x −1 x + 2 x −1 x −1

Notes (x 2
)
+ 1 (x + 2 ) x 3 + 2x 2 + x + 2
=
=
(x − 1)2 x 2 − 2x + 1

x2 –1
÷
x 2 − 4x − 5
=
(
x 2 – 1 x 2 + 4x − 5 )( )
(ii)
x 2 − 25 (
x 2 + 4x − 5 x 2 − 25 x 2 − 4x − 5 )( )
(x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 5)(x − 1)
=
(x − 5)(x + 5)(x + 1)(x − 5)
(x − 1)(x − 1)
=
(x − 5)(x − 5)
[Cancelling HCF (x+1)(x+5)]
x 2 − 2x + 1
=
x 2 − 10x + 25

x 2 − 2x + 1
The result is in lowest form.
x 2 − 10x + 25

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4.9

1. Find the product and express the result in lowest terms:

7x + 2 x +1 x3 +1 x3 −1
(i) × 2 (ii) ×
2x + 3x + 1 7x − 5x − 2
2
x 4 +1 x 4 −1

3x 2 − 15x + 18 17x + 3 5x − 3 x + 2
(iii) × 2 (iv) ×
2x − 4 x − 6x + 9 5x + 2 x + 6

x2 +1 x +1 x3 + 1 x −1
(v) × 2 (vi) ×
x −1 x − x + 1 x − 1 2x

x − 3 x 2 − 5x + 4 x 2 − 7x + 12 x 2 − 2x − 24
(vii) × (viii) ×
x − 4 x 2 − 2x − 3 x 2 − 2x − 3 x 2 − 16
2. Find the reciprocal of each of the following rational expressions:

x2 + 2 3a
(i) (ii) −
x −1 1− a

130 Mathematics Secondary Course

Special Products and Factorization MODULE - 1
Algebra

7
(iii) − (iv) x4 +1
1 − 2x − x 2
3. Divide and express the result as a rational expression in lowest terms:
Notes
x + 11x + 18 x + 7x + 10
2 2
6x + x – 1 4x + 4x + 1
2 2
(i) ÷ (ii) ÷
x 2 − 4x − 117 x 2 − 12x − 13 2x 2 − 7 x − 15 4x 2 − 9

x2 + x +1 x3 – 1 x 2 + 2 x – 24 x 2 – x – 6
(iii) ÷ (iv) ÷
x2 − 9 x 2 − 4x + 3 x 2 − x − 12 x2 − 9

3x 2 + 14 x – 5 3x 2 + 2 x – 1 2x 2 + x – 3 2x 2 + 5x + 3
(v) 2 ÷ (vi) ÷
x − 3x + 2 3x 2 − 3x − 2 (x – 1)2 x 2 −1

LET US SUM UP
• Special products, given below, occur very frequently in algebra:
(i) (x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2 (ii) (x – y)2 = x2 – 2xy + y2
(iii) (x + y) (x – y) = x2 – y2 (iv) (x + a) (x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab
(v) (ax + b) (cx + d) = acx2 + (ad + bc) x + bd
(vi) (x + y)3 = x3 + 3xy(x + y) + y3 (vii) (x – y)3 = x3 – 3xy(x – y) – y3
(viii) (x + y) (x2 – xy + y2) = x3 + y3 (ix) (x – y) (x2 + xy + y2) = x3 – y3
• Factorization of a polynomial is a process of writing the polynomial as a product of
two (or more) polynomials. Each polynomial in the product is called a factor of the
given polynomial.
• A polynomial is said to be completely factorised if it is expressed as a product of
factors, which have no factor other than itself, its negative, 1 or –1.
• Apart from the factorization based on the above mentioned special products, we can
factorise a polynomial by taking monomial factor out which is common to some or all
of the terms of the polynomial using distributive laws.
• HCF of two or more given polynomials is the product of the polynomial of the highest
degree and greatest numerical coefficient each of which is a factor of each of the given
polynomials.
• LCM of two or more given polynomials is the product of the polynomial of the lowest
degree and the smallest numerical coefficient which are multiples of corresponding
elements of each of the given polynomials.

Mathematics Secondary Course 131

MODULE - 1 Special Products and Factorization
Algebra

P
• An algebraic expression, which can be expressed in the form where P and Q are
Q
polynomials, Q being a non-zero polynomial, is called a rational expression.
Notes
• Operations on rational expressions are performed in the way, they are performed in
case of rational numbers. Sum, Difference, Product and Quotient of two rational
expressions are also rational expressions.
• Expressing a rational expression into lowest terms means cancellation of common
factor, if any, from the numerator and denominator of the rational exprssion.

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Mark a tick  against the correct alternative:
(i) If 1202 – 202 = 25p, then p is equal to
(A) 16 (B) 140 (C) 560 (D) 14000
(ii) (2a2 + 3)2 – (2a2 – 3)2 is equal to
(A) 24a2 (B) 24a4 (C) 72a2 (D) 72a4
(iii) (a2 + b2)2 + (a2 – b2)2 is equal to
(A) 2(a2 + b2) (B) 4(a2 + b2)
(C) 4(a4 + b4) (D) 2(a4 + b4)
1 1
(iv) If m − = − 3 , then m 3 − 3 is equal to
m m
(A) 0 (B) 6 3 (C) − 6 3 (D) − 3 3

327 × 327 – 323 × 323

(v) is equal to
327 + 323
(A) 650 (B) 327 (C) 323 (D) 4
(vi) 8m3 – n3 is equal to:
(A) (2m – n)(4m2 – 2mn + n2) (B) (2m – n)(4m2 + 2mn + n2)
(C) (2m – n)(4m2 – 4mn + n2) (D) (2m – n)(4m2 + 4mn + n2)

467 × 467 × 467 + 533 × 533 × 533

(vii) is equal to
467 × 467 − 467 × 533 + 533 × 533
(A) 66 (B) 198 (C) 1000 (D) 3000

132 Mathematics Secondary Course

Special Products and Factorization MODULE - 1
Algebra
(viii) The HCF of 36a5b2 and 90a3b4 is
(A) 36a3b2 (B) 18a3b2
(C) 90a3b4 (D) 180a5b4
(ix) The LCM of x2 – 1 and x2 – x – 2 is Notes

(A) (x2 – 1) (x – 2) (B) (x2 – 1) (x + 2)

(C) (x – 1)2 (x + 2) (D) (x + 1)2 (x – 2)
(x) Which of the following is not a rational expression?
1
(A) 33 (B) x +
5x

x− 3
(C) 8 x + 6 y (D)
x+ 3
2. Find each of the following products:
(i) (am + an)(am – an) (ii) (x + y + 2)(x – y + 2)
(iii) (2x + 3y) (2x + 3y) (iv) (3a – 5b)(3a – 5b)
(v) (5x + 2y) ( 25x2 – 10xy + 4y2) (vi) (2x – 5y) (4x2 + 10xy + 25y2)

⎛ 5 ⎞⎛ 4⎞
(vii) ⎜ a + ⎟⎜ a + ⎟ (viii) (2z2 + 3)(2z2 – 5)
⎝ 4 ⎠⎝ 5⎠
(ix) 99 × 99 × 99 (x) 103 × 103 × 103
(xi) (a + b – 5) (a + b – 6) (xii) (2x + 7z) (2x + 5z)
3. If x = a – b and y = b –c, show that
(a – c) (a + c – 2b) = x2 – y2
4. Find the value of 64x3 – 125z3 if 4x – 5z = 16 and xz = 12.
5. Factorise:
(i) x7 y6 + x22y20 (ii) 3a5b – 243ab5
(iii) 3a6 + 12 a4b2 + 12 a2b4 (iv) a4 – 8a2b3 + 16 b6
(v) 3x4 + 12y4 (vi) x8 + 14 x4 + 81
(vii) x2 + 16x + 63 (viii) x2 – 12x + 27
(ix) 7x2 + xy – 6y2 (x) 5x2 – 8x – 4
(xi) x6 – 729y6 (xii) 125a6 + 64b6
6. Find the HCF of
(i) x3 – x5 and x4 – x7

Mathematics Secondary Course 133

MODULE - 1 Special Products and Factorization
Algebra

(ii) 30(x2 – 3x + 2) and 50(x2 – 2x + 1)

7. Find the LCM of
(i) x3 + y3 and x2 – y2
Notes
(ii) x4 + x2y2 + y4 and x2 + xy + y2
8. Perform the indicated operation:

x +1 1
+
(i)
(x − 1) x + 1
2

2x 2 + 2x − 7 x − 1
(ii) −
x2 + x − 6 x−2

x − 1 3x + 1
(iii) ×
x − 2 x2 − 4

x 2 − 1 x 2 − 4x − 5
(iv) 2 ÷
x − 25 x 2 + 4x − 5

2 2 4 8
9. Simpify: − − 2 − 4
a −1 a +1 a +1 a +1

2 2 4
[Hint : − = 2 ; now combine next term and so on]
a −1 a +1 a −1

x +1 x −1
10. If m = and n = , find m2 + n2 – mn.
x −1 x +1

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

4.1
1. (i) 25x2 + 20xy + y2 (ii) x2 – 6x +9 (iii) a2b2 + 2abcd + c2d2

x2 2 z2 1 1
(iv) 4x2 – 20xy + 5y2 (v) + x +1 (vi) − z+
9 3 4 3 9

25
(ix) x + x +1
2
(vii) a4 – 25 (viii) x2y2 – 1
12

134 Mathematics Secondary Course

Special Products and Factorization MODULE - 1
Algebra

4 4 25 2
(x) x − x −1 (xi) 6x2 + 13xy + 6y2 (xii) 21x2 + 8xy – 5y2
9 9
2. (i) 40x2 (ii) 2a6 + 18 (iii) 2(a2x2 + b2y2) (iv) 32p2q2
Notes
3. (i) 10404 (ii) 11664 (iii) 4761 (iv) 996004
(v) 6384 (vi) 22451 (vii) 89964 (viii) 249936
(ix) 11445 (x) 5621 (xi) 8930 (xii) 989028
4.2
1. (i) 27x3 + 36x2y + 36xy2 + 64y3 (ii) p3 – 3p2qr + 3pq2r2 – q3r3

ab 2 b 3 a 3 a 2b
(iii) a + a b + + − + ab 2 − b 3
3 2
(iv)
3 27 27 3

a6 1 4 2 2 2 4 8 6 a6x9 2 4 3 6 2
(v) + a b + a b + b (vi) − a b x y + 4a 2 b 6 x 3 y 4 − 8b 9 y 6
8 2 3 27 27 3
2. (i) 512 (ii) 1728 (iii) 5832 (iv) 12167 (v) 148877
(vi) 110592(vii) 357911 (viii) 328509 (ix) 912663 (x) 970299
3. (i) 8x3 + y3 (ii) x3 – 8 (iii) x3 +1

1 3
(vi) 27x −
3
(iv) 8y3 – 27z6 (v) 64x3 + 27y3 y
343
4. (i) 100 (ii) 1115

27027
5. (i) 15616 (ii)
125
6. (i) 120x2 + 250 (ii) 1000y3 (iii) 19x3 – 19y3 (iv) – 117x3 – 126
7. (i) 1000 (ii) 444
4.3
1. 5x(2y – 3z) 2. abc (c – b)
3. 3p(2p – 5q +9) 4. (b – c) (a2 – b)
5. (4x – y)2 (8ax – 2ay – b) 6. x (x + y) (x2 – xy + y2)
7. 25(2 + 5p) (2 – 5p) 8. (1 + 16y4) (1 + 4y2) (1 + 2y) (1 – 2y)
9. (5x + 1) (1 – x) 10. (a2 + bc + ab + ac) (a2 + bc – ab – ac)

Mathematics Secondary Course 135

MODULE - 1 Special Products and Factorization
Algebra

11. (5x + 6y – 1) (5x – 6y – 1) 12. (7x – y + 1)(7x – y – 1)

13. (m + 7)2 14. (2x – 1)2
15. (6a + 5)2 16. (x3 – 4)2
Notes
17. (a4 + 7a2 + 1) (a2 + 3a + 1)(a2 – 3a + 1)
18. (2a2 + 6ab + 9b2)(2a2 – 6ab + 9b2)
19. (x2 + 2x + 2)(x2 – 2x + 2)
20. (3a2 + 5a +4)(3a2 – 5a +4) 21. (i) 40 (ii) 57200
4.4
1. (a + 6b) (a2 – 6ab + 36b2) 2. (a – 7) (a2 + 7a + 49)
3. (x + 4y)3 4. (2x – 3y)3
5. (2x – 5y)3 6. (4k – 3)3
7. (9x2 – 2) (81x4 + 18x2 + 4) 8. x2 (1 + y2) (1 – y2 + y4)
9. 2a(2a2 – 3b2) (4a2 + 6a2b2 + 9b4) 10. (3b – a – 1) (9b2 + 3ab + 3b + a2 + a +1)
11. (2a – 3b + 4c)(4a2 + 9b2 – 6ab –8ac + 12bc + 16 c2
12. (4x – 2y +1)(16x2 + 8xy – 4x + 4y2 – 4y + 1)
4.5
1. (x + 3) (x + 8) 2. (x – 6y) (x – 9y) 3. (x + 3) (2x – 1)
4. 2(x – 2y)(3x + y) 5. (2x2 + 1) (x + 1) (x –1) 6. (x + 15y) (x – 2y)
7. (x + 2) (2x + 7) 8. (2y – 3)(5y – 2) 9. (x – 1) (2x + 1)
10. (12 – m) (m + 9) 11. (2a – b – 6)(2a – b + 5) 12. (9y – 7)(5x + y)
4.6

1. (i) 3xy2 (ii) 12y3x5 (iii) (x + 1)2 (iv) x + 2 (v) 6(x + 2)

(vi) (x + 5)2 (vii) (2x – 5)2 (viii) x2 – 1 (ix) x – y (x) 6(x – 1)

2. (i) 75x3y2 (ii) 240x3y4 (iii) (x – 1) (x + 1)3

(iv) x2 + 4x + 4 (v) 72 (x + 2)3 (x2 – 2x +4) (vi) (x + 1)2(x + 5)3

(vii) (x – 4) (x + 4)2(2x – 5)3 (viii) x4 – 1 (ix) (x – 1)(x + 1)(x2 + x + 1)

(x) 18(x – 1)(x – 2)(x – 3)

136 Mathematics Secondary Course

 Special Products and Factorization MODULE - 1
Algebra
4.7

1. (i), (ii), (iii), (v), (vii) and (viii)

4.8 Notes

2x 2 2x 2 + 2x − 7 2x 2 + 2
1. (i) (ii) 2 (iii) 3
x−2 x + x −6 x − x2 − x +1

4x 2 + 5x + 28 2x 2x 2 + 8
(iv) 3 (v) (vi) 2
x + 4x 2 − 16x + 64 x +3 x −4

2x 3 + 3x 2 − 1 5
(vii) (viii)
x 3 + 2x 2 + x + 2 6x 2

x–6 8x x2 –1
2. (i) 2 (ii) 2 (iii)
x −4 4x − 1 x

2–x x2 + 2 2x 3 + 1
(iv) 2
x −x
(v)
x–4
(vi)
(x 2
+2 )
2

x 2 − 15x + 16 1- x
(vii)
(
2 x 3 + 3x 2 − 9x - 27 ) (viii)
1+ x

3. (i) 2 (ii) 6 (iii) 2 (iv) 110 (v) 8 15

(vi) 115 (vii) 0 (viii) 18 (ix) ± 5 (x) 14

4.9

1 x4 + x2 +1 51x + 9
1. (i) (ii) (iii)
2x − x − 1
2
x6 + x4 + x2 +1 2x − 6

5x 2 + 7x − 6 x3 + x2 + x +1 x3 +1
(iv) (v) (vi)
5x 2 + 32x + 12 x 3 − 2x 2 + 2x − 1 2x

x−1 x− 6
(vii) (viii)
x+1 x+1

x −1 a −1 x 2 + 2x − 1 1
2. (i) 2 (ii) (iii) (iv)
x +2 3a 7 x +1
4

Mathematics Secondary Course 137

MODULE - 1 Special Products and Factorization
Algebra

x +1 6x 2 − 11x + 3 1
3. (i) (ii) (iii)
x+5 2x 2 − 9x − 5 x +3

Notes x+6 2x 2 + 11x + 5

(iv) (v) (vi) 1
x+2 x 2 −1

ANSWERS TO TERMINAL EXERCISE

1. (i) C (ii) A (iii) D (iv) A (v) D (vi) B (vii) C (viii) B (ix) A (x) C
2. (i) a2m – a2n (ii) x2 – y2 + 4x + 4 (iii) 4x2 + 12xy + 9y2
(iv) 9a2 – 30ab + 25b2 (v) 125x3 + 8y3 (vi) 8x3 – 125y3

41
(vii) a + a +1
2
(viii) 4z4 – 4z2 – 15 (ix) 970299
20
(x) 1092727 (xi) a2 + 2ab – 11a + 30 (xii) 4x2 + 24xz + 35z2
4. 15616
5. (i) x7y6(1 + x15y14) (ii) 3ab(a – 3b) (a + 3b) (a2 + 9b2)
(iii) 3a2(a2 + 2b2)2 (iv) (a2 – 4b3)2
(v) 3(x2 + 2xy + 2y2) (vi) (x4 – 2x2 + 9)(x4 + 2x2 + 9)
(vii) (x +9)(x + 7) (viii) (x – 3)(x – 9)
(ix) (x + y)(7x – 6y) (x) (x – 2) (5x + 2)
(xi) (x – 3y) (x + 3y)(x2 – 3xy + 9y2) (x2 + 3xy + 9y2)
(xii) (5a2 + 4b2)(25a4 – 20a2b2 + 16b4)
6. (i) x3(1 – x) (ii) 10(x – 1)
7. (i) (x2 – y2) (x2 – xy + y2 (ii) x4 + x2y2 + y4
2x 2 + 2 x+ 2
8. (i) (ii)
x3 − x2 − x +1 x+ 3

3x 2 − 2x − 1 x 2 − 2x + 1
(iii) 3 (iv) 2
x + 2x 2 − 4x − 8 x − 10x + 25
16
9.
a8 −1
x 4 + 14x 2 + 1
10.
x 4 − 2x 2 + 1
138 Mathematics Secondary Course
Linear Equations MODULE - 1
Algebra

5 Notes

LINEAR EQUATIONS

You have learnt about basic concept of a variable and a constant. You have also learnt
about algebraic exprssions, polynomials and their zeroes. We come across many situations
such as six added to twice a number is 20. To find the number, we have to assume the
number as x and formulate a relationship through which we can find the number. We shall
see that the formulation of such expression leads to an equation involving variables and
constants. In this lesson, you will study about linear equations in one and two variables.
You will learn how to formulate linear equations in one variable and solve them algebraically.
You will also learn to solve linear equations in two variables using graphical as well as
algebraic methods.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to
• identify linear equations from a given collection of equations;
• cite examples of linear equations;
• write a linear equation in one variable and also give its solution;
• cite examples and write linear equations in two variables;
• draw graph of a linear equation in two variables;
• find the solution of a linear equation in two variables;
• find the solution of a system of two linear equations graphically as well as
algebraically;
• Translate real life problems in terms of linear equations in one or two variables
and then solve the same.

EXPECTED BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE

• Concept of a variable and constant

Mathematics Secondary Course 139

MODULE - 1 Linear Equations
Algebra

• Algebraic expressions and operations on them

• Concept of a polynomial, zero of a polynomial and operations on polynomials

Notes 5.1 LINEAR EQUATIONS

You are already familiar with the algebraic expressions and polynomials. The value of an
algebraic expression depends on the values of the variables involved it. You have also
learnt about polynomial in one variable and their degrees. A polynomials in one variable
whose degree is one is called a linear polynomial in one variable. When two expressions
are separated by an equality sign, it is called an equation. Thus, in an equation, there is
always an equality sign. The equality sign shows that the expression to the left of the sign
(the left had side or LHS) is equal to the expression to the right of the sign (the right hand
side or RHS). For example,
3x + 2 = 14 ...(1)
2y – 3 = 3y + 4 ...(2)
z2 – 3z + 2 = 0 ...(3)
3x2 + 2 = 1 ...(4)
are all equations as they contain equality sign and also contain variables. In (1), the LHS =
3x + 2 and RHS = 14 and the variable involved is x. In (2), LHS = 2y – 3, RHS = 3y + 4
and both are linear polynomials in one variable. In (3) and (4), LHS is a polynomial of
degree two and RHS is a number.
You can also observe that in equation (1), LHS is a polynomial of degree one and RHS is
a number. In (2), both LHS and RHS are linear polynomials and in (3) and (4), LHS is a
quadratic polynomial. The equations (1) and (2) are linear equations and (3) and (4) are
not linear equations.
In short, an equation is a condition on a variable. The condition is that two expressions,
i.e., LHS and RHS should be equal. It is to be noted that atleast one of the two expressions
must contain the variable.
It should be noted that the equation 3x – 4 = 4x + 6 is the same as 4x + 6 = 3x – 4. Thus,
an equation remains the same when the expressions on LHS and RHS are interchanged.
This property is often use in solving equations.
An equation which contains two variables and the exponents of each variable is one and
has no term involving product of variables is called a linear equation in two variables. For
example, 2x + 3y = 4 and x – 2y + 2 = 3x + y + 6 are linear equations in two variables.
The equation 3x2 + y = 5 is not a linear equation in two variables and is of degree 2, as the
exponent of the variable x is 2. Also, the equation xy + x = 5 is not a linear equation in two
variables as it contains the term xy which is the product of two variables x and y.
The general form of a linear equation in one variable is ax + b = 0, a ≠ 0, a and b are
constants. The general form of a linear equation in two variables is ax + by + c = 0 where

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a, b and c are real numbers such that at atleast one of a and b is non-zero.
Example 5.1: Which of the following are linear equations in one variable? Also write their
LHS and RHS.

(i) 2x + 5 = 8 Notes
(ii) 3y – z = y + 5
(iii) x2 – 2x = x + 3
(iv) 3x – 7 = 2x +3
(v) 2 + 4 = 5 + 1
Solution:
(i) It is a linear equation in x as the exponent of x is 1. LHS = 2x + 5 and RHS = 8
(ii) It is not a linear equation in one variable as it contains two variables y and z. Here,
LHS = 3y – z and RHS = y + 5
(iii) It is not a linear equation as highest exponent of x is 2. Here, LHS = x2 – 2x and RHS
= x +3.
(iv) It is a linear equation in x as the exponent of x in both LHS and RHS is one.
LHS = 3x – 7, RHS = 2x + 3
(v) It is not a linear equation as it does not contain any variable. Here LHS = 2 + 4 and
RHS = 5 + 1.
Example 5.2: Which of the following are linear equations in two variables.
(i) 2x + z = 5
(ii) 3y – 2 = x + 3
(iii) 3t + 6 = t – 1
Solution:
(i) It is a linear equation in two variables x and z.
(ii) It is a linear equation in two variables y and x.
(iii) It is not a linear equation in two variables as it contains only one variable t.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 5.1

1. Which of the following are linear equations in one variable?
(i) 3x – 6 = 7
(ii) 2x – 1 = 3z + 2

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(iii) 5 – 4 = 1
(iv) y2 = 2y – 1
2. Which of the following are linear equations in two variables:
Notes (i) 3y – 5 = x + 2
(ii) x2 + y = 2y – 3
(iii) x + 5 = 2x – 3

5.2 FORMATION OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN ONE

VARIABLE
Consider the following situations:
(i) 4 more than x is 11
(ii) A number y divided by 7 gives 2.
(iii) Reena has some apples with her. She gave 5 apples to her sister. If she is left with 3
apples, how many apples she had.
(iv) The digit at tens place of a two digit number is two times the digit at units place. If digits
are reversed, the number becomes 18 less than the original number. What is the original
number?
In (i), the equation can be written as x + 4 = 11. You can verify that x = 7 satisfies the
equation. Thus, x = 7 is a solution.

y
In (ii), the equation is = 2.
7
In (iii), You can assume the quantity to be found out as a variable say x, i.e., let Reena has
x apples. She gave 5 apples to her sister, hence she is left with x – 5 apples. Hence, the
required equation can be written as x – 5 = 3, or x = 8.
In (iv), Let the digit in the unit place be x. Therefore, the digit in the tens place should be
2x. Hence, the number is
10 (2x) + x = 20x + x = 21x
When the digit are reversed, the tens place becomes x and unit place becomes 2x. Therefore,
the number is 10x + 2x = 12x. Since original number is 18 more than the new number, the
equation becomes
21x – 12x = 18
or 9x = 18

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 5.2

Form a linear equation using suitable variables for the following situations:
Notes
1. Twice a number subtracted from 15 is 7.
2. A motor boat uses 0.1 litres of fuel for every kilometer. One day, it made a trip of x
km. Form an equation in x, if the total consumption of fuel was 10 litres.
3. The length of rectangle is twice its width. The perimeter of rectangle is 96m. [Assume
width of rectangle as y m]
4. After 15 years, Salma will be four times as old as she is now. [Assume present age of
Salma as t years]

5.3 SOLUTION OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN ONE

VARIABLE
Let us consider the following linear equation in one variable,
x–3=–2
Here LHS = x – 3 and RHS = – 2
Now, we evaluate RHS and LHS for some values of x
x LHS RHS
0 –3 –2
1 –2 –2
3 0 –2
4 1 –2
We observe that LHS and RHS are equal only when x = 1. For all other values of x, LHS
≠ RHS. We say that the value of x equal to 1 satisfies the equation or x = 1 is a solution
of the equation.
A number, which when substituted for the variable in the equation makes LHS
equal to RHS, is called its solution. We can find the solution of an equation by trial and
error method by taking different values of the variable. However, we shall learn a systematic
way to find the solution of a linear equation.
An equation can be compared with a balance for weighing, its sides are two pans and the
equality symbol ‘=’ tells us that the two pans are in balance.
We have seen the working of balance, If we put equal (and hence add) or remove equal
weights, (and hence subtract) from both pans, the two pans remain in balance. Thus we
can translate for an equation in the following way:

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1. Add same number to both sides of the equation.

2. Subtract same number from both sides of the equation.
3. Multiply both sides of the equation by the same non-
Notes zero number.
4. Divide both sides of the equation by the same non-
zero number. LHS RHS
We now consider some examples: Fig 5.1

Example 5.3: Solve 5 + x = 8.

Solution: Subtracting 5 from both sides of the equation.
We get 5+x–5=8–5
or x+0=3
or x=3
So, x = 3 is the solution of the given equation.
Check: When x = 3, LHS = 5 + x = 5 + 3 = 8 and R.H.S. = 8.
Therefore, LHS = RHS.
Example 5.4: Solve: y – 2 = 7.
Solution: Adding 2 to both sides of the equation, we get
y–2+2=7+2
or y=9
Hence, y = 9 is the solution.
Check: When y = 9, LHS = y – 2 = 9 – 2 = 7 and RHS = 7. Therefore, LHS = RHS.
Example 5.5: Solve: 7x + 2 = 8.
Solution: Subtracting 2 from both sides of the equation, we get
7x + 2 – 2 = 8 – 2
or 7x = 6
7x 6
or = (dividing both sides by 7)
7 7
6
or x=
7
6
Therefore, x = is the solution of the equation.
7

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3y
Example 5.6: Solve: −3 = 9
2
Solution: Adding 3 to both sides of the equation, we get
Notes
3y
−3+3 = 9+3
2
3y
or = 12
2
3y
or × 2 = 12 × 2 (Multiplying both sides by 2)
2
or 3y = 24
3y 24
or = (Dividing both sides by 3)
3 3
or y=8
Hence, y = 8 is the solution.
Example 5.7: Solve the equation 2(x + 3) = 3(2x – 7)
Solution: The equation can be written as
2x + 6 = 6x – 21
or 6x – 21 = 2x + 6 [Interchanging LHS and RHS]
or 6x – 21 + 21 = 2x + 6 + 21 [Adding 21 on both sides]
or 6x = 2x +27
or 6x – 2x = 2x +27 – 2x [Subtracting 2x from both sides]
or 4x = 27
27
or x=
4
27
Thus, x = is the solution of the equation.
4
Note:
1. It is not necessary to write the details of what we are adding, subtracting, multiplying
or dividing each time.
2. The process of taking a term from LHS to RHS or RHS to LHS, is called transposing.
3. When we transpose a term from one side to other side, sign ‘+’ changes to ‘–’,
‘–’ to ‘+’.

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4. A linear equation in one variable can be written as ax + b = 0, where a and b are

b
constants and x is the variable. Its solution is x = − , a ≠ 0 .
a
Notes Example 5.8: Solve 3x – 5 = x +3
Solution: We have 3x – 5 = x + 3
or 3x = x + 3 + 5
or 3x – x = 8
or 2x = 8
or x=4
Therefore, x = 4 is the solution of the given equation.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 5.3

Solve the following equations:
1. x – 5 = 8
2. 19 = 7 + y
3. 3z + 4 = 5z + 4

1
4. y + 9 = 12
3
5. 5(x – 3) = x + 5

5.4 WORD PROBLEMS

You have learnt how to form linear equations in one variable. We will now study some
applications of linear equations.
Example 5.9: The present age of Jacob’s father is three times that of Jacob. After 5
years, the difference of their ages will be 30 years. Find their present ages.
Solution: Let the present age of Jacob be x years.
Therefore, the present age of his father is 3x years.
After 5 years, the age of Jacob = (x + 5) years.
After 5 years, the age of his father = (3x + 5) years.
The difference of their ages = (3x + 5) – (x + 5) years, which is given to be
30 years, therefore

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3x + 5 – (x + 5) = 30
or 3x + 5 – x – 5 = 30
or 3x – x = 30
or 2x = 30 Notes

or x = 15
Therefore, the present age of Jacob is 15 years and the present age of his father = 3x
= 3 × 15 = 45 years.
Check: After 5 years, age of Jacob = 15 + 5 = 20 years
After 5 years, age of his father = 45 + 5 =50 years
Difference of their ages = 50 – 20 = 30 years
Example 5.10 : The sum of three consecutive even integers is 36. Find the integers.
Solution: Let the smallest integer be x.
Therefore, other two integers are x + 2 and x + 4.
Since, their sum is 36, we have
x + (x + 2) + (x + 4) = 36
or 3x + 6 = 36
or 3x = 36 – 6 = 30
or x = 10
Therefore, the required integers are 10, 12 and 14.
Example 5.11: The length of a rectangle is 3 cm more than its breadth. If its perimeter is
34 cm find its length and breadth.
Solution: Let the breadth of rectangle be x cm
Therefore, its length = x + 3
Now, since perimeter = 34 cm
We have 2(x + 3 + x) = 34
or 2x + 6 + 2x = 34
or 4x = 34 – 6
or 4x = 28
or x=7
Therefore, breadth = 7 cm, and length = 7 + 3 = 10 cm.

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 5.4

1. The sum of two numbers is 85. If one number exceeds the other by 7, find the numbers.
Notes
2. The age of father is 20 years more than twice the age of the son. If sum of their ages is
65 years, find the age of the son and the father.
3. The length of a rectangle is twice its breadth. If perimeter of rectangle is 66 cm, find its
length and breadth.

2
4. In a class, the number of boys is of the number of girls. Find the number of girls in
5
the class, if the number of boys is 10.

5.5 LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

Neha went to market to the purchase pencils and pens. The cost of one pencil is Rs 2 and
cost of one pen is Rs 4. If she spent Rs 50, how many pencils and pens she purchased?
Since, we want to find the number of pencils and pens, let us assume that she purchased x
pencils and y pens. Then,
Cost of x pencils = Rs 2 x
Cost of y pens = Rs 4 y
Since, total cost in Rs 50, we have
2x + 4y = 50 ...(1)
This is a linear equation in two variables x and y as it is of the form ax + by + c = 0
We shall now take different values of x and y to find the solution of the equation (1)

1. If x =1, y = 12, then LHS = 2 × 1 + 4 × 12 = 2 + 48 = 50 and RHS = 50. Therefore,

x = 1 and y = 12 is a solution.
2. If x = 3, y = 11, then LHS = 2 × 3 + 4 × 11 = 50 and RHS = 50. Therefore, x = 3, y
= 11 is also a solution.
3. If x = 4, y = 10, then LHS = 9 × 4 + 4 × 10 = 48 and RHS = 50. Therefore, x = 4, y
= 10 is not a solution of the equation.
Thus, a linear equation in two variables has more than one solution.
We have seen that a linear equation in one variable ‘x’ is of the form ax + b = 0, a ≠ 0. It
b
has only one solution i.e., x = − . However, a linear equation in two variables x and y is
a
of the form

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ax + by + c = 0 ...(1)
where a, b and c are constants and atleast one of a or b is non-zero. Let a ≠ 0, then (1) can
be written as
ax = – by – c Notes

b c
or x = − y−
a a
Now, for each value of y, we get a unique value of x. Thus, a linear equation in two
variables will have infinitely many solutions.
Note: A linear equation ax + c = 0, a ≠ 0, can be considered as a linear equation in two
variables by expressing it as
ax + 0y + c = 0
i.e., by taking the coefficient of y as zero. It still has many solutions such as

c c
x = − , y = 0; x = − , y = 1 etc.
a a

c
i.e., for each value of y, the value of x will be equal to − .
a

Example 5.12: The sum of two integers is 15. Form a linear equation in two variables.

Solution: Let the two integers be x and y. Therefore, their sum = x + y. It is given that the
sum is 15.

Hence, required equation is x + y = 15.

Example 5.13: For the equation 4x – 5y = 2, verify whether (i) x = 3, y = 2 and (ii) x =
4, y = 1 are solutions or not.
Solution: (i) We have 4x – 5y = 2
When x = 3, y = 2, LHS = 4x – 5y = 4 × 3 – 5 × 2
= 12 – 10 = 2
= RHS
Therefore, x = 3, y = 2 is a solution of the given equation.
(ii) When x = 4, y = 1, LHS = 4 × 4 – 5 × 1 = 16 – 5 = 11
But RHS = 2. Therefore, LHS ≠ RHS
Hence, x = 4, y = 1 is not a solution.

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 5.5

1. Form linear equations in two variables using suitable variables for the unknowns.
Notes
(i) The perimeter of a rectangle is 98 cm. [Take length as x and breadth as y.]
(ii) The age of father is 10 years more than twice the age of son.
(iii) A number is 10 more than the other number.
(iv) The cost of 2kg apples and 3 kg oranges is Rs. 120. [Take x and y as the cost per
kg of apples and oranges respectively.]
Write True or False for the following:
2. x = 0, y = 3 is a solution of the equation
3x + 2y – 6 = 0
3. x = 2, y = 5 is a solution of the equation
5x + 2y = 10

5.6 GRAPH OF A LINEAR EQUATION IN TWO VARIABLES

You will now learn to draw the graph of a linear equation in two variables. Consider the
equation 2x + 3y = 12. It can be written as
2x = 12 – 3y or 3y = 12 – 2x

12 − 3y 12 − 2x
x= or y =
2 3
Now, for each value of y or for each value of x, we get a unique corresponding value of x
or y. We make the following table for the values of x and y which satisfy the equation:
2x + 3y = 12
x 0 6 3 9 –3
y 4 0 2 –2 6
Thus, x = 0, y = 4; x = 6, y = 0; x = 3, y = 2; x = 9, y = –2; x = –3, y = 6 are all solutions
of the given equation.
We write these solutions as order pairs (0, 4), (6, 0), (3, 2), (9, – 2) and (– 3, 6).
Here, first entry gives the value of x and the corresponding second entry gives the value of
y. We will now learn to draw the graph of this equation by plotting these ordered pairs in
a plane and then join them. In the graph of 2x + 3y = 12, the points representing the
solutions will be on a line and a point which is not a solution, will not lie on this line. Each
point also called orderd pair, which lies on the line will give a solution and a point which
does not lie on the line will not be a solution of the equation.

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To draw the graph of a linear equation in two variables, we will first plot these points in a
plane. We proceed as follows:
Step 1: We take two perpendicular lines X'OX and YOY' intersecting at O. Mark the real
numbers on X'OX and YOY' by Notes
Y
considering them as number lines with the
point O as the real number 0 as shown in
Fig 5.2. These two lines divide the plane 4
into four parts, called first quadrant, 3
second quadrant, third quadrant and 2
fourth quadrant. The number line X'OX
1
is called x-axis and the line Y'OY is X' X
called y-axis. Since, we have taken x-
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4
axis and y-axis, perpendicular to each –1
other in a plane, we call the plane as
–2
coordinate plane or cartesian plane in
the honour of French mathematician –3
Descartes who invented this system to –4
plot a point in the plane.
Y'
Step 2: To plot a point say (3, 2), take
the point 3 on x-axis and through this point, Fig 5.2
draw a line 'l' perpendicular to x-axis
(i.e. parallel to y-axis). Now take the point 2 on y-axis and through 2, draw a line 'm'
perpendicular to y-axis (i.e. parallel to x-axis) to meet l at P. The point P represents the
point (3, 2) on the plane.

Y'

3
P
2
(3, 2)
1
X' X
O
–2 –1 1 2 3 4

Fig. 5.3
Note 1: It may be noted that, for the ordered pair (a, b), a is called x-coordinate and b
is called y-coordinate.

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Note 2: Every point on x-axis can be written as (a, 0) i.e. its y-coordinate is zero and
every point on y-axis is of the form (0, b) i.e., its x-coordinate is zero. The coordinates of
the point O are (0, 0).
Notes Note 3: In the first quadrant, both x and y coordinates are positive, in the second quadrant,
x coordinate is negative and y coordinate is positive, in the third quadrant both x and
y coordinates are negative and in the fourth quadrant, x-coordinate is positive and
y-coordinate is negative.
Example 5.14: Represent the point (–2, 3) in the coordinate plane.
Solution: Draw x-axis and y-axis on the plane
Y
and mark the points on them. Take the point – l
2 on x-axis and draw the line l parallel to y-
axis. Now take the point 3 on y-axis and draw 4
the line 'm' parallel to x-axis to meet l at P. 3 m
P
The point P represent (–2, 3), we say (–2 , 3) 2
are coordinates of the point P.
1
You will now learn to draw the graph of a linear X' X
equation in two variables. It should be noted –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3
that the graph of linear equation in two variables
Y'
is a line and the coordinates of every point on
Fig 5.4
the line satisfies the equation. If a point does
not lie on the graph then its coordinates will
not safisfy the equation. You also know that from two given points, one and only one line
can be drawn. Therefore, it is sufficient to take any two points, i.e., values of the variables
x and y which satisfy the equation. However, it is suggested that you should take three
points to avoid any chance of a mistake occurring.
Example 5.15: Draw the graph of the equation 2x – 3y = 6.
Solution: Now choose values of x and y which satisfy the equation 2x – 3y = 6. It will be
easy to write the equation by transforming it in any of the following form
2x = 3y + 6 or 3y = 2x – 6

3y + 6 2x − 6
⇒ x= or y =
2 3
Now by taking different values of x or y, you find the corresponding values of y or x. If we
2x − 6
take different values of x in y = , we get corresponding values of y. If x = 0, we get
3
y = – 2, x = 3 gives y = 0 and x = – 3 gives y = – 4.
You can represent these values in the following tabular form:

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x 0 3 –3

y –2 0 –4

The corresponding points in the plane are (0, –2), (3, 0) and (–3, –4). You can now plot Notes
these points and join them to get the line which represents the graph of the linear equation
as shown here.

Note that all the three points must lie on the line.
Y

4
3

2 6
y=
–3
1 2x

X' X
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4
B (3, 0)
–1
–2 A (0, –2)
–3
4)
,– –4
(–3
C

Y'

Fig 5.5
Example 5.16: Draw the graph of the equation x = 3.
Solution: It appears that it is a linear equation in one variable x. You can easily convert it
into linear equation in two variables by writing it as
x+0y=3
Now you can have the following table for values of x and y.
x 3 3 3
y 3 0 1
Observe that for each value of y, the value of x is always 3. Thus, required points can be
taken as (3, 3), (3, 0), (3, 1). The graph is shown in Fig. 5.6.

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MODULE - 1 Linear Equations
Algebra
Y

C(3, 3,)
3
Notes
2

x=3
1 B(3, 1)
A(3, 0) X
X'
1 2 3 4

Y'

Fig. 5.6

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 5.6

1. Plot the following points in the cartesian plane:

(i) (3, 4) (ii) (–3, –2) (iii) (–2, 1)

(iv) (2, –3) (v) (4, 0) (vi) (0, –3)

2. Draw the graph of each of the following linear equations in two variables:

(i) x + y = 5 (ii) 3x + 2y = 6

(iii) 2x + y = 6 (iv) 5x + 3y = 4

5.7 SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

Neha went to market and purchased 2 pencils and 3 pens for ` 19. Mary purchased 3
pencils and 2 pens for ` 16. What is the cost of 1 pencil and 1 pen? If the cost of one
pencil is ` x and cost of one pen is ` y, then the linear equation in case of Neha is
2x + 3y = 19 and for Mary it is 3x + 2y = 16. To find the cost of 1 pencil and 1 pen, you
have to find those values of x and y which satisfy both the equations, i.e.,

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2x + 3y = 19
3x + 2y = 16
These two equations taken together are called system of linear equations in two variables
and the values of x and y which satisfy both equations simultaneously is called the solution. Notes
There are different methods for solving such equation. These are graphical method and
algebraic method. You will first learn about graphical method and then algebraic method
for solving such equations.

5.7.1 Graphical method

In this method, you have to draw the graphs of both linear equations on the same graph
sheet. The graphs of the equations may be

(i) Intersecting lines: In this case, the point of intersection will be common solution of
both simultaneous equations. The x-coordinate will give the value of x and y-coordinate
will given value of y. In this case system will have a unique solution.
(ii) Concident lines: In this case each point on the common line will give the solution.
Hence, system of equations will have infinitely many solutions.
(iii) Parallel lines: In this case, no point will be common to both equations. Hence, system
of equations will have no solution.
Example 5.17: Solve the following system of equations:
x – 2y = 0 ...(1)
3x + 4y = 20 ...(2)
Solution: Let us draw the graphs of these equations. For this, you need atleast two solutions
of each equation. We give these values in the following tables.
x – 2y =0 3x + 4y = 20
x 0 2 –2 x 0 4 6
y 0 1 –1 y 5 2 1/2
Now plot these points on the same graph sheet as given below:
The two graphs intersect at the point P whose coordinates are (4, 2). Thus x = 4, y = 2 is
the solution.
You can verify that x = 4, y = 2 satisfies both the equations.

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MODULE - 1 Linear Equations
Algebra
Y

7
Notes
6
(0, 5)
5
3x
4 +
4y
=
20
3
P
2
(2, 1) (4, 2)
1 1
(6, )
2
X' X
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

=0 –1
2y )
x– , –1
(–2

Y'

Fig. 5.7
Example 5.18: Solve the following system of equations:
x +y=8 ...(1)
2x –y = 1 ...(2)
Solution: To draw the graph of these equation, make the following by selecting some
solutions of each of the equation.
x+y=8 2x – y = 1
x 3 4 5 x 0 1 2
y 5 4 3 y –1 1 3
Now, plot the points (3, 5), (4, 4) and (5, 3) to get the graph of x + y = 8 and (0, –1),
(1, 1) and (2, 3) to get the graph of 2x – y = 1 on the same graph sheet. The two lines
intersect at the point P whose coordinates are (3, 5). Thus x = 3, y = 5, is the solution of
the system of equations. You can verify that x = 3, y = 5 satisfies both equations
simultaneously.

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Algebra
Y

(3, 5)
5
P
(4, 4)
4 Notes

x
(5, 3)

+
3

y=

y
(2, 3)

=
8
–
2

2x
1 (1, 1)
O
X' –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 X
–1
(0, –1)
–2
T'
Fig. 5.8
Example 5.19: Solve the following system of equations:
x+y=2 ...(1)
2x + 2y = 4 ...(2)
Solution: First make tables for some solutions of each of the equation.
x + y =2 2x + 2y = 4
x 0 2 1 x 0 2 1
y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1

Now draw the graph of these Y

equations by plotting the
3
corresponding points.
2 x
+
You can see that graph of both the 2x y =
1 +2y 2
equations is the same. Hence, =4 X
system of equations has infinitely X'
O
many solutions. For example, 1 2 3
x = 0, y = 2; x = 1, y = 1; x = 2, –3
y = 0 etc. You can also observe –2
that these two equations are
–1
essentially the same equation.
Y'

Fig. 5.9

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MODULE - 1 Linear Equations
Algebra
Example 5.20: Solve the following system of equations:
2x – y = 4 ...(1)
4x – 2y = 6 ...(2)
Notes
Solution: Let us draw the graph of both equations by taking some solutions of each of the
equation.
2x – y = 4 4x – 2y = 6
x 0 2 –1 x 0 1.5 2
y –4 0 –6 y –3 0 1
You can observe that these graphs are parallel lines. Since, they do not have any common
point, the system of equations, therefore, has no solution.
Y

6
=
2

2y
–
1
4x
X'
X
–2 –1 O 1 2 3
–1
–2
4
y=

–3
–
2x

–4
Y'

Fig. 5.10

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 5.7

Solve the following system of equations graphically. Also, tell whether these have unique
solution, infinitely many solutions or no solution.
1. x – y = 3
x+y=5
2. 2x + 3y = 1
3x – y = 7
3. x + 2y = 6
2x + 4y = 12

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4. 3x + 2y = 6
6x + 4y = 18
5. 2x + y = 5
3x + 2y = 8 Notes

5.7.2 Algebraic Method

There are several methods of solving system of two linear equations in two variables. You
have learnt one method which is known as graphical method. We shall now discuss here
two more methods, called algebraic methods. They are
(i) Substitution Method.
(ii) Elimination method.
Note: These methods are useful in case the system of equations has a unique solution.
Substitution Method: In this method, we find the value of one of the variable from one
equation and substitute it in the second equation. This way, the second equation will be
reduced to linear equaion in one variable which we have already solved. We explain this
method through some examples.
Example 5.21: Solve the following system of equations by substitution method.
5x + 2y = 8 ...(1)
3x – 5y = 11 ...(2)
Solution: From (1), we get
2y = 8 – 5x

1
or y= (8 – 5x) ...(3)
2
Substituting the value of y in (2), we get

5
3x − (8 − 5x ) = 11
2
or 6x – 5(8 – 5x) = 22 [multiplying both sides by 2]
or 6x – 40 + 25x = 22
or 31x = 40 + 22

62
or x= =2
31

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MODULE - 1 Linear Equations
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Substituting the value of x = 2 in (3), we get

1 1
y= (8 – 5× 2) = (8 – 10)
2 2
Notes
2
or y= − =–1
2
So, the solution to the system of equations is x = 2, y = – 1.
Example 5.22: Solve the following system of equations by substitution method:
2x + 3y = 7 ...(1)
3x + y = 14 ...(2)
Solution: From equation (2), we get
y = 14 – 3x ...(3)
Substituting the value of y in (1), we get
2x + 3 (14 – 3x) = 7
or 2x + 42 – 9x = 7
or 2x – 9x = 7 – 42
or – 7x = – 35

− 35
Therefore x= =5
−7

Substituting the value of x in (3), we get

y = 14 – 3x = 14 – 3 × 5
or y = 14 – 15 = – 1
Hence, x = 5, y = – 1 is the solution.
Check: You can verify that x = 5, y = – 1 satisfies both the equations.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 5.8

Solve the following system of equations by substitution method:
1. x + y = 14 2. 2x + 3y = 11
x–y=2 2x – 4y = –24

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3. 3x + 2y = 11 4. 7x – 2y = 1
2x + 3y = 4 3x + 4y = 15

Elimination Method: In this method, we eliminate one of the variable by multiplying both Notes
equations by suitable non-zero contants to make the coefficients of one of the variable
numerically equal. Then we add or subtract one equation to or from the other so that one
variable gets eliminated and we get an equation in one variable. We now consider some
examples to illustrate this method.
Example 5.23: Solve the following system of equations using elimination method.
3x – 5y = 4 ...(1)
9x – 2y = 7 ...(2)
Solution: To elminate x, multiply equation (1) by 3 to make coefficient of x equal. You get
the equations.
9x – 15y = 12 ...(3)
9x – 2y = 7 ...(4)
Subtracting (4) from (3), we get
9x – 15y – (9x – 2y) = 12 – 7
or 9x – 15y – 9x + 2y = 5
or – 13 y = 5

5
or y= −
13

5
Substituting y = − in equation (1), we get
13

⎛ 5⎞
3x – 5 × ⎜ − ⎟ = 4
⎝ 13 ⎠

25
or 3x + =4
13

25 27
or 3x = 4 − =
13 13
9
or x=
13

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MODULE - 1 Linear Equations
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9 5
Therefore, x = and y = − is the required solution of the given system of equations.
13 13
Example 5.24: Solve the following system of equations using elimination method.
Notes
2x + 3y = 13 ...(1)
5x – 7y = –11 ...(2)
Solution: To eliminate y, multiply equation (1) by 7 and equation (2) by 3, we get
14x + 21y = 91 ...(3)
15x – 21y = –33 ...(4)
Adding (3) and (4), we get
29 x = 58

58
or x= =2
29
Substituting x = 2 in (1), we get
2 × 2 + 3y = 13
or 3y = 13 – 4 = 9

9
or y= =3
3
Therefore, x = 2 and y = 3 is the solution of the given system of equations.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 5.9

Solve the following systems of equations by elimination method:
1. 3x + 4y = –6 2. x + 2y = 5
3x – y = 9 2x + 3y = 8
3. x – 2y = 7 4. 3x + 4y = 15
3x + y = 35 7x – 2y = 1
5. 2x + 3y = 4 6. 3x – 5y = 23
3x + 2y = 11 2x – 4y = 16

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Algebra

5.8 WORD PROBLEMS

Example 5.25: The perimeter of a rectangular garden is 20 m. If the length is 4 m more
than the breadth, find the length and breadth of the garden.
Solution: Let the length of the garden be x m. Therefore, breadth of garden = (x – 4) m. Notes
Since, perimeter is 20 m, so
2 [x + (x –4)] = 20
or 2(2x – 4) = 20
or 2x – 4 = 10
or 2x = 10 + 4 = 14
or x=7
Hence, length = 7 m and breadth = 7 – 4 = 3 m.
Alternatively, you can solve the problem using two variables. Proceed as follows:
Let the length of garden = x m
and width of garden = y m
Therefore x=y+4 ...(1)
Also, perimeter is 20 m, therefore
2(x + y) = 20
or x + y = 10 ...(2)
Solving (1) and (2), we get x = 7, y = 3
Hence, length = 7 m and breadth = 3m
Example 5.26: Asha is five years older than Robert. Five years ago, Asha was twice as
old as Robert was then. Find their present ages.
Solution: Let present age of Asha be x years
and present age of Robert be y years
Therefore, x=y+5
or x–y=5 ...(1)
5 years ago, Asha was x – 5 years and Robert was (y – 5) years old.
Therefore, x – 5 = 2(y – 5)
or x – 2y = – 5 ...(2)
Solving (1) and (2), we get y = 10 and x = 15

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MODULE - 1 Linear Equations
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Hence, present age of Asha = 15 years and present age of Robert = 10 years.
Example 5.27: Two places A and B are 100 km apart. One car starts from A and another
from B at the same time. If they travel in the same direction, they meet after 5 hours. If they
Notes travel towards each other, they meet in 1 hour. What are the speeds of the two cars.
Assume that the speed of car at A is more than the speed of car at B.
Solution: Let speed of the car starting from A be x km/h
and speed of the car starting from B be y km/h
Therefore, the distance travelled by car at A in 5 hours = 5x km
and the distance travelled by car at B in 5 hours = 5y km
Since they meet after 5 hours when they travel in the same direction, the car at A has
travelled 100 km more than the car at B. Therefore,
5x – 5y = 100
or x – y = 20 ...(1)
When they travel towards each other, they meet after 1 hour. It means, total distance
travelled by car at A and car at B in 1 hour is 100 km
Therefore x + y = 100 ...(2)
Solving (1) and (2), we get x = 60 and y = 40
Therefore, the speed of car at A = 60 km/h and
the speed of car at B = 40 km/h.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 5.10

1. Rahim's father is three times as old as Rahim. If sum of their ages is 56 years, find their
ages.
2. Rita has 18m of cloth. She cut it into two pieces in such a way that one piece is 4 m
longer than the other. What is the length of shorter piece.
3. A total of Rs 50000 is to be distributed among 200 persons as prizes. A prize is either
Rs 500 or Rs 100. Find the number of each type of prizes.
4. A purse contain Rs 2500 in notes of denominations of 100 and 50. If the number of
100 rupee notes is one more than that of 50 rupee notes, find the number of notes of
each denomination.

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LET US SUM UP
• An equation in one variable of degree one is called a linear equation in variable.
Notes
• The general form of a linear equation in one variable is ax + b = 0, a ≠ 0, a and b are
real numbers.
• The value of the variable which satisfies the linear equation is called its solution or root.
• To solve a word problem, it is first translated into algebriac statements and then solved.
• The general form of a linear equation in two variables is ax + by + c =0, where a, b, c
are real numbers and atleast one of a or b is non zero.
• The equation ax + c = 0 can be expressed as linear equation in two variables as
ax + 0y + c = 0.
• To draw the graph of a linear equation in two variables, we find atleast two points in
plane whose coordinates are solutions of the equation and plot them.
• The graph of a linear equaion in two variables is a line.
• To solve two simultaneous equations in two variables, we draw their graphs on the
same graph paper.
(i) if graph is intersecting lines, point of intersection gives unique solution.
(ii) If graph is the same line, system has infinitely many solutions
(iii) If graph is parallel lines, system of equation has no solution
• Algebraic methods of solving system of linear equations are
(i) Substitution method
(ii) Elimination method
• To solve word problems, we tranlate the given information (data) into linear equations
and solve them.

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Choose the correct option:
(i) Which one of the following is a linear equation in one variable?
(A) 2x + 1 = y –3 (B) 3t – 1 = 2t + 5
(C) 2x – 1 = x2 (D) x2 – x +1 = 0
(ii) Which one of the following is not a linear equation?
(A) 5 + 4x = y + 3 (B) x + 2y = y – x

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MODULE - 1 Linear Equations
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(C) 3 – x = y2 + 4 (D) x + y = 0
(iii) Which of the following numbers is the solution of the equation 2(x + 3) = 18?
(A) 6 (B) 12
Notes (C) 13 (D) 21
(iv) The value of x, for which the equation 2x – (4 – x) = 5 – x is satisfied, is:
(A) 4.5 (B) 3
(C) 2.25 (D) 0.5
(v) The equation x – 4y = 5 has
(A) no solution (B) unique solution
(C) two solutions (D) infinitely many solutions
2. Solve each of the following equations
x+2
(i) 2z + 5 = 15 (ii) = −2
3

4 − 2y y + 1
(iii) + =1 (iv) 2.5x – 3 = 0.5x +1
3 2
3. A certain number increased by 8 equals 26. Find the number.
4. Present ages of Reena and Meena are in the ration 4 : 5. After 8 years, the ratio of their
ages will be 5 : 6. Find their present ages.
5. The denominator of a rational number is greater than its numerator by 8. If the
denominaor is decreased by 1 and numerator is increased by 17, the number obtained
3
is . Find the rational number
2
6. Solve the following system of equations graphically:
(i) x – 2y = 7 (ii) 4x + 3y = 24
x+y=–2 3y – 2x = 6
(iii) x + 3y = 6 (iv) 2x – y = 1
2x – y = 5 x+y =8
7. Solve the following system of equations :
(i) x + 2y – 3 = 0 (ii) 2x + 3y = 3
x – 2y + 1= 0 3x + 2y = 2
(iii) 3x – y = 7 (iv) 5x – 2y = –7
4x – 5y = 2 2x + 3y = –18

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8. The sum of the digits of a two-digit number is 11. If the digits are reversed, the new
number is 27 less than the original number. Find the original number.
9. Three years ago Atul's age was four times Parul's age. After 5 years from now, Atul's
age will be two times Parul's age. Find their present ages.
Notes
10. The perimeter of a rectangular plot of land is 32 m. If the length is increased by 2m and
breadth is decreased by 1 m, the area of the plot remains the same. Find the length and
breadth of the plot.

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

5.1
1. (i) 2. (i)
5.2
1. 15 – 2x = 7
2. 0.1x = 10
3. 6y = 96
4. t + 15 = 4t
5.3
1. x = 13 2. y = 12 3. z = 0
4. y = 9 5. x = 5
5.4
1. 39, 46
2. 15 years, 50 years
3. 22 cm, 11 cm
4. 25
5.5
1. (i) 2(x + y) = 98
(ii) y = 2x + 10, where age of son = x years, age of father = y years
(iii) x + 10 = y
(iv) 2x + 3y = 120
2. True 3. False

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MODULE - 1 Linear Equations
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5.7

1. x = 4, y = 1, unique solution

Notes 2. x = 2, y = – 1, unique solution

3. Infinitely many solutions

4. No solution

5. x= 2, y = 1, unique solution

5.8

1. x = 8, y = 6 2. x = –2, y = 5

3. x = 5, y = –2 4. x = 1, y = 3

5.9

1. x = 2, y = –3 2. x = 1, y = 2

3. x = 11, y = 2 4. x = 1, y = 3

5. x = 5, y = –2 6. x = 6, y = –1
5.10
1. 14 years, 42 years
2. 7 m
3. 75 prizes Rs 500 and 125 prizes of Rs 100 each.
4. 17 of Rs 100 each and 16 of Rs 50 each.

ANSWERS TO TERMINAL EXERCISE

1. (i) (B) (ii) (C) (iii) (A) (iv) (C) (v) (D)

2. (i) z = 5 (ii) x = – 8 (iii) y = 5 (iv) x = 2

3. 18

4. Age of Reena = 32 years, age of Meena = 40 years

13
5.
21

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6. (i) x = 1, y = – 3 (ii) x = 3, y = 4

(iii) x = 3, y = 1 (iv) x = 3, y = 5

7. (i) x = 1, y = 1 (ii) x = 0, y = 1
Notes
(iii) x = 3, y = 2 (iv) x = –3, y = –4

8. 74

9. Atul: 19 years, Parul: 7 years

10. 10 m, 6m

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MODULE - 1 Quadratic Equations
Algebra

Notes
6
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

In this lesson, you will study about quadratic equations. You will learn to identify quadratic
equations from a collection of given equations and write them in standard form. You will
also learn to solve quadratic equations and translate and solve word problems using quadratic
equations.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to
• identify a quadratic equation from a given collection of equations;
• write quadratic equations in standard form;
• solve quadratic equations by (i) factorization and (ii) using the quadratic formula;
• solve word problems using quadratic equations.

EXPECTED BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE

• Polynomials
• Zeroes of a polynomial
• Linear equations and their solutions
• Factorisation of a polynomial

6.1 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

You are already familiar with a polynomial of degree two. A polynomial of degree two is
called a quadratic polynomial. When a quadratic polynomial is equated to zero, it is called
a quadratic equation. In this lesson, you will learn about quadratic equations in one
variable only. Let us consider some examples to identify a quadratic equation from a
collection of equations

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Example 6.1: Which of the following equations are quadratic equations?
(i) 3x2 = 5 (ii) x2 + 2x + 3 = 0
(iii) x3 + 1 = 3x2 (iv) (x + 1) (x + 3) = 2x + 1
Notes
1 5
(v) x + = (v) x 2 + x + 1 = 0
x 2
Solution:

(i) It is a quadratic equation since 3x2 = 5 can be written as 3x2 – 5 = 0 and 3x2 – 5 is a
quadratic polynomial.
(ii) x2 + 2x + 3 = 0 is a quadratic equation as x2 + 2x + 3, is a polynomial of degree 2.
(iii) x3 + 1 = 3x2 can be written as x3 – 3x2 + 1 = 0. LHS is not a quadratic polynomial
since highest exponent of x is 3. So, the equation is not a quadratic equation.
(iv) (x + 1) (x + 3) = 2x + 1 is a quadratic equation, since (x + 1) (x + 3) = 2x + 1 can be
written as
x2 + 4x + 3 = 2x + 1
or x2 + 2x + 2 = 0
Now, LHS is a polynomial of degree 2, hence (x + 1) (x + 3) = 2x + 1 is a quadratic
equation.

1 5
(v) x + = is not a quadratic equation.
x 2
However, it can be reduced to quadratic equation as shown below:

1 5
x+ =
x 2

x2 +1 5
or = ,x ≠ 0
x 2
or 2(x2 + 1) = 5x , x ≠ 0
or 2x2 – 5x + 2 = 0, x ≠ 0

(vi) x 2 + x + 1 = 0 is not a quadratic equation as x 2 + x + 1 is not a quadratic

polynomial (Why?)

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MODULE - 1 Quadratic Equations
Algebra

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 6.1

Notes 1. Which of the following equations are quadratic equations?

(i) 3x2 + 5 = x3 + x (ii) 3 x2 + 5x + 2 = 0

x2 +1 5
(iii) (5y + 1) (3y – 1) = y + 1 (iv) =
x +1 2
(v) 3x + 2x2 = 5x – 4

6.2 STANDARD FORM OF A QUADRATIC EQUATION

A quadratic equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, a > 0 where a, b, c, are constants and
x is a variable is called a quadratic equation in the standard form. Every quadratic equation
can always be written in the standard form.
Example 6.2: Which of the following quadratic equations are in standard form? Those
which are not in standard form, express them in standard form.
(i) 2 + 3x + 5x2 = 0 (ii) 3x2 – 5x + 2 = 0
(iii) 7y2 – 5y = 2y + 3 (iv) (z + 1) (z + 2) = 3z + 1
Solution: (i) It is not in the standard form. Its standard form is 5x2 + 3x + 2 = 0

(ii) It is in standard form

(iii) It is not in the standard form. It can be written as
7y2 – 5y = 2y + 3
or 7y2 – 5y – 2y – 3 = 0
or 7y2 – 7y – 3 = 0
which is now in the standard form.
(iv) It is not standard form. It can be rewritten as
(z + 1) (z + 2) = 3z + 1
or z2 + 3z + 2 = 3z + 1
or z2 + 3z – 3z + 2 – 1 = 0
or z2 + 1 = 0
or z2 + 0z + 1 = 0
which is now in the standard form.

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 6.2

1. Which of the following quadratic equations are in standard form? Those, which are
Notes
not in standard form, rewrite them in standard form:
(i) 3y2 – 2 = y + 1 (ii) 5– 3x – 2x2 = 0
(iii) (3t – 1) (3t + 1) = 0 (iv) 5 – x = 3x2

6.3 SOLUTION OF A QUADRATIC EQUATION

You have learnt about the zeroes of a polynomial. A zero of a polynomial is that real
number, which when substituted for the variable makes the value of the polynomial zero. In
case of a quadratic equation, the value of the variable for which LHS and RHS of the
equation become equal is called a root or solution of the quadratic equation. You have also
learnt that if α is a zero of a polynomial p(x), then (x –α) is a factor fo p(x) and conversely,
if (x –α) is a factor of a polynomial, then α is a zero of the polynomial. You will use these
results in finding the solution of a quadratic equation. There are two algebraic methods for
finding the solution of a quadratic equation. These are (i) Factor Method and (ii) Using the
Quadratic Formula.
Factor Method
Let us now learn to find the solutions of a quadratic equation by factorizing it into linear
factors. The method is illustrated through examples.
Example 6.3: Solve the equation (x – 4)(x + 3) = 0
Solution: Since, (x – 4)(x + 3) = 0, therefore,
either x – 4 = 0, or x+3=0
or x=4 or x=–3
Therefore, x = 4 and x = – 3 are solutions of the equation.
Example 6.4: Solve the equation 6x2 + 7x – 3 = 0 by factorisation.
Solution: Given 6x2 + 7x – 3 = 0
By breaking middle term, we get
6x2 + 9x – 2x – 3 = 0 [since, 6 × (–3) = – 18 and – 18 = 9 × (–2) and 9 – 2 = 7]
or 3x(2x + 3) – 1(2x + 3) = 0
or (2x + 3) (3x – 1) = 0
This gives 2x + 3 = 0 or 3x – 1 = 0
3 1
or x=− or x =
2 3

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Algebra

3 1
Therefore, x = − and x = are solutions of the given equation.
2 3
Example 6.5: Solve x2 + 2x + 1 = 0
Notes
Solution: We have x2 + 2x + 1 = 0
or (x + 1)2 = 0
or x+1=0
which gives x=–1
Therefore, x = –1 is the only solution.
Note: In Examples 6.3 and 6.4, you saw that equations had two distinct solutions. However,
in Example 6.5, you got only one solution. We say that it has two solutions and these are
coincident.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 6.3

1. Solve the following equations using factor method.
(i) (2x + 3) (x + 2) = 0 (ii) x2 + 3x – 18 = 0
(iii) 3x2 – 4x – 7 =0 (iv) x2 – 5x – 6 = 0
(v) 25x2 – 10x + 1 = 0 (vi) 4x2 – 8x + 3 = 0

Quadratic Formula
Now you will learn to find a formula to find the solution of a quadratic equation. For this,
we will rewrite the general quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 by completing the square.
We have ax2 + bx + c = 0
Multiplying both sides by '4a' to make the coefficient of x2 a perfect square, of an even
number, we get
4a2x2 + 4abx + 4ac = 0
or (2ax)2 + 2(2ax)b + (b)2 + 4ac = b2 [adding b2 to both sides]
or (2ax)2 + 2(2ax)b + (b)2 = b2 – 4ac

(2ax + b )2 = {± }
2
or b 2 − 4ac

or 2ax + b = ± b 2 − 4ac

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− b ± b 2 − 4ac
or x=
2a
This gives two solutions of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0. The solutions (roots) Notes
are:

− b + b 2 − 4ac − b − b 2 − 4ac
and
2a 2a
Here, the expression (b2 – 4ac), denoted by D, is called Discriminant, because it
determines the number of solutions or nature of roots of a quadratic equation.
For a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, a ≠ 0, if

2
− b + b 2 − 4ac
(i) D = b – 4ac > 0, the equation has two real distinct roots, which are
2a

− b − b 2 − 4ac
and .
2a

−b
(ii) D = b2 – 4ac = 0, then equation has two real equal roots, each equal to
2a
(iii) D = b2 – 4ac < 0, the equation will not have any real root, since square root of a
negative real number is not a real number.
Thus, a quadratic equation will have at the most two roots.
Example 6.6: Without determining the roots, comment on the nature (number of solutions)
of roots of the following equations:
(i) 3x2 – 5x – 2 = 0
(ii) 2x2 + x + 1 = 0
(iii) x2 + 2x + 1 = 0
Solution: (i) The given equation is 3x2 – 5x – 2 = 0. Comparing it with ax2 + bx + c = 0,
we get a = 3, b = – 5 and c = – 2.
Now D = b2 – 4ac = (–5)2 – 4 × 3 × (–2)
= 25 + 24 = 49

Since, D > 0, the equation has two real distinct roots.

(ii) Comparing the equation 2x2 + x + 1 = 0 with ax2 + bx + c = 0,
we get a = 2, b = 1, c = 1

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Now D = b2 – 4ac = (1)2 – 4 × 2 × 1 = 1 – 8 = – 7

Since, D = b2 – 4ac < 0, the equation does not have any real root.
(iii) Comparing the equation x2 + 2x + 1 = 0 with ax2 + bx + c = 0,
Notes
we get a = 1, b = 2, c = 1
Now D= b2 – 4ac = (2)2 – 4 × 1 × 1 = 0
Since, D =0, the equation has two equal roots.
Example 6.7: Using quadratic formula, find the roots of the equation 6x2 – 19x + 15 = 0
Solution: Comparing the given equation with ax2 + bx + c = 0
We get, a = 6, b = – 19, c = 15
Now D = b2 – 4ac = (–19)2 – 4 × 6 × 15
= 361 – 360 = 1
Therefore, roots are given by

− b ± b 2 − 4ac 19 ± 1 19 ± 1
x= = =
2a 12 12

19 + 1 5 19 − 1 3
So, roots are = and =
12 3 12 2

5 3
Thus, the two roots are and .
3 2
Example 6.8: Find the value of m sothat the equation 3x2 + mx – 5 = 0 has equal roots.
Solution: Comparing the given equation with ax2 + bx + c = 0
We have, a = 3, b = m, c = – 5
For equal roots
D = b2 – 4ac =0
or m2 – 4 × 3 × (–5) = 0
or m2 = 60

This gives m = ± 2 15

Hence, for m = ± 2 15 , the equation will have equal roots.

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 6.4

1. Without determining the roots, comment on nature of roots of following equations:
Notes
(i) 3x2 – 7x + 2 = 0 (ii) 4x2 – 12x + 9 = 0 (iii) 25x2 + 20x + 4 =0
(iv) x2 – x + 1
2. Solve the following equations using quadratic formula:
(i) y2 – 14y – 12 = 0 (ii) x2 – 5x = 0 (iii) x2 – 15x + 50 = 0
3. Find the value of m so that the following equations have equal roots:
(i) 2x2 – mx + 1 = 0 (ii) mx2 + 3x – 5 = 0
(iii) 3x2 – 6x + m = 0 (iv) 2x2 + mx – 1 = 0

6.4 WORD PROBLEMS

We will now solve some problems which involve the use of quadratic equations.
Example 6.9: The sum of squares of two consecutive odd natural numbers is 74. Find the
numbers.
Solution: Let two consecutive odd natural numbers be x and x + 2. Since, sum of their
squares is 74. we have
x2 + (x + 2)2 = 74
or x2 + x2 + 4x + 4 = 74
or 2x2 + 4x – 70 = 0
or x2 + 2x – 35 = 0
or x2 + 7x – 5x – 35 = 0
or x (x + 7) – 5(x + 7) = 0
or (x + 7) (x – 5) = 0
Therefore x + 7 = 0 or x – 5 = 0
or x = – 7 or x = 5
Now, x can not be negative as it is a natural number. Hence x = 5
So, the numbers are 5 and 7.
Example 6.10: The sum of the areas of two square fields is 468 m2. If the difference of
their perimeter is 24 m, find the sides of the two squares.
Solution: Let the sides of the bigger square be x and that of the smaller square be y.

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Hence, perimeter of bigger square = 4x

and perimeter of smaller square = 4y
Therefore, 4x – 4y = 24
Notes
or x–y=6
or x=y+6 ....................(1)
Also, since sum of areas of two squares is 468 m2
Therefore, x2 + y2 = 468 ....................(2)
Substituting value of x from (1) into (2), we get
(y + 6)2 + y2 = 468
or y2 + 12y + 36 + y2 = 468
or 2y2 + 12y – 432 = 0
or y2 + 6y – 216 = 0

− 6 ± 36 + 864 − 6 ± 900
Therefore y= =
2 2

− 6 ± 30
or y=
2

− 6 + 30 − 6 − 30
Therefore, y= or
2 2
or y = 12 or – 18
Since, side of square can not be negative, so y = 12
Therefore, x = y + 6 = 12 + 6 = 18
Hence, sides of squares are 18 m and 12 m.
Example 6.11: The product of digits of a two digit number is 12. When 9 is added to the
number, the digits interchange their places. Determine the number.
Solution: Let the digit at ten's place be x
and digit at unit's place be y
Therefore, number = 10 x + y
When digits are interchanged, the number becomes 10y + x
Therefore 10x + y + 9 = 10y + x

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or 10x – x + y – 10y = – 9
or 9x – 9y = –9
or x–y=–1
Notes
or x=y–1 ...(1)
Also, product of digits is 12
Hence, xy = 12 ...(2)
Substituting value of x from (1) into (2), we get
(y – 1)y = 12
or y2 – y – 12 = 0
or (y – 4) (y + 3) = 0
Hence, y = 4 or y = – 3
Since, digit can not be negative, y = 4
Hence x = y – 1 = 4 – 1 = 3
Therefore, the number is 34.

4
Example 6.12: The sum of two natural numbers is 12. If sum of their reciprocals is ,
9
find the numbers.
Solution: Let one number be x
Therefore, other number = 12 – x

4
Since, sum of their reciprocals is , we get
9

1 1 4
+ = , x ≠ 0, 12 − x ≠ 0
x 12 − x 9

12 − x + x 4
=
x (12 − x ) 9
or

12 4
or =
12x − x 2
9
12 × 9
or = 12x − x 2
4
or 27 = 12x – x2

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or x2 – 12x + 27 = 0
or (x – 3) (x – 9) = 0
It gives x = 3 or x = 9
Notes
When first number x is 3, other number is 12 – 3 = 9 and when first number x is 9, other
number is 12 – 9 = 3.
Therefore, the required numbers are 3 and 9.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 6.5

1. The sum of the squares of two consecutive even natural numbers is 164. Find the
numbers.
2. The length of a rectangular garden is 7 m more than its breadth. If area of the garden
is 144 m2, find the length and breadth of the garden.
3. The sum of digits of a two digit number is 13. If sum of their squares is 89, find the
number.
4. The digit at ten's place of a two digit number is 2 more than twice the digit at unit's
place. If product of digits is 24, find the two digit number.
3
5. The sum of two numbers is 15. If sum of their reciprocals is , find the two numbers.
10

LET US SUM UP
• An equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, a ≠ 0 and a, b, c are real numbers is called
a quadratic equation in standard form.
• The value(s) of the variable which satisfy a quadratic equation are called it roots or
solutions.
• The zeros of a quadratic polynomial are the roots or solutions of the corresponding
quadratic equation.
• If you can factorise ax2 + bx + c = 0, a ≠ 0, into product of linear factors, then the
roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, can be obtained by equating each
factor to zero.
• Roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, a ≠ 0 are given by

− b ± b 2 − 4ac
2a

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• b2 – 4ac is called discriminant of the quadratic equation. ax2 + bx + c = 0, a ≠ 0 It is
usually denoted by D.
(i) If D > 0, then the quadratic equation has two real unequal (distinct) roots.
(ii) If D = 0, then the quadratic equation has two equal (coincident) roots. Notes

(iii) If D < 0, then the quadratic equation has no real root.

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Which of the following are quadratic equations?

( )
(i) y 5 y − 3 = 0 (ii) 5x 2 − 3 x + 8 = 0

1
(iii) 3x − =5 (iv) x(2x + 5) = x2 + 5x + 7
x
2. Solve the following equations by factorisation method:
(i) (x – 8) (x + 4) = 13 (ii) 3y2 – 7y = 0
(iii) x2 + 3x – 18 = 0 (iv) 6x2 + x – 15 = 0
3. Find the value of m for which 5x2 – 3x + m = 0 has equal roots.
4. Find the value of m for which x2 – mx – 1 = 0 has equal roots.
5. Solve the following quadratic equations using quadratic formula:
(i) 6x2 – 19x + 15 =0 (ii) x2 + x – 1 = 0
(iii) 21 + x = 2x2 (iv) 2x2 – x – 6 = 0
6. The sides of a right angled triangle are x – 1, x and x + 1. Find the value of x and hence
the sides of the triangle.
7. the sum of squares of two consecutive odd integers is 290. Find the integers.
8. The hypotenuse of a right angled triangle is 13 cm. If the difference of remaining two
sides is 7 cm, find the remaining two sides.
9. The sum of the areas of two squares is 41 cm2. If the sum of their perimeters is 36 cm,
find the sides of the two squares.
10. A right angled isosceles triangle is inscribed in a circle of radius 5 cm. Find the sides of
the triangle.

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ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Notes 6.1
1. (ii), (iii), (v)
6.2
1. (i) No, 3y2 – y – 3 = 0 (ii) No, 2x2 + 2x – 5 =0
(iii) No, 6t2 + t – 1 = 0 (iv) No, 3x2 + x – 5 = 0
6.3

3 7
1. (i) , −2 (ii) 3, – 6 (iii) , −1
2 3

1 1 3 1
(iv) 2, 3 (v) , (vi) ,
5 5 2 2
6.4
1. (i) Two real distinct roots
(ii) Two real equal roots
(iii) Two real equal roots
(iv) No real roots

2. (i) 7 ± 37 (ii) 0, 5 (iii) 5, 10

9
3. (i) ± 2 2 (ii) (iii) 3 (iv) For no value of m
20
6.5
1. 8, 10 2. 16m, 9m 3. 85, 58
4. 83 (v) 5, 10

ANSWERS TO TERMINAL EXERCISE

1. (i), (iv)

7 3 5
2. (i) 8, 4 (ii) 0, (iii) 3, – 6 (iv) ,−
3 2 3

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9
3.
20
4. For no value of m
Notes
3 5 − 1± 5 7 3
5. (i) , (ii) (iii) ,−3 (iv) 2,
2 3 2 2 2

6. 3, 4, 5
7. 11, 13 or –13 , –11
8. 5 cm, 12 cm
9. 5 cm, 4 cm

10. 5 2 cm, 5 2 cm, 10 cm

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Notes 7
ARITHMETIC PROGRESSIONS

In your daily life you must have observed that in nature, many things follow patterns such
as petals of flowers, the holes of a honey-comb, the spirals on a pine apple etc. In this
lesson, you will study one special type of number pattern called Arithmetic Progression
(AP). You will also learn to find general term and the sum of first n terms of an arithmetic
progression.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to
• identify arithmetic progression from a given list of numbers;
• determine the general term of an arithmetic progression;
• find the sum of first n terms of an arithmetic progression.

PREVIOUS BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE

• Knowledge of number system
• Operations on number system

7.1 SOME NUMBER PATTERNS

Let us consider some examples:

(i) Rita deposits ` 1000 in a bank at the simple interest of 10% per annum. The amount
at the end of first, second, third and fourth years, in rupees will be respectively
1100, 1200, 1300, 1400
Do you observe any pattern? You can see that amount increases every year by a fixed
amount of ` 100.

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(ii) The number of unit squares in a square with sides 1, 2, 3, 4, ... units are respectively
1, 4, 9, 16, ....

Notes

Can you see any pattern in the list of these numbers? You can observe that
1 = 12, 4 = 22, 9 = 32, 16 = 42, ...
i.e., these are squares of natural numbers.
Now consider some more lists of numbers and try to recognise a pattern if possible:
1, 3, 5, 7, 9 ..... (1)
2, 4, 6, 8, 10 ... (2)
1, 4, 7, 10, 13 .... (3)
5, 3, 1, –1, –3... (4)
1, 3, 9, 27, 81, ... (5)
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13... (6)
You can observe that numbers in the list (1) are odd natural numbers. The first number is
1, second number is 3, third number is 5, etc. All these numbers follow a pattern. The
pattern is that all these numbers, except the first is obtained by adding 2 to its previous
number.
In lists (2), (3) and (4), each number except the first is obtained by adding 2, 3, and – 2
respectively to its previous number.
In (5), each number, except the first is obtained by multiplying 3 to its previous number. In
the list (6), you can see that it is the list of prime numbers and it is not possible to give any
rule till date, which gives the next prime number.
The numbers in a list are generally denoted by
a1, a2, a3, ...., an, ...
or t1, t2, t3, ...., tn, ...
which are respectively called first, second, third and nth term in the list of numbers. We
sometimes call each of these lists as sequence or pattern of numbers.

7.2 ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION

You have seen different type of patterns. Some patterns follow definite mathematical rules
to generate next term in the pattern. You will now study one particular type of pattern of

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numbers.Recall the following patterns.
1, 3, 5, 7, 9, .... (1)
2, 4, 6, 8, 10, .... (2)
Notes 1, 4, 7, 10, 13,... (3)
You have observed that in (1) and (2), each term except first is obtained by adding 2 to its
previous number (term). In (3), each term except first is obtained by adding 3 to its previous
term. The numbers appearing in a number pattern are called its terms. As already stated
these terms are usually denoted by

a1, a2, a3, ...., an, ...

or t1, t2, t3, ...., tn, ... etc
The suffix denotes the position of the term in the pattern. Thus, an or tn denotes ‘n’th term
of the pattern.
A particular type of pattern in which each term except the first is obtained by adding a
fixed number (positive or negative) to the previous term is called an Arithmetic Progression
(A.P.). The first term is usually denoted by ‘a’ and the common difference is denoted by d.
Thus, standard form of an Arithmetic Progression would be:
a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, ...
Example 7.1: In the following list of numbers, find which are Arithmetic Progressions. In
case of AP, find their respective first terms and common differences.

(i) 2, 7, 12, 17, 22, ....

(ii) 4, 0, –4, –8, –12 ...
(iii) 3, 7, 12, 18, 25 ...
(iv) 2, 6, 18, 54, 162 ...
Solution:
(i) It is an arithmetic progression (AP).
Since 7 – 2 = 5, 12 – 7 = 5, 17 – 12 = 5 and 22 – 17 = 5
Thus, each term except first is obtained by adding 5 to its previous term. Hence, first
term a = 2 and common difference d = 5.
(ii) We observe that
0 – 4 = – 4, – 4 – 0 = – 4, – 8 – (–4) = – 4, – 12 – (–8) = – 4
Thus, it is an AP with first term a = 4
and common difference d = – 4.

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(iii) You can see that in the list
3, 7, 12, 18, 25, ...
7 – 3 = 4, 12 – 7 = 5, 18 – 12 = 6, 25 – 18 = 7
Thus, difference of two consecutive terms is not the same. Hence, it is not an AP. Notes
(iv) In the list of numbers
2, 6, 18, 54, 162, ...
6 – 2 = 4, 18 – 6 = 12
Therefore, difference of two consecutive terms is not the same. Hence, it is not an AP.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 7.1

Which of the following are AP? If they are in AP, find their first terms and common differences:
1. –5, –1, 3, 7, 11, ....
2. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, ...
3. 1, 4, 6, 7, 6, 4, ....
4. –6, – 3, 0, 3, 6, 9, ....

7.3 GENERAL (nth) TERM OF AN AP

Let us consider an AP whose first term is ‘a’ and common difference in ‘d’. Let us denote
the terms of AP as t1, t2, t3,....,tn, where tn denotes the nth term of the AP. Since first term
is a, second term is obtained by adding d to a i.e., a + d, the third term will be obtained by
adding ‘d’ to a + d. So, third term will be (a + d) + d = a + 2d and so on.
With this
First term, t1 =a = a + (1 – 1) d
Second term, t2 = a + d = a + (2 – 1) d
Third term, t3 = a + 2d = a + (3 – 1) d
Fourth term, t4 = a + 3d = a + (4 – 1) d
Can you see any pattern? We observe that each term is a + (term number – 1) d. What will
be 10th term, say:
t10 = a + (10 – 1)d = a + 9d
Can you now say “what will be the nth term or general term?”
Clearly tn = a + (n – 1) d

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Example 7.2: Find the 15th and nth terms of the AP
16, 11, 6, 1, – 4, – 9, ...
Solution: Here a = 16 and d = 11 – 16 = – 5
Notes Thus, t15 = a + (15 – 1)d = a + 14d
= 16 + 14(–5) = 16 – 70
= – 54
Therefore, 15th term i.e., t15 = – 54
Now tn = a + (n – 1)d
= 16 + (n – 1) × (–5) = 16 – 5n + 5
= 21 – 5n
Thus, nth term, i.e., tn = = 21 – 5n
Example 7.3: The first term of an AP is – 3 and 12th term is 41. Determine the common
difference.
Solution: Let first term of AP be a and commong difference be d.
Therefore, t12 = a + (12 – 1)d = 41
or – 3 + 11d = 41 [Since a = –3]
or 11d = 44
or d=4
Therefore, common difference is 4.
Example 7.4: The common difference of an AP is 5 and 10th term is 43. Find its first
term.
Solution: We have:
t10 = a + (10 –1) d
So, 43 = a + 9 × 5 [Since d = 5]
or 43 = a + 45
Hence, a=–2
Therefore, first term is – 2.
Example 7.5: The first term of an AP is – 2 and 11th term is 18. Find its 15th term.
Solution: To find 15th term, you need to find d.
Now t11 = a + (11 – 1)d

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So, 18 = – 2 + 10d
or 10d = 20
or d=2
Now t15 = a + 14d Notes
= – 2 + 14 × 2 = 26
Therefore, t15 = 26.
Example 7.6: If p times the pth term of an AP is equal to q times the qth term, prove that
its (p + q)th term is zero, provided p ≠ q.
Solution: We have:
tp = a + (p – 1)d
tq = a + (q – 1)d
Since ptp = qtq, therefore,
p[a + (p – 1)d] = q[a + (q – 1)d]
or pa + p(p – 1)d – qa – q(q – 1)d = 0
or (p – q)a + (p2 – q2)d – pd + qd = 0
or (p – q)a + (p2 – q2)d – (p – q)d = 0
or (p – q)a + (p – q) (p + q) d – (p – q) d = 0
or (p – q) [a + (p + q)d – d] = 0
or a + (p + q) d – d = 0 [as p – q ≠ 0]
or a + (p + q – 1)d = 0
Since, LHS is nothing but (p + q)th term, therefore,
tp + q = 0

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 7.2

1. The first term of an AP is 4 and common difference is – 3, find its 12th term.
2. The first term of an AP is 2 and 9th term is 26, find the common difference.
3. The 12th term of an AP is – 28 and 18th term is – 46. Find its first term and common
difference.
4. Which term of the AP 5, 2, –1, .... is – 22?
5. If the pth, qth and rth terms of an AP are x, y and z respectively, prove that:
x (q – r) + y (r – p) + z (p – q) = 0

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7.4 SUM OF FIRST n TERMS OF AN AP

Carl Friedrich Gauss, the great German mathematician, was in elementary school, when
his teacher asked the class to find the sum of first 100 natural numbers. While the rest of
the class was struggling with the problem, Gauss found the answer within no time. How
Notes Gauss got the answer? Probably, he did as follows:
S = 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + 99 + 100 (1)
Writing these numbers in reverse order, we get
S = 100 + 99 + 98 + ... + 2 + 1 (2)
Adding (1) and (2), term by term, we get
2S = 101 + 101 + 101 + ... + 101 + 101 (100 times)
= 100 × 101

100 × 101
or S = = 5050
2
We shall use the same method to find the sum of first ‘n’ terms of an AP.
The first ‘n’ terms of an AP are
a, a + d, a + 2d, ..., a + (n – 2)d, a + (n – 1)d
Let us denote the sum of n terms by Sn. Therefore,
Sn = a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + .... + [a + (n – 2)d] + [a + (n – 1)d] (3)
Writing these terms in reverse order, we get
Sn = [a + (n – 1)d] + [a + (n – 2)d] + ... + (a + d) + a (4)
We now add (3) and (4), term by term. We can see that the sum of any term in (3) and the
corresponding term in (4) is 2a + (n – 1)d. We get
2Sn = [2a + (n – 1)d] + [2a + (n – 1)d] + ... + [2a + (n – 1)d] + [2a + (n – 1)d] , n times
or 2Sn = n[2a + (n – 1)d]
n
or Sn = [2a + (n – 1)d],
2
which gives general formula for finding the sum of first ‘n’ terms of an AP.
This can be rewritten as
n
Sn = [a +{a+ (n – 1)d}]
2
n
= (a + tn), [as nth term tn = a + (n – 1)d]
2

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Sometimes, nth term is named as last term and is denoted by ‘l’. Thus:

n
Sn = (a + l) (4)
2
Example 7.7: Find the sum of the first 12 terms of the following AP Notes
(i) 11, 16, 21, 26 ....
(ii) – 151, – 148, – 145, – 142
Solution: (i) The given AP is
11, 16, 21, 26 ....
Here, a = 11, d = 16 – 11 = 5 and n = 12.
You know that sum of first n terms of an AP is given by

n
Sn = [2a + (n – 1)d]
2

12
Therefore, S12 = [2 × 11 + (12 – 1)5]
2
= 6 [22 + 55] = 6 × 77 = 462
Hence, required sum is 462.

(ii) The given AP is

– 151, – 148, – 145, – 142
Here, a = – 151, d = – 148 – (–151) = 3 and n = 12.
We know that

n
Sn = [2a + (n – 1)d]
2
Hence, sum of first 12 terms is
12
S12 = [2 × (– 151) + (12 – 1)3]
2
= 6[– 302 + 33] = 6 × (– 269)
= – 1614
Therefore, required sum is – 1614.

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Example 7.8: How may terms of the AP 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 .... are needed to get sum 210?
Solution: For the given AP, a = 2, d = 2 and Sn = 210.

n
We have: Sn = [2a + (n – 1)d]
Notes 2

n
or 210 = [2 × 2 + (n – 1)2]
2
or 420 = n[2n + 2]
or 420 = 2n2 + 2n
or 2n2 + 2n – 420 = 0
or n2 + n – 210 = 0
or n2 + 15n – 14n – 210 = 0
or n(n + 15) – 14(n + 15) = 0
or (n + 15) (n – 14) = 0
or n = – 15 or n = 14
Since, n cannot be negative, so, n = 14
Therefore, first 14 terms are needed to get the sum 210.
Example 7.9: Find the following sum
2 + 5 + 8 + 11 + .... + 59
Solution: Here 2, 5, 8, 11, ... are in AP and a = 2, d = 3 and tn = 59.
To find the sum, you need to find the value of n.
Now, tn = a + (n – 1) d
So, 59 = 2 + (n – 1) 3
or 59 = 3n – 1
or 60 = 3n
Therefore, n = 20

n
Now, Sn = [2a + (n – 1)d]
2

20
or S20 = [2 × 2 + (20 – 1)3]
2

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or S20 = 10[4 + 57] = 610
Therefore, required sum is 610.
Example 7.10: Find the sum of all natural numbers between 1 and 1000 which are divisible
by 7.
Notes
Solution: Here, the first number which is divisible by 7 is 7 and last number, which is
divisible by 7 is 994. Therefore, the terms to be added are
7, 14, 21, ...., 994
Here a = 7, d = 7, tn = 994
Now tn = a + (n – 1)d
or 994 = 7 + (n – 1)7
or 994 = 7n
This gives n = 142.

n
Now, Sn = [a + l ]
2
142
= [7 + 994] = 71×1001
2
= 71071
Therefore, required sum is 71071.
Example 7.11: The sum of first three terms of an AP is 36 and their product is 1620. Find
the AP.
Solution: We can take three terms of the AP as a, a + d and a + 2d. However, the product
will be rather difficult and solving the two equations simultaneoulsy will be time consuming.
The elegant way is to assume the first three terms as a – d, a and a + d, so that the sum of
three terms becomes 3a.
Let first three terms of the AP b a – d, a and a + d
Therefore, a – d + a + a + d = 36
or 3a = 36,
which gives a = 12
Now, since product is 1620, we have:
(a – d) a (a + d) = 1620
or (12 – d) 12 (12 + d) = 1620
or 122 – d2 = 135

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or 144 – d2 = 135
or d2 = 9
Therefore, d = 3 or – 3
Notes If d = 3, the numbers are 12 – 3, 12 and 12 + 3
i.e. 9, 12, 15 (Since a = 12)
If d = – 3, the numbers are15, 12 and 9
Therefore, the first three terms of the AP 9, 12, 15 and 15, 12, 9
satisfy the given conditions.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 7.3

1. Find the sum of first 15 terms of the following APs:
(i) 11, 6, 1, – 4, –9 ...
(ii) 7, 12, 17, 22, 27 ...
2. How many terms of the AP 25, 28, 31, 34, .... are needed to give the sum 1070?
3. Find the following sum:
1 + 4 + 7 + 10 + .... +118
4. Find the sum of all natural numbers upto 100 which are divisible by 3.
5. The sum of any three consecutive terms of an AP is 21 and their product is 231. Find
the three terms of the AP.
6. Of the l, a, n, d and Sn, determine the ones that are missing for each of the following
arithmetic progression
(i) a = – 2, d = 5, Sn = 568.
(ii) l = 8, n = 8, S8 = – 20
(iii) a = – 3030, l = – 1530, n = 5
2
(iv) d = , l = 10, n = 20
3

LET US SUM UP
• A progression in which each term, except the first, is obtained by adding a constant to
the previous term is called an AP.
• The first term of an AP is denoted by a and common difference by d.

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• The ‘n’th term of an AP is given by tn = a + (n – 1)d.

n
• The sum of first n terms of an AP is given by Sn = [2a + (n – 1)d]
2
• The sum of an AP whose first term is a and last term is l and number of terms is n is Notes
n
given by Sn = (a + l)
2

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Which of the following patterns are arithmetic progressions?
(i) 2, 5, 8, 12, 15, ....
(ii) – 3, 0, 3, 6, 9 .....
(iii) 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, .....
2. Write the nth term of each of the following arithmetic progressions:
(i) 5, 9, 13, 17, ....
(ii) – 7, – 11, – 15, – 19
3. The fourth term of an AP is equal to three times its first term and seventh term exceeds
twice the third term by 1. Find the first term and common difference.
4. The 5th term of an AP is 23 and 12th term is 37. Find the first term and common
difference.
5. The angles of a triangle are in AP. If the smallest angle is one-third the largest angle,
find the angles of the triangle.
6. Which term of AP
(i) 100, 95, 90, 85, ...., is – 25?

1 1 3 5 25
(ii) , , ,1, ..... is ?
4 2 4 4 4
7. The nth term of an AP is given by tn = a + bn. Show that it is an AP. Find its first term
and common difference.
8. If 7 times the 7th term of an AP is equal to 11 times the 11th term, show that the 18th
term is zero.
9. Each term of an AP whose first term is a and common difference is d, is doubled. Is the
resulting pattern an AP? If so, find its first term and common difference.
10. If k + 2, 4k – 6 and 3k – 2 are three consecutive terms of an AP, find k.

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11. How many terms of the AP:

(i) 1, 4, 7, 10, .... are needed to get the sum 715?
(ii) –10, –7, –4, –1, ..... are needed to get the sum 104?
Notes 12. Find the sum of first 100 odd natural numbers.
13. In an AP, a = 2 and sum of the first five terms is one-fourth the sum of the next five
terms. Show that its 20th term is –12.

5
[Hint: If AP is a, a + d, a + 2d, ... , then S5 = [a + (a + 4d)]
2
In the next five terms, the first term is a + 5d and last term is a + 9d.
14. If sum of first n terms of an AP is 2n + 3n2, find rth term of the A.P. [Hint tr = Sr – Sr-1]
15. Find the sum of all 3-digit numbers which leave the remainder 1, when divided by 4.
[Hint: First term = 101, last term = 997]

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

7.1
1. a = – 5, d = 4
2. a = 6, d = 1
3. Not an AP
4. a = –6, d = 3
7.2
1. – 29 2. 3 3. 5, – 3 4. 10th term
7.3
1. (i) – 360 (ii) 630
2. 20
3. 2380
4. 1689
5. 3, 7, 11 or 11, 7, 3
6. (i) n = 16, l = 73 (ii) a = – 3, d = 3

3 220
(iii) d = 375, Sn = – 11400 (iv) a = − , Sn =
8 3

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ANSWERS TO TERMINAL EXERCISE

1. (ii)
2. (i) tn = 4n + 1 (ii) tn = – 4n – 3 Notes

3. 3, 2
4. 15, 2
5. 30o, 60o, 90o
6. (i) 26th term (ii) 25th term
7. a + b, b
9. Yes, first term = 2a, common difference = 2d
10. 3 11. (i) 22 terms (ii) 13 terms
12. 10,000 14. 6r – 1 15. 123525

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Secondary Course
Mathematics
Notes Practice Work-Algebra

Maximum Marks: 25 Time : 45 Minutes

Instructions:

1. Answer all the questions on a separate sheet of paper.

2. Give the following informations on your answer sheet
Name
Enrolment number
Subject
Topic of practice work
Address
3. Get your practice work checked by the subject teacher at your study centre so that
you get positive feedback about your performance.
Do not send practice work to National Institute of Open Schooling
1. The value of a if (x – a) is a factor of x6 – ax5 + x4 – ax3 + 3x – a + 2, is 1
(A) a = 1
(B) a = – 1
(C) a = 2
(D) a = – 2

1
2. The reciprocal of
(− 3 / 5)−2 is 1

2
 3
(A)  − 
 5

2
 −5
(B)  
3

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(C) (− 5 / 3)−2

−2
⎛ 3⎞
(D) ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 5⎠
Notes
3. In an A.P., the sum of three numbers is 15 and their product is 45. Then the three
numbers are 1
(A) 1, 3, 15
(B) 2, 4, 9
(C) 1, 5, 9
(D) 0, 5, 9

x −1 1
4. If y = , then 2 y − is equal to 1
x +1 2y

3x 2 − 10 x − 3
(A)
(
2 x2 −1 )
3 x 2 − 10 x + 1
(B)
x2 −1

3x 2 + 10 x + 3
(C)
(
2 x2 −1 )
3x 2 − 10 x + 3
(D)
(
2 x2 −1 )
4 x 2 − 25
5. The lowest form of the expression 2 is 1
2 x + 11x = 15

2x − 5
(A)
x+3

2x + 5
(B)
x+3

2x – 5
(C)
x−3

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2x − 5
(D)
x−3

−3 −11 x
⎛7⎞ ⎛8⎞ ⎛7⎞
Notes 6. Find x, so that ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ : 2
⎝8⎠ ⎝7⎠ ⎝8⎠

7. Find three irrational numbers between 3 and 8 . 2

8. The HCF of two polynomials is (x–2) and their LCM is x4 + 2x3 – 8x – 16. If one of
the polynomials is x3 – 8, find the other polynomial. 2

50
9. The sum of a number and its reciprocal is , find the number. 2
7
10. The length of a rectangle is 5 cm less than twice its breadth. If the perimeter is 110 cm,
find the area of the rectangle. 2
11. Show that the sum of an AP whose first term is a, the second term is b and the last term
(a + c )(b + c − 2a )
2(b − a )
is c, is equal to . 4

12. Had Ajay scored 10 more marks in his test out of 30 marks, 9 times these marks
would have been the square of his actual marks. How many marks did he get in the
test? 6

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 MODULE 2
Commercial Mathematics
It is a common saying by elders keep your expenditure, less than your income. The
latent meaning of this is to save something for difficult times. You must have seen
birds and animals saving eatables for rainy season, in their nests or caves. Taking
the lead from this, the students have been told about the importance and need of
savings in this module
Many Indian mathematicians have worked on the topic of commercial Mathematics.
Yodoksu (370 B.C.) worked on fractions and ratio and proportion. In the reigns of
Ashoka and Chandragupta, there is a description of levying taxes. There is a
description of many mathematicians working on practice and proportion (like
Aryabhatt, Mahavira, Brahmgupta, Sridharacharya). In 900 A.D., Bakhshali
Manuscript was discovered which had a number of problems on Commercial
mathematics.
To keep your savings safe is another tough task. Banks and other financial institutions
keep the money of their customers and on the expiry of the period pay extra money,
called interest, in addition to the money deposited. This encourages citizens to save
and keep the money safe. This is why calculation of interest on deposits in banks is
included for teaching.
The Government provides a number of facilities to the citizens. For that they levy
certain taxes on citizens. One of these taxes is sales tax to which the learners are
introduced in this “module. Financial transactions about buying and selling are
generally done for profit. Due to greater supply of goods or sub-standard goods they
are to be sold on loss. The learners are, therefore, introduced to percentage and
profit and loss. Sometimes we have to buy articles on instalments because of non-
availability of adequate funds. Due to this the students are taught to calculate interest
when they buy articles on instalment plan. Sometimes when we are not able to return
loaned money on time, the financer starts charging interest on interest also, which is
called compound interest. Due to this the study of compound interest has been
included in this module. The formulae of compound interest is also used in finding
increase or decrease in prices of things. This is also taught under “Appreciation and
Depreciation” of value.
Percentage and Its Applications MODULE - 2
Commercial
Mathematics

8 Notes

PERCENTAGE AND ITS APPLICATIONS

You must have seen advertisements in newspapers, television and hoardings etc of the
following type:
“Sale, up to 60% off”.
“Voters turnout in the poll was over 70%”.
“Ramesh got 93% aggregate in class XII examination”.
“Banks have lowered the rate of interest on fixed deposits from 8.5% to 7%”.
In all the above statements, the important word is ‘percent’. The word ‘percent’ has been
derived from the Latin word ‘percentum’ meaning per hundred or out of hundred.
In this lesson, we shall study percent as a fraction or a decimal and shall also study its
applications in solving problems of profit and loss, discount, simple interest, compound
interest, rate of growth and depreciation etc.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to
• illustrate the concept of percentage;
• calculate specified percent of a given number or a quantity;
• solve problems based on percentage;
• solve problems based on profit and loss;
• calculate the discount and the selling price of an article, given marked price of
the article and the rate of discount;
• solve inverse problems pertaining to discount;
• calculate simple interest and the amount, when a given sum of money is invested
for a specified time period on a given rate of interest;

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• illustrate the concept of compound interest vis-a-vis simple interest;
• calculate compound interest, the amount and the difference between compound
and simple interest on a given sum of money at a given rate and for a given time
period; and
Notes
• solve real life problems pertaining to rate of growth and decay, using the formula
of compound interest, given a uniform or variable rate.

EXPECTED BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE

• Four fundamental operations on whole numbers, fractions and decimals.
• Comparison of two fractions.

8.1 PERCENT
3 7
Recall that a fraction means 3 out of 4 equal parts. means 7 out of 13 equal parts
4 13
23
and means 23 out of 100 equal parts.
100

23
A fraction whose denominator is 100 is read as percent, for example is read as
100
twenty three percent.
The symbol ‘%’ is used for the term percent.
A ratio whose second term is 100 is also called a percent,
So, 33 : 100 is equivalent to 33%.

3 1
Recall that while comparing two fractions,and , we first convert them to equivalent
5 2
fractions with common denominator (L.C.M. of the denominators).

3 3 2 6
thus = × = , and
5 5 2 10

1 1 5 5
= × =
2 2 5 10

6 5 3 1
Now, because > ∴ >
10 10 5 2

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Mathematics
We could have changed these fractions with common denominator 100 as

3 3 20 60
= × = or 60%
5 5 20 100

1 1 50 50 Notes
= × = or 50%
2 2 50 100

3 1
and so, > as 60% is greater than 50%.
5 2

8.2 CONVERSION OF A FRACTION INTO PERCENT AND

VICE VERSA
In the above section, we have learnt that, to convert a fraction into percent, we change the
fraction into an equivalent fraction with denominator 100 and then attach the symbol %
with the changed numerator of the fraction. For example,

3 3 25 75 1
= × = = 75 × = 75% and
4 4 25 100 100

4 4 4 16 1
= × = = 16 × = 16%
25 25 4 100 100
Note: To write a fraction as percent, we may multiply the fraction by 100, simplify
it and attach % symbol. For example,

4 4
= × 100% = 16%
25 25
Conversely,
To write a percent as a fraction, we drop the % sign, multiply the number by
1
(or divide the number by 100) and simplify it. For example,
100

1 47 1 17 3
47% = 47 × = , 17% = 17 × = , 3% =
100 100 100 100 100

1 45 9 210 21 x
45% = 45 × = = , 210% = = , x% = .
100 100 20 100 10 100

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8.3 CONVERSION OF DECIMAL INTO A PERCENT AND
VICE VERSA
Let us consider the following examples:
Notes 35 1
0.35 = = 35 × = 35%
100 100

47 470 1
4.7 = = = 470 × = 470%
10 100 100

459 459 1
0.459 = = × = 45.9%
1000 10 100

63 63 1
0.0063 = = × = 0.63%
10000 100 100
Thus, to write a decimal as a percent, we move the decimal point two places to the
right and put the % sign
Conversely,
To write a percent as a decimal, we drop the %sign and insert or move the decimal
point two places to the left. For example,
43% = 0.43 75% = 0.75 12% = 0.12
9% = 0.09 115% = 1.15 327% = 3.27
0.75% = 0.0075 4.5% = 0.045 0.2% = 0.002
Let us take a few more examples:
Example 8.1: Shweta obtained 18 marks in a test of 25 marks. What was her percentage
of marks?
Solution: Total marks = 25
Marks obtained = 18
18
∴ Fraction of marks obtained =
25
18 4 72
∴ Marks obtained in percent = × = = 72%
25 4 100
Alternatively:

18
Marks obtained in percent = × 100% = 72%
25

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Example 8.2: One-fourth of the total number of shoes in a shop were on discount sale.
What percent of the shoes were there on normal price?

1
Solution: Fraction of the total number of shoes on sale =
4
Notes
1 3
∴ Fraction of the total number of shoes on normal price = 1 − =
4 4
3 25 75 3
= × = = 75% or × 100% = 75%
4 25 100 4
Example 8.3: Out of 40 students in a class, 32 opted to go for a picnic. What percent of
students opted for picnic?
Solution: Total number of students in a class = 40
Number of students, who opted for picnic = 32
∴ Number of students, in percent, who opted for picnic
32
× 100% = 80%
=
40
Example 8.4: In the word ARITHMETIC, what percent of the letters are I’s?
Solution: Total number of letters = 10
Number of I’s = 2
2
∴ Percent of I’s = × 100% = 20%
10
Example 8.5: A mixture of 80 litres, of acid and water, contains 20 litres of acid. What
percent of water is in the mixture?
Solution: Total volume of the mixture = 80 litres
Volume of acid = 20 litres
∴ Volume of water = 60 litres

60
∴ Percentage of water in the mixture = × 100% = 75%
80

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 8.1

1. Convert each of the following fractions into a percent:
12 9 5 6 125
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
25 20 12 15 625

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3 108 189 72 1231
(f) (g) (h) (i) (j)
10 300 150 25 1250
2. Write each of the following percents as a fraction:

Notes 7
(a) 53% (b) 85% (c) 16 % (d) 3.425% (e) 6.25%
8
3
(f) 70% (g) 15 % (h) 0.0025% (i) 47.35% (j) 0.525%
4
3. Write each of the following decimals as a percent:
(a) 0.97 (b) 0.735 (c) 0.03 (d) 2.07 (e) 0.8
(f) 1.75 (g) 0.0250 (h) 3.2575 (i) 0.152 (j) 3.0015
4. Write each of the following percents as a decimal:
(a) 72% (b) 41% (c) 4% (d) 125% (e) 9%
(f) 410% (g) 350% (h) 102.5% (i) 0.025% (j) 10.25%
5. Gurpreet got half the answers correct, in an examination. What percent of her answers
were correct?
6. Prakhar obtained 18 marks in a test of total 20 marks. What was his percentage of
marks?
7. Harish saves ` 900 out of a total monthly salary of ` 14400. Find his percentage of
saving.
8. A candidate got 47500 votes in an election and was defeated by his opponent by a
margin of 5000 votes. If there were only two candidates and no votes were declared
invalid, find the percentage of votes obtained by the winning candidate.
9. In the word PERCENTAGE, what percent of the letters are E’s?
10. In a class of 40 students, 10 secured first division, 15 secured second division and 13
just qualified. What percent of students failed.

8.4 CALCULATION OF PERCENT OF A QUANTITY OR A

NUMBER
To determine a specified percent of a number or quantity, we first change the percent to a
fraction or a decimal and then multiply it with the number or the quantity. For example:

25
25% of 90 = × 90 = 22.50
100
or 25% of 90 = 0.25 × 90 = 22.50
60% of Rs. 120 = 0.60 × Rs. 120 = Rs. 72.00
120% of 80 kg = 1.20 × 80 kg = 96 kg

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Let us take some examples from daily life:
Example 8.6: In an examination, Neetu scored 62% marks. If the total marks in the
examination are 600, then what are the marks obtained by Neetu?
Solution: Here we have to find 62% of 600
Notes
∴ 62% of 600 marks = 0.62 × 600 marks = 372 marks
∴ Marks obtained by Neetu = 372
Example 8.7: Naresh earns ` 30800 per month. He keeps 50% for household expenses,
15% for his personal expenses, 20% for expenditure on his children and the rest he saves.
What amount does he save per month?
Solution: Expenditure on Household = 50%
Expenditure on self = 15%
Expenditure on children = 20%
Total expenditure = (50 + 15 + 20)% = 85%
∴ Savings (100 – 85)% = 15%
∴ 15% of ` 30800 = ` (0.15 × 30800)
= ` 4620
Example 8.8: What percent of 360 is 144?
Solution: Let x% of 360 = 144

x
∴ × 360 = 144
100

144
Or x= × 100 = 40%
360

144
Alternatively, 144 out of 360 is equal to the fraction
360

144
∴ Percent = × 100% = 40%
360
Example 8.9: If 120 is reduced to 96, what is the reduction percent?
Solution: Here, reduction = 120 – 96 = 24

24
∴ Reduction percent = × 100% = 20%
120

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Example 8.10: The cost of an article has increased from ` 450 to ` 495. By what percent
did the cost increased?
Solution: The increase in Cost Price = ` (495 – 450)
= ` 45
Notes
45
Increase percent = × 100 = 10%
450
Example 8.11: 60% of the students in a school are girls. If the total number of girls in the
school is 690, find the total number of students in the school. Also, find the number of boys
in the school.
Solution: Let the total number of students in the school be x
Then, 60% of x = 690

60 690 × 100
∴ × x = 690 or x = = 1150
100 60
∴ Total number of students in the school = 1150
∴ Hence number of boys = 1150 – 690 = 460
Example 8.12: A’s income is 25% more than that of B. B’s income is 8% more than that
of C. If A’s income is ` 20250, then find the income of C.
Solution: Let income of C be ` x
Income of B = x + 8% of x

8 x 108
= x+ = ×x
100 100
108 x 108 x
Income of A = + 25% of
100 100
108 x 125
= ×
100 100

108 125
∴ × x× = 20250
100 100

100 100
or x = 20250 × × = 15000
108 125
∴ Income of C is ` 15000.

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Mathematics
Example 8.13: A reduction of 10% in the price of tea enables a dealer to purchase 25 kg
more tea for ` 22500. What is the reduced price per kg of tea? Also, find the original price
per kg.
10
Solution: 10% of ` 22500 = × 22500 = ` 2250
100 Notes
∴ Reduced price of 25 kg tea = ` 2250
2250
∴ Reduced price per kg = ` = ` 90 per kg.
25
Since, the reduction was 10% so the original price = ` 100 per kg.
Example 8.14: A student got 45% marks in the first paper and 70% in the second paper.
How much percent should he get in the third paper so as to get 60% as overall score?
Solution: Let each paper be of 100 marks.
∴ Marks obtained in first paper = 45% of 100 = 45
Marks obtained in second paper = 70% of 100 = 70
Total marks (in three papers) he wants to obtain = 60% of 300
60
=× 300 = 180
100
∴ Marks to be obtained in third paper = 180 – (45 + 70)
= 180 – 115 = 65
Example 8.15: Find the sum which when increased by 15% becomes ` 19320.
Solution: Let the sum be ` x
∴ x + 15% of x = 19320

15 x 115 x
x+ = 19320 or = 19320
100 100

19320 × 100
∴x = = 16800
115
Hence, the required sum = ` 16800.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 8.2

1. Find: (i) 16% of 1250 (ii) 47% of 1200
2. A family spends 35% of its monthly budget of ` 7500 on food. How much does the
family spend on food?

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3. In a garden, there are 500 plants of which 35% are trees, 20% are shrubs, 25% are
herbs and the rest are creepers. Find out the number of each type of plants.
4. 60 is reduced to 45. What percent is the reduction?
5. If 80 is increased to 125, what is the increase percent?
Notes 6. Raman has to score a minimum 40% marks for passing the examination. He gets 178
marks and fails by 22 marks. Find the maximum marks.
7. It takes me 45 minutes to go to school and I spend 80% of the time travelling by bus.
How long does the bus journey last?
8. In an election, between 2 candidates 25% voters did not cast their votes. A candidate
scored 40% of the votes polled and was defeated by 900 votes. Find the total number
of voters.
9. A rise of 25% in the price of sugar compels a person to buy 1.5 kg of sugar less for
` 240. Find the increased price as well as the original price per kg of sugar.
10. A number is first increased by 20% and then decreased by 20%. What is the net
increase or decrease percent?
11. ‘A’ scored 12 marks, while B scored 10 marks, in the first terminal examination. If in
the second terminal examination (with same total number of marks) ‘A’ scored 14
marks and ‘B’ scored 12 marks, which student showed more improvement?
12. 30,000 students appeared in a contest. Of them 40% were girls and the remaining
boys. If 10% boys and 12% girls won the contest with prizes, find the percentage of
students who won prizes.
13. Sunil earns 10% more than Shailesh and Shailesh earns 20% more than Swami. If
Swami earns ` 3200 less than Sunil, find the earnings of each.

8.5 APPLICATION OF PERCENTAGE

In our day to day life, we come across a number of situations wherein we use the concept
of percent. In the following section, we discuss the application of percentage in different
fields, like problems in profit and loss, discount, simple interest, compound interest, rate of
growth and depreciation.

8.5.1 Profit and Loss

Let us recall the terms and formulae related to profit and loss.
Cost Price (C.P.): The Price at which an article is purchased, is called its cost price.
Selling Price (S.P.): The Price at which an article is sold, is called its selling price.
Profit (Gain): When S.P. > C.P., then there is profit, and
Profit = S.P. – C.P.

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Loss: When C.P. > S.P., then there is loss, and
Loss = C.P. – S.P.

⎛ Profit ⎞ ⎛ Loss ⎞
Formulae Profit % = ⎜ × 100 ⎟%, Loss% = ⎜ × 100 ⎟%
⎝ C.P. ⎠ ⎝ C.P. ⎠ Notes

(C.P.)× (100 + Profit%) = (C.P.)(100 − Loss%)

S.P. =
100 100

S.P. ×100
=
(S.P.)×100
C.P. =
(100 + Profit% ) (100 − Loss%)
Note: Gain % or loss % is always calculated on C.P.
Let us take some examples to illustrate the applications of these formulae in solving problems
related to profit and loss:
Example 8.16: A shopkeeper buys an article for Rs. 360 and sells it for Rs. 270. Find his
gain or loss percent.
Solution: Here C.P. = Rs. 360, and S.P. = Rs. 270
Since C.P. > S.P., ∴ there is a loss.
Loss = C.P. – S.P. = Rs (360 – 270) = Rs. 90

⎛ Loss ⎞
Loss % = ⎜ × 100 ⎟%
⎝ C.P. ⎠

90
= × 100 = 25%
360
Example 8.17: Sudha purchased a house for ` 4,52,000 and spent ` 28,000 on its
repairs. She had to sell it for ` 4,92,000. Find her gain or loss percent.
Solution: Here C.P. = Cost price + Overhead charges
= ` (452000 + 28000) = ` 4,80,000
S.P. = ` 4,92,000
Since, S.P. > C.P., ∴ Gain = ` (492000 – 480000) = ` 12000

12000 × 100 5
Gain % = = % = 2 .5 %
480000 2
Example 8.18: By selling a book for ` 258, a publisher gains 20%. For how much should
he sell it to gain 30%?

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Solution: S.P. = Rs. 258
Profit = 20%

S.P. × 100 258× 100

C.P. = =` = ` 215
Notes 100 + Profit% 120
Now, if Profit = 30% and C.P. = Rs. 215, then,

C.P. × (100 + Profit% ) 215× 130

S.P. = =` = ` 279.50
100 100
Example 8.19: A man bought oranges at 25 for ` 100 and sold them at 20 for ` 100.
Find his gain or loss percent.
Solution: C.P. of 25 oranges = ` 100
100
∴ C.P. of 1 orange = ` =`4
25

100
and S.P. of 1 orange = ` =`5
20
∴ Profit on 1 orange = ` (5 – 4) = ` 1

1
Profit % = × 100 = 25%
4
Example 8.20: A man sold two horses for ` 29700 each. On one he lost 10% while he
gained 10% on the other. Find his total gain or loss percent in the transaction.
Solution: S.P. of first horse = ` 29700
Loss = 10%

29700 × 100
∴ C.P. = ` = ` 33,000
90
S.P. of 2nd horse = ` 29700,
Profit = 10%

29700 × 100
C.P. = ` = ` 27,000
110
Total CP = ` (33000 + 27000) = ` 60,000
Total SP = ` (2 × 29700) = ` 59400
Net Loss = ` (60000 – 59400) = ` 600

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600
Loss % = × 100 = 1%
60000
Example 8.21: The cost price of 15 articles is equal to the selling price of 12 articles. Find
the gain percent.
Notes
Solution: Let the C.P. of 15 articles be ` 15
then S.P. of 12 articles = ` 15

15 75
S.P. of 15 articles = ` × 15 = `
12 4

⎛ 75 ⎞ 15
Gain = ` ⎜ −15 ⎟ = `
⎝ 4 ⎠ 4

15 / 4
Gain % = × 100 = 25%
15
Example 8.22: A watch was sold at a profit of 12%. Had it been sold for ` 33 more, the
profit would have been 14%. Find the cost price of the watch.
Solution: Let the cost price of the watch be ` x

x × 112 112 x
∴ S.P. = =
100 100

⎛ 112x ⎞
If the watch is sold for Rs. 33 more then S.P. = ⎜ + 33 ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠
New profit = 14%

⎛ 112 x ⎞
⎜ + 33 ⎟ ×100
∴ C.P. = x = ⎝ ⎠
100
114

or 114x = 112 x + 3300 or 2x = 3300

x = 1650 ∴ C.P. = ` 1650

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 8.3

1. A shopkeeper bought an almirah from a wholesale dealer for ` 4500 and sold it for
` 6000. Find his profit or loss percent.

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2. A retailer buys a cooler for ` 3800 but had to spend ` 200 on its transport and repair.
If he sells the cooler for ` 4400, determine, his profit percent.
3. A vendor buys lemons at the rate of 5 for ` 7 and sells them at ` 1.75 per lemon. Find
his gain percent.
Notes 4. A man purchased a certain number of oranges at the rate of 2 for ` 5 and sold them at
the rate of 3 for ` 8. In the process, he gained ` 20. Find the number of oranges he
bought.
5. By selling a bi-cycle for ` 2024, the shopkeeper loses 12%. If he wishes to make a
gain of 12% what should be the selling price of the bi-cycle?
6. By selling 45 oranges for ` 160, a woman loses 20%. How many oranges should she
sell for ` 112 to gain 20% on the whole?
7. A dealer sold two machines at ` 2400 each. On selling one machine, he gained 20%
and on selling the other, he lost 20%. Find the dealer’s net gain or loss percent.
8. Harish bought a table for ` 960 and sold it to Raman at a profit of 5%. Raman sold it
to Mukul at a profit of 10%. Find the money paid by Mukul for the table.
9. A man buys bananas at 6 for ` 5 and an equal number at ` 15 per dozen. He mixes the
two lots and sells them at ` 14 per dozen. Find his gain or loss percent, in the transaction.
10. If the selling price of 20 articles is equal to the cost price of 23 articles, find the loss or
gain percent.

8.5.2 Discount

You must have seen advertisements of the following types, especially during the festival
season.
SALE
discount upto 50%
} DIWALI BONANZA
20% discount on all items.
A discount is a reduction in the marked (or list) price of an article. “20% discount”means
a reduction of 20% in the marked price of an article. For example, if the marked price of
an article is ` 100, it is sold for ` 80, i.e. ` 20 less than the marked price. Let us define the
terms, we shall use:
Marked Price (or List price): The marked price (M.P.) of an article is the price at which
the article is listed for sale. Since this price is written (marked) on the article, so it is called
the marked price.
Discount: The discount is the reduction from the marked price of the article.
Net selling price (S.P.): In case of discount selling, the price of the article obtained by
subtracting discount from the marked price is called the Net Selling price or Selling price
(S.P.). Let us take the following examples, to illustrate:

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Example 8.23: A coat is marked at ` 2400. Find its selling price if a discount of 12% is
offered.
Solution: Here, Marked Price (M.P.) of the coat = ` 2400
Discount = 12%
Net selling price (S.P.) = M.P. – Discount Notes
= ` 2400 – 12% of ` 2400
⎛ 12 ⎞
= ` 2400 – ` ⎜ × 2400 ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠
= ` (2400 – 288)
= ` 2112
Thus, the net selling price of coat is ` 2112.
Example 8.24: A machine listed at ` 8400 is available for ` 6300. Find the rate of
discount offered.
Solution: Here, Marked Price (M.P.) = ` 8400
Net selling price (S.P.) = ` 6300
Discount offered = ` (8400 – 6300)
= ` 2100

2100
Discount % = × 100% = 25%
8400
Note: Discount is always calculated on Marked Price.
Example 8.25: A wholesaler’s list price of a fan is ` 1250 and is available to a retailer at
a discount of 20%. For how much should the retailer sell it, to earn a profit of 15%.
Solution: M.P. = ` 1250
Discount = 20% of ` 1250
20
=` × 1250 = ` 250
100
∴ Cost Price of the retailer = ` (1250 – 250)
= ` 1000
Profit = 15%

C.P.(100 + Profit% ) 1000 × 115

∴ S.P. = =`
100 100
= ` 1150

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Example 8.26: A shopkeeper marks his goods 25% more than their cost price and allows
a discount of 10%. Find his gain or loss percent.
Solution: Let the C.P. of an article = ` 100
∴ Marked Price (M.P.) = ` 100 + 25% of ` 100
Notes
= ` 125
Discount offered = 10%
∴ Net selling Price = ` 125 – 10% of ` 125

⎛ 10 ⎞
= ` 125 – ` ⎜ ×125 ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠
= ` (125 – 12.50) = ` 112.50
∴ Gain = ` (112.50 – 100) = ` 12.50

12.50
Gain % = × 100 = 12.5%
100
Example 8.27: An article listed at ` 5400 is offered at a discount of 15%. Due to festival
season, the shopkeeper allows a further discount of 5%. Find the selling price of the
article.
Solution: M.P. = ` 5400, Discount = 15%
∴ SP = ` 5400 – 15% of ` 5400

15
= ` 5400 – ` × 5400
100
= ` (5400 – 810) = ` 4590
Festival discount = 5%
∴ Net selling Price = ` 4590 – 5% of ` 4590
5
= ` 4590 – ` × 4590
100
= ` (4590 – 229.50)
= ` 4360.50
∴ Net selling price of article = ` 4360.50.
Example 8.28: A retailer buys books from a wholesaler at the rate of ` 300 per book and
marked them at ` 400 each. He allows some discount and gets a profit of 30% on the cost
price. What percent discount does he allow to his customers?

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Solution: C.P. of one book = ` 300
M.P. = ` 400
Profit = 30%

C.P.(100 + Profit% ) 300×130 Notes

∴ S.P. = =` = ` 390
100 100
∴ Discount offered = ` (400 – 390) = ` 10

10
Discount % = × 100 = 2.5%
400

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 8.4

1. A shirt with marked price ` 375/- is sold at a discount of 15%. Find its net selling
price.
2. A pair of socks marked at ` 60 is being offered for ` 48. Find the discount percent
being offered.
3. A washing machine is sold at a discount of 10% on its marked price. A further discount
of 5% is offered for cash payment. Find the selling price of the washing machine if its
marked price is ` 18000.
4. A man pays ` 2100 for a machine listed at ` 2800. Find the rate of discount offered.
5. The list price of a table fan is ` 840 and it is available to a retailer at a discount of 25%.
For how much should the retailer sell it to earn a profit of 15%.
6. A shopkeeper marks his goods 50% more than their cost price and allows a discount
of 40%, find his gain or loss percent.
7. A dealer buys a table listed at ` 2500 and gets a discount of 28%. He spends ` 100
on transportation and sells it at a profit of 15%. Find the selling price of the table.
8. A retailer buys shirts from a manufacturer at the rate of ` 175 per shirt and marked
them at ` 250 each. He allows some discount and earns a profit of 28% on the cost
price. What percent discount does he allow to his customers?

8.5.3 Simple Interest

When a person has to borrow some money as a loan from his friends. relatives, bank etc.
he promises to return it after a specified time period along with some extra money for using
the money of the lender.
The money borrowed is called the Principal, usually denoted by P, and the extra money
paid is called the Interest, usually denoted by I.

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The total money paid back, that is, the sum of Principal and the Interest is called the
Amount, and is usually denoted by A.
Thus, A = P + I
The interest is mostly expresed as a rate percent per year (per annum).
Notes
Interest depends on, how much money (P) has been borrowed and the duraton of time (T)
for which it is used. Interest is calculated according to a mutually agreed rate percent, per
r
annum (R). [i.e. R = r % = ]
100
Thus, Interest = (Principal) × (Rate % per annum) × time
∴I=P×R×T
Interest calculated as above, is called simple interest. Let us take some examples, involving
simple interest.
Example 8.29: Find the simple interest in each of the following cases
P R T
(a) ` 8000 5% 2 yrs

1
(b) ` 20,000 15% 1 yrs
2
Solution: (a) I = P. R. T.
⎡ 5 ⎤
= ` ⎢8000 × × 2⎥ = ` 800
⎣ 100 ⎦

⎡ 15 3 ⎤
I = ` ⎢20000 × ×
100 2 ⎥⎦
(b) = ` 4500
⎣
Example 8.30: Find at what rate of simple interest per annum will ` 5000 amount to
` 6050 in 3 years.
Solution: Here A = ` 6050, P = ` 5000, T = 3 yrs
∴ I = ` (6050 – 5000) = ` 1050

I I × 100
I = P × R × T or r% = ∴r =
P×T P×T

1050 × 100
r= =7 ∴ R = 7%
5000 × 3

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1
Example 8.31: A sum amounts to ` 4875 at 12 % simple interest per annum after 4
2
years. Find the sum.

1 25 Notes
Solution: Here A = ` 4875, R = 12 % = %, T = 4 yrs
2 2
I=P×R×T

⎛ 25 ⎞ P
I = ` ⎜P× × 4⎟ = `
⎝ 200 ⎠ 2

⎛ P⎞ 3P
∴ A = ` ⎜P + ⎟ = `
⎝ 2⎠ 2

3P
Thus, = ` 4875 or 3P = ` 9750 or P = ` 3250
2
Example 8.32: In how many years will a sum of ` 2000 yield an interest (Simple) of
` 560 at the rate of 14% per annum?
Solution: Here P = ` 2000, I = ` 560 R = 14%

14
I = P × R × T or 560 = 2000 × ×T
100

560 × 100
∴T = = 2 years
2000 × 14
Thus, in 2 years, a sum of ` 2000 will yield an interest of ` 560 at 14% per annum.
Example 8.33: A certain sum of money at simple interest amounts to ` 1300 in 4 years
and to ` 1525 in 7 years. Find the sum and rate percent.

P×R ×4
Solution: Here 1300 = +P ...(i)
100
P×R ×7
and 1525 = +P ...(ii)
100

P×R ×3 P×R
Subtracting (i) from (ii) 225 = or = 75
100 100
Putting in (i) we get
1300 = 75 × 4 + P or P = ` (1300 – 300) = ` 1000

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P×R 75 × 100 75 × 100
Again, we have = 75 or R = = = 7.5%
100 P 1000
∴ Principal = ` 1000 and rate = 7.5%
Notes Alternatively:
Amount after 4 years = ` 1300
Amount after 7 years = ` 1525
∴ Interest for 3 years = ` [1525 – 1300] = ` 225

225
∴ Interest for 1 year = ` = ` 75
3
∴ 1300 = P + Interest for 4 yrs = P + 4 × 75 or P = ` (1300 – 300) = ` 1000

75 × 100
R= = 7 .5 %
1000 × 1
Example 8.34: A certain sum of money doubles itself in 10 years. In how many years will
1
it become 2 times at the same rate of simple interest.
2
Solution: Let P = ` 100, T = 10 yrs, A = ` 200, ∴ I = ` 100
100 × R × 10
∴100 = or R = 10%
100
Now P = ` 100, R = 10% and A = ` 250 ∴ I = ` 150
10
∴150 = 100 × × T or T = 15 yrs
100
1
Thus, in 15 yrs, the sum will become 2 times.
2
Example 8.35: Out of ` 70,000 to invest for one year, a man invests ` 30,000 at 4% and
` 20,000 at 3% per annum simple interest. At what rate percent, should he lend the
remaining money, so that he gets 5% interest on the total amount he has?
Solution: Interest on total amount at 5% for one year
5
= ` 70,000 × × 1 = ` 3500
100
4
Interest on ` 30,000 at 4% for 1 year = ` 30000 × ×1
100
= ` 1200

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3
Interest on ` 20,000 at 3% for 1 year = ` 20000 × ×1
100
= ` 600
∴ Interest on remaining ` 20,000 for 1 yr = ` [3500 – 1200 – 600] Notes
= ` 1700

R 1700 × 100
∴1700 = 20000 × × 1 or R = = 8.5%
100 20000
∴ The remaining amount should be invested at 8.5% per annum.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 8.5

1. Rama borrowed ` 14000 from her friend at 8% per annum simple interest. She returned
the money after 2 years. How much did she pay back altogether?
2. Ramesh deposited ` 15600 in a financial company, which pays simple interest at 8%
per annum. Find the interest he will receive at the end of 3 years.
3. Naveen lent ` 25000 to his two friends. He gave ` 10,000 at 10% per annum to one
of his friend and the remaining to other at 12% per annum. How much interest did he
receive after 2 years.
4. Shalini deposited ` 29000 in a finance company for 3 years and received ` 38570 in
all. What was the rate of simple interest per annum?
2
5. In how much time will simple interest on a sum of money be th of the sum, at the rate
5
of 10% per annum.
6. At what rate of interest will simple interest be half the principal in 5 years.
7. A sum of money amounts to ` 1265 in 3 years and to ` 1430 in 6 years, at simple
interest. Find the sum and the rate percent.
8. Out of ` 75000 to invest for one year, a man invested ` 30000 at 5% per annum and
` 24000 at 4% per annum. At what percent per annum, should he invest the remaining
money to get 6% interest on the whole money.
9. A certain sum of money doubles itself in 8 years. In how much time will it become 4
times of itself at the same rate of interest?
10. In which case, is the interest earned more:
(a) ` 5000 deposited for 5 years at 4% per annum, or
(b) ` 4000 deposited for 6 years at 5% per annum?

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8.5.4 Compound Interest

In the previous section, you have studied about simple interest. When the interest is calculated
on the Principal for the entire period of loan, the interest is called simple interest and is
given by
Notes
I=P×R×T
But if this interest is due (not paid) after the decided time period, then it becomes a part of
the principal and so is added to the principal for the next time preiod, and the interest is
calculated for the next time period on this new principal. Interest calculated, this way is
called compound interest.
The time period after which the interest is added to the principal for the next time period is
called the Conversion Period.
The conversion period may be one year, six months or three months and the interest is said
to compounded, annually, semi-annually or quarterly, respectively. Let us take an example:
Example 8.36: Find the compound interest on a sum of Rs. 2000, for two years when the
interest is compounded annually at 10% per annum.
Solution: Here P = ` 2000 and R = 10%
∴ Interest for the first conversion time period (i.e. first year)
10
= ` 2000 × × 1 = ` 200
100
∴ Principal for the second year (or 2nd conversion period)
= ` (2000 + 200) = ` 2200
10
∴ Interest for the 2nd time period = ` 2200 × × 1 = ` 220
100
∴ Amount payable at the end of two years = ` (2200 + 220)
= ` 2420
∴ Total interest paid at the end of two years = ` (2420 – 2000)
= ` 420
or [` (200 + 220) = ` 420]
∴ Compound interest = ` 420
Thus, for calculating the compound interest, the interest due after every coversion period
is added to the principal and then interest is calculated for the next period.
8.5.4.1 Formula for Compound Interest
Let a sum P be borrowed for n years at the rate of r% per annum, then
r Pr
Interest for the first year = P × ×1=
100 100

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Pr
Amount after one year = Principal for 2nd year = P +
100
⎛ r ⎞
= P⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠ Notes
⎛ r ⎞ r Pr ⎛ r ⎞
Interest for 2nd year = P⎜1 + ⎟× ×1= .⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠ 100 100 ⎝ 100 ⎠

⎛ r ⎞ Pr ⎛ r ⎞ ⎛ r ⎞⎛ r ⎞
Amount after 2 years = P⎜1 + ⎟+ ⎜1 + ⎟ = P⎜1 + ⎟⎜ 1 + ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠ 100 ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠⎝ 100 ⎠
2
⎛ r ⎞
= P⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠
3
⎛ r ⎞
Similarly, amount after 3 years = P⎜1 + ⎟ and so on.
⎝ 100 ⎠
n
⎛ r ⎞
Amount after n years = P⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠
r
Thus, if A represents the amount and R represents r% or , then
100
n
⎛ r ⎞
A = P(1 + R) = P⎜1 +
n ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠
and compound interest = A – P = P (1 + R)n – P
⎡⎛ r ⎞
n
⎤
n
= P[(1 + R) –1] or P ⎢ ⎜ 1 + ⎟ − 1⎥
⎣⎢⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎥⎦
Note: Simple interest and compound interest are equal for first year (first conversion period)
Example 8.37: Calculate the compound interest on ` 20,000 for 3 years at 5% per
annum, when the interest is compounded annually.
Solution: Here P = ` 20,000, R = 5% and n =3
∴ CI = P[(1 + R)n –1]
⎡⎛ 5 ⎞
3
⎤
= ` 20000 ⎢ ⎜ 1 + ⎟ − 1⎥
⎣⎢⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎦⎥

⎡⎛ 21 ⎞3 ⎤ ⎡ 9261 − 8000 ⎤
= ` ⎢⎜ 20 ⎟ − 1⎥ = ` 20000 × ⎢ ⎥⎦
⎢⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎣ 8000
= ` 3152.50

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1
Example 8.38: Calculate the compound interest on ` 20,000 for 1 years at the rate of
2
10% per annum, when the interest is compounded semi-annually.

Notes Solution: Here P = ` 20,000, R = 10% per annum

= 5% per half year

1
and n = 1 yrs = 3 half years
2

⎡⎛ 5 ⎞
3
⎤
∴ CI = P[(1 + R) –1] = `
n 20,000 ⎢ ⎜ 1 + ⎟ − 1⎥
⎣⎢⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎦⎥

⎡ 9261 ⎤
= ` 20,000 × ⎢ − 1 = ` 3152.50
⎣ 8000 ⎥⎦
Example 8.39: Calculate the compound interest on ` 20,000 for 9 months at the rate of
4% per annum, when the interest is compounded quarterly.
Solution: Here P = ` 20,000, R = 4% per annum
= 1% per quarter of year
and n = 3/4 yrs = 3 quarters

⎡⎛ 1 ⎞
3
⎤
∴ CI = P[(1 + R) –1] = `
n 20,000 ⎢⎜ 1 + ⎟ − 1⎥
⎢⎣⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎥⎦

⎡⎛ 101 ⎞3 ⎤ 20000 × 30301

= ` 20,000 × ⎢⎜ 100 ⎟ − 1⎥ = `
⎣⎢⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎥ 100 × 100 × 100

= ` 606.02

1
Example 8.40: calculate the amount and compound interest on ` 12000 for 1 years at
2
the rate of 10% per annum compounded annually.

1
Solution: Here P = ` 12000, R = 10% and n = 1 years
2
Since interest is compounded, annually, so, amount at the end of 1 year is given by

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1 1
⎛ R ⎞ ⎛ 10 ⎞
A = P ⎜1 + ⎟ = ` 12000 × ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠

11
= ` 12000 × = ` 13200 Notes
10
∴ Principal for next 6 months = ` 13200

10
and Rate R = % = 5%
2

1
⎛ 5 ⎞ 21
∴ A = ` 13200⎜1 + ⎟ = ` 13200 ×
⎝ 100 ⎠ 20

= ` 13860

1
∴ Amount after 1 years = ` 13860
2
Compound interest = ` [13860 – 12000]
= ` 1860

1
Note: We can calculate the amount for 1 yrs as
2

1 1
⎛ 10 ⎞ ⎛ 5 ⎞
A = ` 12000 ⎜1 + ⎟ ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
Example 8.41: At what rate percent per annum, will a sum of ` 15,625 become
` 17576 in three years, when the interest is compounded annually?
Solution: Here A = ` 17576, P = ` 15,625 and n = 3
Let R = r% per annum
3
⎛ r ⎞
∴17576 = 15625⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠
3 3
⎛ r ⎞ 17576 ⎛ 26 ⎞
∴ ⎜1 + ⎟ = =⎜ ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠ 15625 ⎝ 25 ⎠

⎛ r ⎞ 26 r 26 1
∴ ⎜1 + ⎟= or = −1 =
⎝ 100 ⎠ 25 100 25 25

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100
or r= =4
25
∴ Rate = 4% per annum.
Notes Example 8.42: In how much time will a sum of ` 8000 amount to ` 9261 at 10% per
annum, compounded semi-annually?
Solution: Here A= ` 9261, P = ` 8000 and n = x semi yrs
R = 10% per annum = 5% semi annually
x
⎛ 5 ⎞
∴ 9261 = 8000⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠
x 3 x
9261 ⎛ 21 ⎞ ⎛ 21 ⎞ ⎛ 21 ⎞
or = ⎜ ⎟ or ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ ∴ x = 3
8000 ⎝ 20 ⎠ ⎝ 20 ⎠ ⎝ 20 ⎠

1
∴ Time = 3 half years = 1 years
2
Example 8.43: Find the difference between simple interest and compound interest for
1
1 years at 4% per annum, for a sum of ` 24000, when the interest is compounded semi-
2
annually..
Solution: Here P = ` 24000, R = 4% per annum

3
T= years R = 2% per semi-annually
2

1 3
n=1 years = years = 3 semi years
2 2

4 3
Simple Interest = P × R × T = ` 24000 × ×
100 2
= ` 1440.

⎡ R ⎞ ⎤
n
For compound interest, A = P ⎢⎛⎜1 + ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎥⎦

⎡⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎤
3

A = ` 24000⎢⎜1 + 100 ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎥

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⎡⎛ 51 ⎞ 3 ⎤ ⎡ 51 51 51 ⎤
A = ` 24000 ⎢⎜ 50 ⎟ ⎥ = ` 24000 ⎢ × × ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎣ 50 50 50 ⎦

24 × 51× 51× 51 Notes

=` = ` 25468.99 or ` 25469
125
∴ CI = ` [25469 – 24000] = ` 1469
Difference = CI – SI = ` [1469 – 1440]
= ` 29

1
Example 8.44: A sum of money is invested at compound interest for 1 year at 4%
2
compounded annually. If the interests were compounded semi-annually, it would have
fetched ` 20.40 more than in the previous case. Find the sum.
Solution: Let the sum be ` x.
Here R = 4% annually, or 2% semi-annually

1
T=1 yrs or 3 semi years
2
In first case
1 1
⎡ 4 ⎤ ⎡ 2 ⎤
A = ` x ⎢1 + ⎢⎣1 + 100 ⎥⎦
⎣ 100 ⎥⎦

⎛ 26 ⎞⎛ 51 ⎞ 1326 x
= ` x⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = `
⎝ 25 ⎠⎝ 50 ⎠ 1250
In 2nd case
3 3
⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 51 ⎞
A = ` x ⎜1 + ⎟ = ` x⎜ ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 50 ⎠

132651
=`
125000

⎡ 132651 1326 ⎤
∴ Difference = ` ⎢ x− x
⎣125000 1250 ⎥⎦

51x
=`
125000

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51x 2040 2040 125000
∴ = or x = ` × = ` 5000
125000 100 100 51
∴ Sum = ` 50,000
Notes

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 8.6

1. Calculate the compound interest on ` 15625 for 3 years at 4% per annum, compounded
annually.
1
2. Calculate the compound interest on ` 15625 for 1 years at 8% per annum,
2
compounded semi-annually.
3. Calculate the compound interest on ` 16000 for 9 months at 20% per annum,
compounded quarterly
4. Find the sum of money which will amount to ` 27783 in 3 years at 5% per annum, the
interest being compounded annually.
5. Find the difference between simple interest and compound interest for 3 years at 10%
per annum, when the interest is compounded annually on ` 30,000.
6. The difference between simple interest and compound interest for a certain sum of
1
money at 8% per annum for 1 years, when the interest is compounded half-yearly
2
is ` 228. Find the sum.
7. A sum of money is invested at compound interest for 9 months at 20% per annum,
when the interest is compounded half yearly. If the interest were compounded quarterly,
it would have fetched ` 210 more than in the previous case. Find the sum.
8. A sum of ` 15625 amounts to ` 17576 at 8% per annum, compounded semi-annually.
Find the time.
9. Find the rate at which ` 4000 will give ` 630.50 as compound interest in 9 months,
interest being compounded quarterly.
10. A sum of money becomes ` 17640 in two years and ` 18522 in 3 years at the same
rate of interest, compounded annually. Find the sum and the rate of interest per annum.

8.5.5 Rate of Growth and Depreciation

In our daily life, we come across the terms like growth of population, plants, viruses etc
and depreciation in the value of articles like machinery, crops, motor cycles etc.
The problems of growth and depreciation can be solved using the formula of compound
interest derived in the previous section.

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If Vo is the value of an article in the beginning and Vn is its value after ‘n’ conversion
periods and the rate of growth/depreciation for the period be denoted by r%, then we can
write
n
⎛ r ⎞
Vn = Vo ⎜1 + ⎟ in case of growth, and Notes
⎝ 100 ⎠

n
⎛ r ⎞
Vn = Vo ⎜1 – ⎟ in case of depreciation.
⎝ 100 ⎠
If the rate of growth/depreciation varies for each conversion period, then

⎛ r ⎞⎛ r ⎞⎛ r ⎞
Vn = Vo ⎜1 + 1 ⎟⎜1 + 2 ⎟⎜1 + 3 ⎟.... for growth, and
⎝ 100 ⎠⎝ 100 ⎠⎝ 100 ⎠

⎛ r ⎞⎛ r ⎞⎛ r ⎞
Vn = Vo ⎜1 − 1 ⎟⎜1 – 2 ⎟⎜1 – 3 ⎟.... for depreciation.
⎝ 100 ⎠⎝ 100 ⎠⎝ 100 ⎠
Let us take some examples to illustrate the above concepts.
Example 8.45: The population of a city is 9765625. What will be its population after 3
years, if the rate of growth of population is 4% per year?
Solution: Here Vo = 9765625, r = 4% and n = 3
3
⎡ 4 ⎤
∴ V3 = 9765625 ⎢1 +
⎣ 100 ⎥⎦

3
⎛ 26 ⎞
= 9765625 × ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 25 ⎠
= 10985000.
Hence, the population of that city after 3 years will be = 10985000.
Example 8.46: The cost of a car was ` 3,50,000 in January 2005. If the rate of depreciation
is 15% for the first year and 10% for the subsequent years, find its value after 3 years.
Solution: Here Vo = ` 3,50,000
r1 = 15%, r2 = 10% and r3 = 10%

⎛ r ⎞⎛ r ⎞⎛ r ⎞
∴ V3 = Vo ⎜1 − 1 ⎟⎜1 – 2 ⎟⎜1 – 3 ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠⎝ 100 ⎠⎝ 100 ⎠

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⎛ 15 ⎞⎛ 10 ⎞⎛ 10 ⎞
= ` 350000⎜1 − ⎟⎜1 − ⎟⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠⎝ 100 ⎠⎝ 100 ⎠

17 9 9
= ` 350000 × × × = ` 2,40,975/-
Notes 20 10 10
∴ The value of car after 3 years = ` 240975.
Example 8.47: A plant gains its height at the rate of 2% per month of what was its height
in the beginning of the month. If its height was 1.2 m in the beginning of January 2008, find
its height in the beginning of April 2008, correct upto 3 places of decimal.
Solution: Here Vo = 1.2 m, r = 2%, n = 3
n
⎛ r ⎞
∴ V3 = Vo ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠

3 3
⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 51 ⎞
= 1.2⎜1 + ⎟ = 1.2⎜ ⎟ = 1.2734 m
⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 50 ⎠
= 1.273 m
Hence, height of plant in the beginning of April = 1.273 m.
Example 8.48: The virus of a culture decreases at the rate of 5% per hour due to a
medicine. If the virus count in the culture at 11.00 AM was 2.3 × 107, find the virus count
at 1.00 PM on the same day.
Solution: Vo = 2.3 × 107, r = 5%, n =2
2
⎛ 5 ⎞
V2 = 2.3 × 10 7 ⎜1 − ⎟ = 2.3 × 10 × (0.95)
7 2

⎝ 100 ⎠
= 2.076 × 107
Hence, the virus count at 1.00 PM is 2.076 × 107.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 8.7

1. The population of a town is 281250. What will be its population after 3 years, if the
rate of growth of population is 4% per year?
2. The cost of a car was ` 4,36,000 in January 2005. Its value depreciates at the rate of
15% in the first year and then at the rate of 10% in the subsequent years. Find the
value of the car in January 2008.

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3. The cost of machinery is ` 360000 today. In the first year the value depreciates by
12% and subsequently, the value depreciates by 8% each year. By how much, the
value of machinery has depreciated at the end of 3 years?
4. The application of manure increases the output of a crop by 10% in the first year, 5%
in the second year and 4% in the third year. If the production of crop in the year 2005 Notes
was 3.5 tons per hectare, find the production of crop per hectare in 2008.
5. The virus of a culture decreases at the rate of 4% per hour due to a medicine. If the
virus count in the culture at 9.00 AM was 3.5 × 108, find the virus count at 11.00 AM
on the same day.
6. Three years back, the population of a village was 50000. After that, in the first year,
the rate of growth of population was 5%. In the second year, due to some epidemic,
the population decreased by 10% and in the third year, the population growth rate
was noticed as 4%. Find the population of the town now.

LET US SUM UP
• Percent means ‘per hundred’.
• Percents can be written as fractions as well as decimals and vice-versa.
• To write a percent as a fraction, we drop the % sign and divide the number by 100.
• To write a fraction as a percent, we multiply the fraction by 100, simplify it and suffix
the % sign.
• To determine the specific percent of a number or quantity, we change the percent to a
fraction or a decimal and then multiply.
• When the selling price is more than the cost price of the goods, there is a profit (or
gain).
• When the selling price is less than the cost price of the goods, there is a loss.
Profit (Gain) = S.P. – C.P. ; Loss = C.P. – S.P.
Gain Loss
Gain% = × 100 ; Loss% = × 100
C.P. C.P.
100 + Gain% 100 – Loss%
S.P. = × C.P. ; S.P. = × C.P.
100 100
• The simple interest (I.) on a principal (P) at the rate of R% for a time T years, is
calculated, using the formula
I. = P × R × T

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• Discount is a reduction in the list price of goods.
• Discount is always calculated on the marked price of the goods
• (Marked price – discount), gives the price, which a customer has to pay while buying
Notes an article.
• Two or more successive discounts are said to form a discount series.
• A discount series can be reduced to a single discount.
• Sales tax is charged on the sale price of goods.
• An instalment plan enables a person to buy costlier goods.
• In the case of compound interest
Amount (A) = P (1 + R)n, where P is the Principal, R = rate% and n = time.
• Compount interest is greater than simple interest, except for the first conversion period.
• If Vo is the value of an article in the beginning and Vn is its value after ‘n’ conversion
periods and ‘r’ be the rate of growth/depreciation per period, then
n
⎛ r ⎞
Vn = Vo ⎜1 + ⎟ in case of growth, and
⎝ 100 ⎠
n
⎛ r ⎞
Vn = Vo ⎜1 – ⎟ in case of depreciation.
⎝ 100 ⎠
• If the rate of growth/depreciation varies for each conversion period, then

⎛ r ⎞⎛ r ⎞⎛ r ⎞
Vn = Vo ⎜1 + 1 ⎟⎜1 + 2 ⎟⎜1 + 3 ⎟.... for growth, and
⎝ 100 ⎠⎝ 100 ⎠⎝ 100 ⎠

⎛ r ⎞⎛ r ⎞⎛ r ⎞
Vn = Vo ⎜1 − 1 ⎟⎜1 – 2 ⎟⎜1 – 3 ⎟.... for depreciation.
⎝ 100 ⎠⎝ 100 ⎠⎝ 100 ⎠

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Write each of the following as a percent

9 7
(a) (b) (c) 0.34 (d) 0.06
20 10
2. Write each of the following as a decimal:
(a) 36% (b) 410% (c) 2% (d) 0.35%

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3. Write each of the following as fraction:
(a) 0.12% (b) 2.5% (c) 25.5% (d) 255%
4. Find each of the following:
(a) 23% of 500 (b) 2.5% of 800 (c) 0.4% of 1000 (d) 115% of 400 Notes
5. What percent of 700 is 294?
6. By what percent is 60 more than 45?
7. What number increased by 10% of itself is 352?
8. Find the number whose 15% is 270.
9. What number decreased by 7% of itself is 16.74?
10. If three fourth of the students of a class wear glasses, what percent of the students of
the class do not wear glasses?
11. There are 20 eggs in a fridge and 6 of them are brown. What percent of eggs are not
brown?
12. 44% of the students of a class are girls. If the number of girls is 6 less than the number
of boys, how many students are there in the class?
13. During an election, 70% of the population voted. If 70,000 people cast their votes,
what is the population of the town?
14. A man donated 5% of his monthly income to a charity and deposited 12% of the rest
in a Bank. If he has Rs. 11704 left with him, what is his monthly income?
15. Ratan stores has a sale of ` 12000 on Saturday, while Seema stores had a sale of
` 15000 on that day. Next day, they had respective sales of ` 15000 and ` 17500.
Which store showed more improvement in Sales?
16. A candidate has to secure 45% marks in aggregate of three papers of 100 marks each
to get through. He got 35% marks in the first paper and 50% marks in the second
paper. At least how many marks should he get in third paper to pass the examination?
17. The price of sugar rises by 25%. By how much percent should a householder reduce
his consumption of sugar, so as not to increase his expenditure on sugar?
18. By selling 90 ball pens for ` 160, a person loses 20%. How many ball pens should he
sell for Rs. 96, so as to have a gain of 20%?
19. A vendor bought bananas at 6 for 5 rupees and sold them at 4 for 3 rupees. Find his
gain or loss percent.
20. A man bought two consignments of eggs, first at ` 18 per dozen and an equal number
at ` 20 per dozen. He sold the mixed egges at ` 23.75 per dozen. Find his gain
percent.

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21. A man sells an article at a gain of 10%. If he had bought it for 10% less and sold it for
` 10 more, he would have gained 25%. Find the cost price of the article.
22. A pair of socks is marked at ` 80 and is being offered at ` 64. Find the discount
percent being offered.
Notes
23. A dealer buys a table listed at ` 1800 and gets a discount of 25%. He spends ` 150
on transportation and sells it at a profit of 10%. Find the selling price of the table.
24. A T.V. set was purchased by paying ` 18750. If the discount offered by the dealer
was 25%, what was the marked price of the TV set?
25. A certain sum of money was deposited for 5 years. Simple interest at the rate of 12%
was paid. Calculate the sum deposited if the simple interest received by the depositor
is ` 1200.

1
26. Simple intrest on a sum of money is rd of the sum itself and the number of years is
3
thrice the rate percent. Find the rate of interest.
27. In what time will ` 2700 yield the same interest at 4% per annum as ` 2250 in 4 years
at 3% per annum?
28. The difference between simple interest on a sum of money for 3 years and for 2 years
at 10% per annum is ` 300. Find the sum.
29. Find the sum which when invested at 4% per annum for 3 years will becomes
` 70304, when the interest is compounded annually.
30. the difference between compound interest and simple interest at 10% per annum in 2
years (compounded annually) is ` 50. Find the sum.
31. A sum of money becomes ` 18522 in three years and ` 19448.10 in 4 years at the
same rate of interest, compounded annually. Find the sum and the rate of interest per
annum.
32. Find the sum of money which will amount to ` 26460 in six months at 20% per annum,
when the interest is compounded quarterly.
33. At what rate percent per annum will a sum of ` 12000 amount to ` 15972 in three
years, when the interest is compounded annually?
34. The price of a scooter depreciates at the rate of 20% in the first year, 15% in the
second year and 10% afterwards, what will be the value of a scooter now costing
` 25000, after 3 years.
35. The population of a village was 20,000, two years ago. It increased by 10% during
first year but decreased by 10% in the second year. Find the population at the end of
2 years.

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ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

8.1
2 Notes
1. (a) 48% (b) 45% (c) 41 % (d) 40% (e) 20%
3
(f) 30% (g) 36% (h) 126% (i) 288% (j) 98.48%
53 17 27 137 1
2. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
100 20 160 4000 16
7 63 1 947 21
(f) (g) (h) (i) (j)
10 400 40000 2000 4000
3. (a) 97% (b) 73.5% (c) 3% (d) 207% (e) 80%
(f) 175% (g) 2.5% (h) 325.75% (i) 15.2% (j) 300.15%
4. (a) 0.72 (b) 0.41 (c) 0.04 (d) 1.25 (e) 0.09
(f) 4.1 (g) 3.5 (h) 1.025 (i) 0.00025 (j) 0.1025
5. 50% 6. 90% 7. 6.25% 8. 47.5% 9. 30%
10. 5%
8.2
1. (a) 200 (b) 564
2. Rs. 2625 3. 175, 100, 125, 100 4. 25%
5. 56.25% 6. 500 7. 36 minutes
8. 6000 9. Rs. 40, Rs. 32 10. 4% decrease
11. B 12. 10.8%
13. Rs. 13200, Rs. 12000, Rs. 10000
8.3
1
1. 33 % profit 2. 10% 3. 25% 4. 120
3
5. Rs. 2576 6. 21 7. 4% loss 8. Rs. 1108.80
9. 12% gain 10. 15% gain
8.4
1. Rs. 318.75 2. 20% 3. Rs. 15390 4. 25%
5. Rs. 724.50 6. 10% loss 7. Rs. 2185 8. 10.4%
8.5
1. Rs. 16240 2. Rs. 3744 3. Rs. 5600 4. 11%

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5
5. 4 years 6. 10% 7. Rs. 1100, 5% 8. 9 %
7
9. 24 years 10. b
8.6
Notes
1. Rs. 1951 2. Rs. 1951 3. Rs. 2522 4. Rs. 24000
1
5. Rs. 630 6. Rs. 46875 7. Rs. 80000 8. 1 years
2
9. 20% 10. Rs. 1600, 5%
8.7
1. 316368 2. Rs. 300186 3. Rs. 291456
8
4. 4.2042 tons/hectare 5. 3.2256×10 6. 49140

ANSWERS TO TERMINAL EXERCISE

1. (a) 45% (b) 70% (c) 34% (d) 6%
2. (a) 0.36 (b) 4.10 (c) 0.02 (d) 0.0035
3 1 51 51
3. (a) (b) (c) (d)
2500 40 200 20
4. (a) 115 (b) 20 (c) 4 (d) 460
5. 42% 6. 25% 7. 320 8. 1800
9. 18 10. 25% 11. 70% 12. 50
13. 1 Lakh 14. Rs. 14000 15. Ratan Stores 16. 50
17. 20% 18. 36 19. 60% gain 20. 25%
21. Rs. 400 22. 20% 23. Rs. 1650 24. Rs. 25000
1 1
25. Rs. 2000 26. 3 % 27. 2 years 28. Rs. 3000
3 2
29. Rs. 62500 30. Rs. 5000 31. Rs. 16000, 5% 32. Rs. 24000
33. 10% 34. Rs. 13500 35. 19800

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Commercial
Mathematics

9 Notes

INSTALMENT BUYING

You must have seen advertisements like, “Pay just ` 500 and take home a color TV, rest
in easy instalments”, or “buy a car of your choice by paying ` 50,000 and the balance in
easy instalments”. Such plans attract customers, specially the common man, who could
not buy some costly articles like car, scooter, fridge, colour TV, etc. due to cash constraints.
Under these plans, a fixed amount is paid at the time of purchase and the rest of the
amount is to be paid in instalments, which may be monthly, quarterly, half yearly or yearly,
as per the agreement signed between the customer and the seller.
Instalment purchase scheme, thus, enables a person to buy costly goods, on convenient
terms of payment. Under this scheme, the customer, after making a partial payment in the
beginning, takes away the article for use after signing the agreement to pay the balance
amount in instalments. Such a scheme also encourages the buyer to save at regular intervals,
so as to pay the instalments.
In this lesson, we shall study different types of instalment plans and shall find out how much
easy they are, by calculating the interest charged under these plans.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to
• explain the advantages/disadvantages of buying a commodity under instalment
plan;
• determine the amount of each instalment, when goods are purchased under
instalment plan at a given rate of interest (simple interest);
• determine the rate of interest when the amount of each (equal) instalment and
the number of instalments is given;
• determine the amount of each instalment under instalment plan when compound
interest is charged yearly, half yearly or quarterly;
• solve problems pertaining to instalment plan.

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Mathematics
EXPECTED BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE
• Simple interest and compound interest.
• Calculation of interest when the interest is calculated yearly, half yearly, quarterly or
Notes monthly..

9.1 INSTALMENT BUYING SCHEME-SOME DEFINITIONS

Cash Price: The cash price of an article is the amount which a customer has to pay in full
for the article at the time of purchase.
Cash Down Payment: The amount to be paid (in cash) under an instalment plan at the
time of purchase of a commodity, is called the cash down payment. It is the partial
payment made by the customer at the time of signing the agreement and taking away the
article for use.
Instalments: It is the amount which is paid by the customer at regular intervals towards
the remaining part of the selling price of the article.
Interest under the Instalment Plan: In an instalment plan only part payment of the total
cost is paid by the customer at the time of purchase. The remaining part of cost is paid on
subsequent dates; and therefore the seller charges some extra amount for deferred
payments. This extra amount is actually the interest charged on the amount of money
which the customer ows to the seller at different times of payment of instalments.

9.2 TO FIND THE INTEREST IN AN INSTALMENT PLAN

Let us solve a few examples to illustrate the process.
Example 9.1: A Television set is sold for ` 20000 cash or for ` 6000 as cash down
payment followed by ` 16800 after six months. Find the rate of interest charged under the
instalment plan.
Solution: The cash price of the television = ` 20000
Cash down payment = ` 6000
Balance to be paid = ` 14000
∴ The present value of Rs. 16800 to be paid after 6 months = Rs. 14000
If the rate of interest per annum under instalment plan is r%, then
r 6
14000 + 14000 × × = 16800
100 12

7r
or = 28 i.e., r = 40, i.e. rate = 40%
10

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Example 9.2: A table fan is sold for ` 450 cash or ` 210 cash down payment followed by
two monthly instalments of ` 125 each. Find the rate of interest charged under the instalment
plan.
Solution: Cash price of the table fan = ` 450
Notes
Cash down payment = ` 210
Balance to be paid = ` (450 – 210) = ` 240
Let the rate of interest charged under instalment plan be r% p.a. then

⎛ r 2⎞
` 240 at the end of two months will become = ` ⎜ 240 + 240 × × ⎟
⎝ 100 12 ⎠

⎛ 2r ⎞
= ` ⎜ 240 + ⎟ ...(i)
⎝ 5⎠

` 125 paid after 1 month will amount to (after another 1 month)

r 1 ⎛ 5r ⎞
= ` 125 + 125 × × = Rs. ⎜125 + ⎟ ...(ii)
100 12 ⎝ 48 ⎠

Amount for ` 125 paid after two months = ` 125 ...(iii)

2r 5r ⎛2 5 ⎞
∴ 240 + = 125 + + 125 i.e., ⎜ − ⎟ r = 10
5 48 ⎝ 5 48 ⎠

2400
⇒r= = 33.8 (approx)
71
Hence, rate of interest = 33.8%
Alternative method:
Cash price of the fan = ` 450
Cash down payment = ` 210
Payment in 2 instalments = ` (125 × 2) = ` 250
Total amount paid under instalment plan = ` (210 + 250)
= ` 460
∴ Interest paid = ` (460 – 450) = ` 10
The Principal for the first month = ` (450 – 210) = ` 240
Principal for the 2nd month = ` (240 – 125) = ` 115

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∴ Total Principal (for 1 month) = ` (240 +115) = ` 355
Thus we have
r 1 10 × 100 × 12
355 × × = 10, or, r =
100 12 355
Notes 2400
= ≈ 33.8
71
Hence, rate of interest = 33.8% p.a.
Example 9.3: A microwave oven is available for ` 9600 cash or for ` 4000 cash down
payment and 3 monthly instalments of ` 2000 each. Find the rate of interest charged under
the instalment plan.
Solution: Cash price of microwave oven = ` 9600
Cash down payment = ` 4000
Payment in 3 instalments = ` (3 × 2000) = ` 6000
Total amount paid under instalment plan = ` (4000 + 6000)
= ` 10000
∴ Interest paid = ` (10000 – 9600) = ` 400
Principal for 1st month = ` (9600 – 4000) = ` 5600
Principal for 2nd month = ` (5600 – 2000) = ` 3600
Principal for 3rd month = ` (3600 – 2000) = ` 1600
∴ Total Principal (for 1 month) = ` (5600 + 3600 + 1600)
= ` 10800
Thus, we have
r 1 400
10800 × × = 400 ⇒ 9r = 400 or r = ≈ 44.4%
100 12 9
So, rate of interest charged = 44.4%
Example 9.4: A computer is sold for ` 30,000 cash or ` 18000 cash down payment and
6 monthly instalments of ` 2150 each. Find the rate of interest charged under the instalment
plan.
Solution: Cash price of the computer = ` 30000
Cash down payment = ` 18000
Payment in 6 instalments = ` (6 × 2150) = ` 12900
∴ Total amount paid under instalment plan = ` (18000 + 12900)
= ` 30900

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∴ Interest paid = ` (30900 – 30000) = ` 900
Principal for 1st month = ` (30000 – 18000) = ` 12000
Principal for 2nd month = ` (12000 – 2150) = ` 9850
Principal for 3rd month = ` (9850 – 2150) = ` 7700 Notes
Principal for 4th month = ` (7700 – 2150) = ` 5550
Principal for 5th month = ` (5550 – 2150) = ` 3400
Principal for 6th month = ` (3400 – 2150) = ` 1250
∴ Total Principal for one month = ` (12000 + 9850 + 7700 + 5550 + 3400 + 1250)
= ` 39750
∴ We have

r 1 900 × 12 × 100 1440

39750 × × = 900 ⇒ r = =
100 12 39750 53
= 27.17%
Thus, the rate of interest = 27.17% per annum.
Note: In Examples 2 to 4, observe that the Principal for the last month is less than the
amount of the instalment. If interest is added to the last Principal, the sum will be equal to
the amount of monthly instalment.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 9.1

1. A table is sold for ` 2000 cash or for ` 600 as cash down payment, followed by
` 1500 paid after 2 months. Find the rate of interest charged under the instalment plan.
2. A cycle is sold for ` 2700 cash or ` 600 as cash down payment, followed by 3
monthly instalments of ` 750 each. Find the rate of interest charged under the instalment
plan.
3. A T.V. set is available for ` 21000 cash or for ` 4000 cash down payment and 6 equal
monthly instalments of ` 3000 each. Calculate the rate of interest charged under the
instalment plan.
4. Anil purchased a computer monitor priced at ` 6800 cash, under the instalment plan
by making a cash down payment of ` 2000 and 5 monthly instalments of ` 1000 each.
Find the rate of interest charged under the instalment plan.
5. A scooter can be purchased for ` 28000 cash or for ` 7400 as cash down payment
followed by 4 equal monthly instalments of ` 5200 each. Find the rate of interest
charged under instalment plan.

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6. An air conditioner is sold for ` 20,000 cash or ` 12000 cash down payment followed
by 4 monthly instalments of ` 2200 each. Find the rate of interest under the instalment
plan correct upto one decimal place.
7. An article is available for ` 25000 cash or 20% cash down payment followed by 6
Notes monthly instalments of ` 3750 each. Calculate the rate of interest charged under the
instalment plan.

9.3 TO FIND THE AMOUNT OF INSTALMENT

Now, let us think the problem with the shopkeeper’s angle. A shopkeeper purchases an
article at some price and wants to offer an instalment plan to his customers, as he knows
that more items can be sold in this way. Now he wishes to charge interest at a particular
rate and wants to decide the cash down payment, the amount of equal instalments and the
number of instalments.
Let us take some examples to illustrate the process.
Example 9.5: A ceiling fan is marked at ` 1940 cash or for ` 420 cash down payment
followed by three equal monthly instalments. If the rate of interest charged under the
instalment plan is 16% per annum, find the monthly instalment.
Solution: Cash price of ceiling fan = ` 1940
Cash down payment = ` 420
Let each instalment = ` x
∴ Amount paid in instalment plan = ` [420 + 3x]
∴ Interest paid = ` (420 + 3x – 1940) = ` (3x – 1520)
The buyer owes to the seller for first month = ` 1520
The buyer owes to the seller for 2nd month = ` (1520 – x)
The buyer owes to the seller for 3rd month = ` (1520 – 2x)
∴ Totol principal for one month = ` [4560 – 3x]
Rate of interest = 16%

16 1
∴ (3x − 1520 ) = (4560 − 3x ) .
100 12

25(3x − 1520) = (1520 − x )

i.e., 76x = 39520

or x = 520
So, the amount of each instalment = ` 520

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Example 9.6: A computer is available for ` 34000 cash or ` 20000 cash down payment
together with 5 equal monthly instalments. If the rate of interest charged under the instalment
plan is 30% per annum, calculate the amount of each instalment.
Solution: Cash price = ` 34000
Notes
Cash down payment = ` 20000
Balance to be paid in 5 equal instalments = ` 14000
Let each instalment be ` x
So, interest charged under instalment plan = ` (5x – 14000)
The buyer owes to the seller for
1st month 2nd month 3rd month 4th month 5th month
` 14000 ` (14000 –x) ` (14000 –2x) ` (14000 –3x) ` (14000 –4x)
Therefore, total principal for one month = ` [70000 – 10x]

30 1
So, (5x − 14000 ) = (70000 − 10x )× ×
100 12
40 (5x – 14000) = 10(7000 – x)
20x – 56000 = 7000 – x
or 21x = 63000
or x = 3000
Thus, the amount of each instalment = ` 3000
Example 9.7: The cost of a washing machine is ` 12000. The company asks for ` 5200
in advance and the rest to be paid in equal monthly instalments. The rate of interest to be
charged is 12% per annum. If a customer can pay ` 1400 each month, then how many
instalments he will have to pay?
Solution: Let number of instalments be ‘n’
Cash price of washing machine = ` 12000
Price under instalment plan = ` (5200 + 1400n)
∴ Interest charged = ` (5200 + 1400n – 12000)
= ` (1400n – 6800)
Principal owed each month is
First month = ` 6800
2nd month = ` 5400

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3rd month = ` 4000
4th month = ` 2600
5th month = ` 1200
Notes 6th month = nil
Total for one month = ` 20000

12 1
So, 20000 × × = (1400n − 6800 )
100 12
1400 n = 7000 i.e. n = 5
Thus, the number of instalments = 5

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 9.2

1. A scooter is available for ` 30000 cash or for ` 15000 cash down payment and 4
equal monthly instalments. If the rate of interest charged under the instalment plan is
1
33 %, find the amount of each instalment.
3
2. A microwave oven is available for ` 9600 cash or for ` 4000 cash down payment and
2
3 equal monthly instalments. If the rate of interest charged is 22 % per annum, find
9
the amount of each instalment.
3. An article is sold for ` 5000 cash or for `1500 cash down payment followed by 5
equal monthly instalments. If the rate of interest charged is 18% p.a., compute the
amount of each monthly instalment.
4. An article is sold for ` 500 cash or ` 150 cash down payment followed by 5 equal
monthly instalments. If the rate of interest charged is 18% per annum, compute the
monthly instalment.

9.4 TO FIND CASH PRICE

Let us now take problems where we are to find the cash price of an article when in the
instalment scheme, amount of each equal instalment, the rate of interest, the number of
instalments and the amount of cashdown payment, are given.
Example 9.8: A bicycle is sold for ` 500 cash down payment and ` 610 after one month.
If the rate of interest being charged is 20% p.a., find the cash price of the bicycle.

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Solution: Cash down payment = ` 500
Amount of instalment paid after one month = ` 610
Rate of interest = 20%
Thus we have to find present value (i.e. Principal) of Rs. 610 paid after one month. Notes
⎡ 20 1 ⎤
So, 610 = ⎢(Principal )× × + Principal ⎥
⎣ 100 12 ⎦
⎛ 20 ⎞ 610 × 1200
⇒ 610 = Principal ⎜1 + ⎟ or Principal = `
⎝ 1200 ⎠ 1220
= ` 600
∴ The cash price of bicycle = ` (500 + 600) = ` 1100
Example 9.9: A camera is sold for ` 2500 as cash down payment and ` 2100 after 3
months. If the rate of interest charged is 20% p.a., find the cash price of the camera.
Solution: Cash down payment = ` 2500
Instalment paid after 3 months = ` 2100
Rate of interest = 20% p.a.
So, Principal amount for ` 2100
2100 ×100 2100 × 1200
=` 3 = `
100 + 20 × 1260
12
= ` 2000
Therefore, cash price = ` (2500 + 2000) = ` 4500
Alternative Method:
Let cash price be ` x.
Cash down payment = ` 2500
Instalment paid = ` 2100
∴ Interest = ` (4600 – x)
Principal for the instalment = ` (x – 2500)

3 20 x − 2500
∴ (4600 − x ) = (x − 2500 )× × =
12 100 20
20(4600 – x) = x – 2500
or 21x = 92000 + 2500

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or 21x = 94500
or x = 4500
Hence, cash price = ` 4500
Notes Example 9.10: A mixi was purchased by paying ` 360 as cash down payment followed
by three equal monthly instalments of ` 390 each. If the rate of interest charged under
instalment plan is 16% p.a., find the cash price of the mixi.
Solution: Let the cash price of the mixi be ` x
Cash down payment = ` 360
Amount paid in 3 instalments = ` (3 × 390) = ` 1170
Total paid = ` (360 + 1170) = ` 1530
∴ Interest = ` (1530 – x)
Principal for 1st month = ` (x – 360)
Principal for 2nd month = ` (x – 360 – 390) = ` (x – 750)
Principal for 3rd month = ` (x – 750 – 390) = ` (x – 1140)
Total principal for one month = ` [x – 360 + x – 750 + x – 1140]
= ` [3x – 2250]

(1530 − x ) = (3 x − 2250 )× 1 16
× =
(x − 750 )
So,
12 100 25
25(1530 – x) = x – 750
or 26x = 38250 + 750 = 39000

39000
or x= = 1500
26
Thus, the cash price of mixi = ` 1500

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 9.3

1. A table was purchased by paying a cash down payment of ` 750 followed by ` 436
after a period of 6 months. If the rate of interest charged is 18% p.a., what is the cash
price of the table?
2. A refrigerator was purchased for a cashdown payment of ` 7000 followed by a sum
of ` 3180 after 3 months. If the rate of interest charged is 24% p.a., find the cash price
of the refrigerator.

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3. A cooking range is available for ` 520 cash down payment followed by 4 equal
monthly instalments of ` 520 each. If the rate of interest charged is 25% per annum,
find the cash price of the cooking range.
4. A ceiling fan was purchased for ` 210 as cash down payment followed by three equal
instalments of ` 260 each. If the rate of interest charged under the instalment plan is Notes
16% p.a., then find the cash price of the ceiling fan.
5. An electrical oven was purchased for ` 1500 cash down payment, followed by five
equal monthly instalments of ` 440 each. If the rate of interest charged per annum
under the instalment plan is 24%, find the cash price of the oven

9.5 PROBLEMS INVOLVING COMPOUND INTEREST

In instalment buying which involved monthly instalments with the total time period being
less than a year, simple interest was used.
Sometimes the individuals take long-term loans, for purposes like, buying a house, a car or
setting up a factory etc. In that case, the instalments are to be paid annually for a long
period and therefore involves the use of compound interest. Even in instalment buying for
a period less than a year, sometimes the seller charges compound interest when the
instalments are semi annually or quarterly.
Now, we shall take some problems involving compound interest.
Example 9.11: A refrigerator is available for ` 12000 cash or ` 3600 cash down payment
along with 2 equal half yearly instalments. If the dealer charges an interest of 20% p.a.
compounded semi-annually, under the instalment plan, find the amount of each instalment.
Solution: Cash price of refrigerator = ` 12000
Cash down payment = ` 3600
Balance = ` 8400
Rate of interest = 20% p.a. or 10% semi-annually
Let each monthly instalment be ` x, then we shall find the present value (or the
Principal) for each instalment.
Let P1, P2 be the present values of first, 2nd conversion period respectively.
1 2
⎛ 10 ⎞ ⎛ 10 ⎞
∴ x = P1 ⎜1 + ⎟ and x = P2 ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
2
10 ⎛ 10 ⎞
Therefore, P1 = x and P2 = ⎜ ⎟ x
11 ⎝ 11 ⎠
10 100
Thus, we have, x+ x = 8400
11 121

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8400 × 121
or x= = 4840
210
Thus, the amount of each instalment = ` 4840.
Example 9.12: A washing machine was available for ` 15000 cash but was purchased
Notes
under an instalment plan after paying ` 2250 as cash down payment followed by two
equal half yearly instalments. If interest charged was 8% per annum compounded semi-
annually, find the value of each instalment.
Solution: Cash price of the washing machine = ` 15000
Cash down payment = ` 2250
Balance to be paid = ` [15000 – 2250] = ` 12750
Rate of interest = 8% p.a. = 4% semi-annually
Let each instalment be ` x (semi-annually) and
P1, P2 be the present values respectively of the two instalments, then
1 2
⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞
∴ x = P1 ⎜1 + ⎟ and x = P2 ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠

2
25 ⎛ 25 ⎞
This gives P1 = x and P2 = ⎜ ⎟ x
26 ⎝ 26 ⎠
2
25 ⎛ 25 ⎞ 25 ⎛ 25 ⎞ 25 51
Hence, 12750 = x+⎜ ⎟ x = x⎜1 + ⎟ = . x
26 ⎝ 26 ⎠ 26 ⎝ 26 ⎠ 26 26

26 26
⇒ x = 12750 × × = 6760
25 51
Thus, each instalment = ` 6760.
Example 9.13: A juicer is available for ` 3500 cash but was sold under instalment plan
where the purchaser agreed to pay ` 1500 cash down and 3 equal quarterly instalments.
If the dealer charges interest at 12% p.a. compounded quarterly, find the amount of each
instalment to the nearest rupee.
Solution: Cash price of the juicer = ` 3500
Cash down payment = ` 1500
Balance to be paid = ` (3500 – 1500) = ` 2000

12
Rate of interest = 12% p.a. = = 3% quarterly
4

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Let the amount of each instalment be Rs. x and P1, P2, P3 respectively be their
present values, then
2 3
⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞
x = P1 ⎜1 + ⎟ , x = P2 ⎜1 + ⎟ and x = P3 ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠ Notes
2 3
100 ⎛ 100 ⎞ ⎛ 100 ⎞
P1 = x, P2 = ⎜ ⎟ x and P3 = ⎜ ⎟ x
103 ⎝ 103 ⎠ ⎝ 103 ⎠

100 ⎡ 100 ⎛ 100 ⎞ ⎤

2 3 2
100 ⎛ 100 ⎞ ⎛ 100 ⎞
x+⎜ ⎟ x+⎜ ⎟ x = 2000 ⇒ x ⎢1 + +⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 2000
103 ⎝ 103 ⎠ ⎝ 103 ⎠ 103 ⎣⎢ 103 ⎝ 103 ⎠ ⎦⎥

103 (103)
2
x = 2000 × × = ` 707
100 30909
∴ Each instalment = ` 707
Example 9.14: A television set is sold for ` 7110 cash down payment along with
2 equal monthly instalments of ` 5581.50 each. If the dealer charges interest at 20% p.a.
compounded monthly under the instalment plan, find the cash price of the television set.
Solution: Cash down payment = ` 7110
11163
Amount of each monthly instalment = ` 5581.50 = `
2
20
Rate of interest = 20% p.a. = monthly
12
Let P1, P2 be the Principals for 1st and 2nd instalment respectively
2
11163 ⎛ 20 ⎞ 11163 ⎛ 20 ⎞
= P1 ⎜1 + ⎟ and = P2 ⎜1 + ⎟
2 ⎝ 1200 ⎠ 2 ⎝ 1200 ⎠
11163 60 11163 60 60
This gives P1 = × = Rs.5490 and P2 = × × = Rs.5400
2 61 2 61 61
Thus, cash Price = ` [7110 + 5490 + 5400] = ` 18000
Example 9.15: A dealer offeres a micro-oven for ` 5800 cash. A customer agrees to pay
` 1800 cash down and 3 equal annual instalments. If the dealer charges interest at 12%
p.a. compounded annually, what is the amount of each instalment.
Solution: Cash price of the micro-oven = ` 5800
Cash down payment = ` 1800
Balance to be paid = ` 4000

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Rate of interest = 12% p.a. compounded annually
∴ Let Rs. x be the amount of each instalment and P1, P2, P3 be the principals for
each instalment respectively.
2 3
Notes ⎛ 12 ⎞ ⎛ 12 ⎞ ⎛ 12 ⎞
∴ x = P1 ⎜1 + ⎟, x = P2 ⎜1 + ⎟ and x = P3 ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
2 3
25 ⎛ 25 ⎞ ⎛ 25 ⎞
⇒ P1 = x, P2 = ⎜ ⎟ x and P3 = ⎜ ⎟ x
28 ⎝ 28 ⎠ ⎝ 28 ⎠
2 3
25 ⎛ 25 ⎞ ⎛ 25 ⎞
∴ x + ⎜ ⎟ x + ⎜ ⎟ x = 4000
28 ⎝ 28 ⎠ ⎝ 28 ⎠

25 ⎛ 25 625 ⎞
or x⎜1 + + ⎟ = 4000
28 ⎝ 28 784 ⎠

28 784
or x = 4000 × × = ` 1665.40
25 2109
Hence each instalment = ` 1665.40
Example 9.16: A flat is available for ` 1600000 cash or ` 585500 cash down payment
and three equal half yearly instalments. If the interest charged is 16% per annum
compounded half yearly, calculate the value of each instalment. Find also the total interest
charged.
Solution: Cash price of the flat = ` 1600000
Cash down payment = ` 585500
Balance to be paid = ` 1014500
Rate of interest = 16% per annum = 8% semi annually
Let the amount of each instalment be ` x and Let P1, P2 and P3 be the Principals
for each instalment respectively.

⎛ 8 ⎞ ⎛ 27 ⎞ ⎛ 25 ⎞
So, x = P1 ⎜1 + ⎟ or x = P1 ⎜ ⎟ or P1 = x⎜ ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 25 ⎠ ⎝ 27 ⎠
2 3
⎛ 25 ⎞ ⎛ 25 ⎞
Similarly, P2 = x⎜ ⎟ and P3 = x⎜ ⎟
⎝ 27 ⎠ ⎝ 27 ⎠
∴ P1 + P2 + P3 = 1014500

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Mathematics
2 3
⎛ 25 ⎞ ⎛ 25 ⎞ ⎛ 25 ⎞
x⎜ ⎟ + x⎜ ⎟ + x⎜ ⎟ = 1014500
⎝ 27 ⎠ ⎝ 27 ⎠ ⎝ 27 ⎠

⎛ 25 ⎞ ⎡ 25 ⎛ 25 ⎞ ⎤
2

x⎜ ⎟ ⎢1 + + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 1014500 Notes
⎝ 27 ⎠ ⎣⎢ 27 ⎝ 27 ⎠ ⎦⎥

25 2029
x. . = 1014500
27 729
1014500 × 27 × 729
x=
25 × 2029
= ` 393660
Interest paid = ` [393660 × 3 – 1014500]
= ` [1180980 – 1014500]
= ` 166480.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 9.4

1. A bicycle is available for ` 1661 cash or by paying ` 400 cash down and balance in
three equal half yearly instalments. If the interest charged is 10% per annum compounded
semi-annually, find the instalment.
2. A washing machine is available for ` 15000 cash or ` 2000 cash down with two equal
half yearly instalments. If the rate of interest charged is 16% per annum compounded
half yearly, find the instalment.

3. Kamal purchased a computer in instalment plan by paying ` 5612.50 cash down

followed by three equal quarterly instalments of ` 8788 each. If the rate of interest
charged was 16% per annum, compounded quarterly, find the cash price of the
computer. Also find the total interest charged.

4. A car was available for ` 70000 cash or by paying ` 21200 cash down along with
three equal annual instalments. If the dealer charges interest of 25% per annum,
compounded annually, find the amount of each instalment.
5. A microwave oven was purchased by paying a cash down payment of ` 2800 along
with 2 equal annual instalments of ` 2420 each. If the rate of interest charged under
the instalment plan was 10% p.a. compounded annually, find the cash price of the
article.

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LET US SUM UP
• Under an instalment scheme, the customer, after making a partial payment in the
Notes beginning takes away the article for use, after signing the agreement to pay the balance
amount in instalments.
• Under instalment plan, the buyer pays some extra amount, which is interest on the
deferred payments.
• Instalment scheme encourages the buyer to save at regular intervals, so as to pay the
instalments.
• The price at which the article is available, if full payment is made in cash, is called the
cash price of the article.
• The partial payment made at the time of purchase under instalment plan is called Cash
down payment.
• The payments, which the buyer has to make at regular intervals, are called instalments.

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. A sewing machine is available for ` 2600 cash payment or under an instalment plan for
` 1000 cash down payment and 3 equal monthly instalments of ` 550 each. Find the
rate of interest charged under the instalment plan.
2. Anil purchased a typewriter priced at ` 8000 cash payment under the instalment plan
by making a cashdown payment of ` 3200 and 5 equal monthly instalments of ` 1000
each. Find the rate of interest charged under the instalment plan.
3. A table is sold for ` 2000 cash or ` 500 as cash payment followed by 4 equal monthly
instalments of ` 400 each. Find the rate of interest charged under the instalment plan.
4. A T.V. set has a cash price of ` 7500 or ` 2000 as cash down payment followed by
6 monthly instalments of ` 1000 each. Find the rate of interest charged under instalment
plan.
5. An article is available for ` 7000 cash or for ` 1900 cash down payment and six equal
1
monthly instalments. If the rate of interest charged is 2 % per month, determine each
2
instalment.
6. An article is sold for ` 1000 cash or Rs. 650 cash down payment followed by 5 equal
monthly instalments. If the rate of interest charged is 18% per annum, compute the
monthly instalment.

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7. The selling price of a washing machine is ` 14000. The company asks for ` 7200 in
advance and the rest to be paid in equal monthly instalments of ` 1400 each. If the rate
of interest is 12% per annum, find the number of instalments.
8. A scooter is available for ` 30000 cash or for ` 15000 cash down payment and 4
equal monthly instalments. If the rate of interest charged under the instalment plan is Notes
1
33 %, find the amount of each instalment.
3
9. A plot of land is available for ` 200000 cash or ` 100000 cash down payment and 5
monthly instalments of ` 21000 each. Find the rate of interest charged under the
instalment plan.
10. A steel almirah is marked for ` 3575 cash or ` 1600 as cash down payment and
` 420 per month for 5 months. Find the rate of interest under the instalment plan.
11. A watch is sold for ` 1000 cash or for ` 300 cash down payment followed by 5 equal
monthly instalments. If the rate of interest charged is 18% p.a., compute the monthly
instalment.
12. A computer is available for ` 34000 cash or ` 20000 cash down payment, together
with 5 equal monthly instalments. If the rate of interest charged under instalment plan is
30% per annum, calculate the amount of each instalment.
13. Rita purchased a washing machine for ` 4000 cash down payment and 4 equal monthly
instalments. The washing machine was also available for ` 15000 cash payment. If the
rate of interest charged under the instalment plan is 18% per annum, find the amount of
each instalment.
14. A ceiling fan is marked at ` 970 cash or ` 210 cash down payment followed by three
equal monthly instalments. If the rate of interest charged under the instalment plan is
16% p.a., find the monthly instalment.
15. A watch is available for ` 970 cash or for ` 350 as cash down payment followed by
3 equal monthly instalments. If the rate of interest is 24% per annum, find the monthly
instalment.
16. A DVD player was purchsed by the customer with a cash down payment of ` 2750
and agreed to pay 3 equal half yearly instalments of ` 331 each. If the interest charged
was 20% p.a. compounded half yearly, then find the cash price of the DVD player.
17. A flat can be purchased for ` 200000 cash from a housing society or on the terms that
` 67600 be paid in the beginning as cash down payment followed by three equal half
yearly instalments. If the society charges interest at the rate of 20% per annum
compounded semi-annually. If the flat is purchased under instalment plan, find each
instalment.
18. A scooter was sold by a shopkeeper for cash down payment of ` 11000 alongwith 2
equal annual instalments of ` 6250 each. If the rate of interest charged was 25% per
annum compounded annually, find the cash price of the scooter.

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19. A computer is available for ` 78600 cash or for ` 25640 cash down payment and
three equal quarterly instalments. If the dealer charges interest at the rate of 20% per
annum compounded quarterly, find the value of each instalment.
20. A builder announces sale of flats each for ` 3000000 cash or ` 1031600 cash down
Notes payment and three equal quarterly instalments. If the rate of interest charged is 10%
per annum compounded quarterly, compute the value of each instalment under the
instalment scheme. Also find the total interest.

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

9.1
4 1 1
1. 42.87% 2. 44 3. 21 % 4. 17 % 5. 4.69%
9 19 7
6. 51.1% 7. 47.06%
9.2
200
1. ` 4000 2. 3. ` 775.77
9
4. ` 1934.55 4. ` 77.6 approx.
9.3
1. ` 1150 2. ` 10,000 3. ` 2500
4. ` 970 5. ` 3580
9.4
1. ` 463.05 2. ` 7290 3. ` 30,000, ` 1976.50
4. ` 25000 5. ` 7000

ANSWERS TO TERMINAL EXERCISE

1 1 1 1
1. 19 % 2. 17 % 3. 33 4. 33
21 7 3 3
5. ` 920 6. ` 63.35 7. 5 8. ` 4000
9. 20.7% 10. 26.43% 11. ` 146.12 12. ` 3000
13. ` 2850.86 14. ` 366 (Approx) 15. ` 220 16. ` 6060
17. ` 53240 18. ` 20,000 19. ` 19448
20. ` 689210, ` 99230

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Secondary Course
Mathematics
Practice Work-Commercial Mathematics Notes

Maximum Marks: 25 Time : 45 Minutes

Instructions:

1. Answer all the questions on a separate sheet of paper.

2. Give the following informations on your answer sheet
Name
Enrolment number
Subject
Topic of practice work
Address
3. Get your practice work checked by the subject teacher at your study centre so that
you get positive feedback about your performance.
Do not send practice work to National Institute of Open Schooling
1. By selling a school bag to a customer for ` 660, a shopkeeper makes a profit of 10%.
The cost price (in rupees) of the school bag is 1
(A) 625 (B) 600
(C) 575 (D) 550
2. A customer purchases a radio set for ` 5400 after getting 10% discount on its list
price. The list price of the radio set is 1
(A) ` 5050 (B) ` 5800
(C) ` 5950 (D) ` 6000
3. List price of a book is ` 300. A student purchases the book for ` 234. Percentage of
discount is 1
(A) 25 (B) 24
(C) 22 (D) 20

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Mathematics
4. The ratio (in simplest form) of 35 cm to 2 m is 1
(A) 35: 2 (B) 35:200
(C) 7:40 (D) 40:7
Notes 5. The difference in simple and compound interest for ` 2000 at 10% per annum in 2
years, compounded annually is 1
(A) ` 20 (B) ` 200
(C) ` 400 (D) ` 0
6. Determine the value of k if 20 : k :: 25 : 450. 2
7. If 120 is reduced to 96, what is the percentage reduction? 2
8. If the cost price of 15 articles is the same as the selling price of 12 articles, find the gain
or loss percent in the transaction. 2
9. Find the single discount equivalent to the discount series of 20%, 15% and 10%.
2
10. Find the the sum of money which will amount to ` 26010 in six months at the rate of
8% per annum, when interest is compounded quarterly. 2
11. A sewing machine is available for ` 2600 cash or under instalment plan for ` 1000
cash down payment followed by 3 monthly instalments of ` 550 each. Find the rate of
interest charged under the instalment plan. 4
12. A tree gains its height at the rate of 2% of what it was in the beginning of the month. If
its height was 1.5 m in the beginning of January 2010, find the height at the end of April
2010.

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10 Notes

LINES AND ANGLES

Observe the top of your desk or table. Now move your hand on the top of your table. It
gives an idea of a plane. Its edges give an idea of a line, its corner, that of a point and the
edges meeting at a corner give an idea of an angle.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to
• illustrate the concepts of point, line, plane, parallel lines and interesecting lines;
• recognise pairs of angles made by a transversal with two or more lines;
• verify that when a ray stands on a line, the sum of two angles so formed is 1800;
• verify that when two lines intersect, vertically opposite angles are equal;
• verify that if a transversal intersects two parallel lines then corresponding angles
in each pair are equal;
• verify that if a transversal intersects two parallel lines then
(a) alternate angles in each pair are equal
(b) interior angles on the same side of the transversal are supplementary;
• prove that the sum of angles of a triangle is 1800
• verify that the exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of two interior
opposite angles; and
• explain the concept of locus and exemplify it through daily life situations.
• find the locus of a point equidistent from (a) two given points, (b) two intersecting
lines.
• solve problems based on starred result and direct numerical problems based on
unstarred results given in the curriculum.

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EXPECTED BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE

• point, line, plane, intersecting lines, rays and angles.
Notes • parrallel lines

10.1 POINT, LINE AND ANGLE

In earlier classes, you have studied about a point, a line, a plane and an angle. Let us
quickly recall these concepts.
Point : If we press the tip of a pen or pencil on a piece of paper, we get a fine dot, which
is called a point.
.
. .
B

A C
Fig. 10.1
A point is used to show the location and is represented by capital letters A, B, C etc.

10.1.1 Line

Now mark two points A and B on your note book. Join them with the help of a ruler or a
scale and extend it on both sides. This gives us a straight line or simply a line.

Fig. 10.2
In geometry, a line is extended infinitely on both sides and is marked with arrows to give
this idea. A line is named using any two points on it, viz, AB or by a single small letter l, m
etc. (See fig. 10.3)

Fig. 10.3
The part of the line between two points A and B is called a line segment and will be named
AB.
Observe that a line segment is the shortest path between two points A and B. (See Fig.
10.4)

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Notes
Fig. 10.4

10.1.2 Ray

If we mark a point X and draw a line, starting from it extending infinitely in one direction
only, then we get a ray XY.

Fig. 10.5
X is called the initial point of the ray XY.

10.1.3 Plane

If we move our palm on the top of a table, we get an idea of a plane.

Fig. 10.6
Similarly, floor of a room also gives the idea of part of a plane.
Plane also extends infintely lengthwise and breadthwise.
Mark a point A on a sheet of paper.
How many lines can you draw passing though this point? As many as you wish.

Fig. 10.7

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In fact, we can draw an infinite number of lines through a point.

Take another point B, at some distance from A. We can again draw an infinite number of
lines passing through B.
Notes

Fig. 10.8
Out of these lines, how many pass through both the points A and B? Out of all the lines
passing through A, only one passes through B. Thus, only one line passes through both the
points A and B. We conclude that one and only one line can be drawn passing through
two given points.
Now we take three points in plane.

C 

Fig. 10.9
We observe that a line may or may not pass through the three given points.
If a line can pass through three or more points, then these points are said to be collinear.
For example the points A, B and C in the Fig. 10.9 are collinear points.
If a line can not be drawn passing through all three points (or more points), then they are
said to be non-collinear. For example points P, Q and R, in the Fig. 10.9, are non-
collinear points.
Since two points always lie on a line, we talk of collinear points only when their number is
three or more.
Let us now take two distinct lines AB and CD in a plane.

Fig. 10.10
How many points can they have in common? We observe that these lines can have. either
(i) one point in common as in Fig. 10.10 (a) and (b). [In such a case they are called

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intersecting lines] or (ii) no points in common as in Fig. 10.10 (c). In such a case they are
called parrallel lines.
Now observe three (or more) distinct lines in plane.
Notes

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 10.11
What are the possibilities ?
(i) They may interest in more than one point as in Fig. 10.11 (a) and 10.11 (b).
or (ii) They may intesect in one point only as in Fig. 10.11 (c). In such a case they are
called concurrent lines.
or (iii) They may be non intersecting lines parrallel to each other as in Fig. 10.11 |(d).

10.1.4 Angle

Mark a point O and draw two rays OA and OB starting from O. The figure we get is
called an angle. Thus, an angle is a figure consisting of two rays starting from a common
point.

Fig. 10.11(A)
This angle may be named as angle AOB or angle BOA or simply angle O; and is written as
∠ΑΟΒ or ∠ΒΟΑ or ∠Ο. [see Fig. 10.11A]
An angle is measured in degrees. If we take any point O and draw two rays starting from
it in opposite directions then the measure of this angle is taken to be 1800 degrees, written
as 1800.

B O A
Fig. 10.12

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This measure divided into 180 equal parts is called one degree (written as 1o).
Angle obtained by two opposite rays is called a straight angle.
An angle of 900 is called a right angle, for example ∠ΒΟΑ or ∠BOC is a right angle in
Notes Fig. 10.13.

Fig. 10.13
Two lines or rays making a right angle with each other are called perpendicular lines. In
Fig. 10.13 we can say OA is perpendicular to OB or vice-versa.
An angle less than 900 is called an acute angle. For example ∠POQ is an acute angle in
Fig. 10.14(a).
An angle greater than 900 but less than 1800 is called an obtuse angle. For example,
∠XOY is an obtuse angle in Fig. 10.14(b).

(a) (b)
Fig. 10.14

10.2 PAIRS OF ANGLES

Fig. 10.15

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Observe the two angles ∠1 and ∠2 in each of the figures in Fig. 10.15. Each pair has a
common vertex O and a common side OA in between OB and OC. Such a pair of angles
is called a ‘pair of adjacent angles’.

Notes

(a)
(b)
Fig. 10.16
Observe the angles in each pair in Fig. 10.16[(a) and (b)]. They add up to make a total of
90o.
A pair of angles, whose sum is 90o, is called a pair of complementary angles. Each angle
is called the complement of the other.

(a) Fig. 10.17 (b)

Again observe the angles in each pair in Fig. 10.17[(a) and (b)].
These add up to make a total of 180o.
A pair of angles whose sum is 1800, is called a pair of supplementary angles.
Each such angle is called the supplement of the other.
Draw a line AB. From a point C on it draw a ray CD making two angles ∠X and ∠Y.

C
Fig. 10.18

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If we measure ∠X and ∠Y and add, we will always find the sum to be 1800, whatever be
the position of the ray CD. We conclude
If a ray stands on a line then the sum of the two adjacent angles so formed
Notes is 180o.
The pair of angles so formed as in Fig. 10.18 is called a linear pair of angles.
Note that they also make a pair of supplementary angles.
Draw two intersecting lines AB and CD, intersecting each other at O.

Fig. 10.19
∠AOC and ∠DOB are angles opposite to each other. These make a pair of vertically
oppposite angles. Measure them. You will always find that
∠AOC = ∠DOB.
∠AOD and ∠BOC is another pair of vertically opposite angles. On measuring, you will
again find that
∠AOD = ∠BOC
We conclude :
If two lines intersect each other, the pair of vertically opposite angles are
equal.
An activity for you.
Attach two strips with a nail or a pin as shown in the figure.

Fig. 10.20

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Rotate one of the strips, keeping the other in position and observe that the pairs of verti-
cally opposite angles thus formed are always equal.
A line which intersects two or more lines at distinct points is called a transversal. For
example line l in Fig. 10.21 is a transversal.
Notes

Fig. 10.21
When a transversal intersects two lines, eight angles are formed.

Fig. 10.22
These angles in pairs are very important in the study of properties of parallel lines. Some of
the useful pairs are as follows :
(a) ∠1 and ∠5 is a pair of corresponding angles. ∠2 and ∠6, ∠3 and ∠7 and ∠4 and
∠8 are other pairs of corresponding angles.
(b) ∠3 and ∠6 is a pair of alternate angles. ∠4 and ∠5 is another pair of alternate angles.
(c) ∠3 and ∠5 is a pair of interior angles on the same side of the transversal.
∠4 and ∠6 is another pair of interior angles.
In Fig. 10.22 above, lines m and n are not parallel; as such, there may not exist any relation
between the angles of any of the above pairs. However, when lines are parallel, there are
some very useful relations in these pairs, which we study in the following:
When a transversal intersects two parallel lines, eight angles are formed, whatever be the
position of parallel lines or the transversal.

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Notes

Fig. 10.23
If we measure the angles, we shall alwys find that
∠1 = ∠5, ∠2 = ∠6, ∠3 = ∠7 and ∠4 = ∠8
that is, angles in each pair of corresponding angles are equal.
Also ∠3 = ∠6 and ∠4 = ∠5
that is, angles in each pair of alternate angle are equal.
Also, ∠3 + ∠5 = 180o and ∠4 + ∠6 = 180o.
Hence we conclude :
When a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then angles in
(i) each pair of corresponding angles are equal
(ii) each pair of alternate angles are equal
(iii) each pair of interior angles on the same side of the transversal are supple-
mentary,
You may also verify the truth of these results by drawing a pair of parallel lines (using
parallel edges of your scale) and a transversal and measuring angles in each of these pairs.
Converse of each of these results is also true. To verify the truth of the first converse, we
draw a line AB and mark two points C and D on it.

Fig. 10.24
At C and D, we construct two angles ACF and CDH equal to each other, say 50o, as
shown in Fig. 10.24. On producing EF and GH on either side, we shall find that they do
not intersect each other, that is, they are parallel.

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In a similar way, we can verify the truth of the other two converses.
Hence we conclude that
When a transversal inersects two lines in such a way that angles in
Notes
(i) any pair of corresponding angles are equal
or (ii) any pair of alternate angles are equal
or (iii) any pair of interior angles on the same side of transversal are supple-
mentary then the two lines are parallel.
Example 10.1 : Choose the correct answwer out of the alternative options in the follow-
ing multiple choice questions.

Fig. 10.25
(i) In Fig. 10.25, ∠FOD and ∠BOD are
(A) supplementary angles (B) complementary angles
(C) vertically opposite angles (D) a linear pair of angles Ans. (B)
(ii) In Fig. 10.25, ∠COE and ∠BOE are
(A) complementary angles (B) supplementary angles
(C) a linear pair (D) adjacent angles Ans. (D)
(iii) In Fig. 10.25, ∠BOD is equal to
(A) xo (B) (90 + x)o
(C) (90 – x)o (D) (180 – x)o Ans (C)
(iv) An angle is 4 times its supplement; the angle is
(A) 39o (B) 72o
(C) 108o (D) 144o Ans (D)

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(v) What value of x will make ACB a straight angle in Fig. 10.26

Notes

Fig. 10.26
(A) 30o (B) 40o
(C) 50o (D) 60o Ans (C)

Fig. 10.27
In the above figure, l is parallel to m and p is parallel to q.
(vi) ∠3 and ∠5 form a pair of
(A) Alternate angles (B) interior angles
(C) vertically opposite (D) corresponding angles AAns (D)
(vii) In Fig. 10.27, if ∠1 = 80o, then ∠6 is equal to
(A) 80o (B) 90o
(C) 100o (D) 110o Ans (C)

Fig. 10.28
(viii) In Fig. 10.28, OA bisects ∠LOB, OC bisects ∠MOB and ∠AOC = 900. Show that
the points L, O and M are collinear.

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Solution : ∠BOL = 2 ∠BOA ...(i)
and ∠BOM = 2 ∠BOC ...(ii)
Adding (i) and (ii), ∠BOL + ∠BOM = 2 ∠BOA + 2∠BOC
Notes
∴ ∠LOM = 2[∠BOA + ∠BOC]
= 2 ×90o
= 180o = a straight angle
∴ L, O and M are collinear.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 10.1.

1. Choose the correct answer out of the given alternatives in the following multiple
choice questions :

Fig. 10.29
In Fig. 10.29, AB || CD and PQ intersects them at R and S respectively.
(i) ∠ARS and ∠BRS form
(A) a pair of alternate angles
(B) a linear pair
(C) a pair of corresponding angles
(D) a pair of vertically opposite angles
(ii) ∠ARS and ∠RSD form a pair of
(A) Alternate angles (B) Vertically opposite angles
(C) Corresponding angles (D) Interior angles
(iii) If ∠PRB = 60o, then ∠QSC is
(A) 120o (B) 60o

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(C) 30o (D) 90o

Notes
72o

Fig. 10.30
(iv) In Fig. 10.30 above, AB and CD intersect at O. ∠COB is equal to
(A) 36o (B) 72o
(C) 108o (D) 144o

)o
+ 10 o
(5x 5x

Fig. 10.31
2. In Fig. 10.31 above, AB is a straight line. Find x
3. In Fig. 10.32 below, l is parallel to m. Find angles 1 to 7.

Fig. 10.32

10.3 TRIANGLE, ITS TYPES AND PROPERTIES

Triangle is the simplest polygon of all the closed figures formed in a plane by three line
segments.

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Notes

Fig. 10.33
It is a closed figure formed by three line segments having six elements, namely three angles
(i) ∠ABC or ∠B (ii) ∠ACB or ∠C (iii) ∠CAB or ∠A and three sides : (iv) AB (v) BC
(vi) CA
It is named as Δ ABC or Δ BAC or Δ CBA and read as triangle ABC or triangle BAC or
triangle CBA.

10.3.1 Types of Triangles

Triangles can be classified into different types in two ways.

(a) On the basis of sides

(i) (ii) (iii)

Fig. 10.34
(i) Equilateral triangle : a triangle in which all the three sides are equal is called an
equilateral trangle. [Δ ABC in Fig. 10.34(i)]
(ii) Isosceles triangle : A triangle in which two sides are equal is called an isosceles
triangle. [ΔDEF in Fig. 10.34(ii)]
(iii) Scalene triangle : A triangle in which all sides are of different lengths, is called a
sclene triangle [Δ LMN in Fig. 10.34(iii)]
(b) On the basis of angles :

(i) (ii) (iii)

Fig. 10.35

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(i) Obtuse angled triangle : A triangle in which one of the angles is an obtuse angle is
called an obtuse angled triangle or simply obtuse triangle [Δ PQR is Fig. 10.35(i)]
(ii) Right angled triangle : A triangle in which one of the angles is a right angle is called
Notes a right angled triangle or right triangle. [Δ UVW in Fig. 10.35(ii)]
(iii) Acute angled triangle : A triangle in which all the three angles are acute is called an
acute angled triangle or acute triangle [Δ XYZ in Fig. 10.35(iii)
Now we shall study some important properties of angles of a triangle.

10.3.2 Angle Sum Property of a Triangle

We draw two triangles and measure their angles.

Fig. 10.36
In Fig. 10.36 (a), ∠A = 80o, ∠B = 40o and ∠C = 60o
∴ ∠A + ∠B + ∠C = 80o + 40o + 60o = 180o
In Fig. 10.36(b), ∠P = 30o, ∠Q = 40o, ∠R = 110o
∴ ∠P + ∠Q + ∠R = 30o + 40o + 110o = 180o
What do you observe? Sum of the angles of triangle in each case in 1800.
We will prove this result in a logical way naming it as a theorem.
Theorem : The sum of the three angles of triangle is 180o.

Fig. 10.37
Given : A triangle ABC
To Prove : ∠A + ∠B + ∠C = 1800
Construction : Through A, draw a line DE parallel to BC.
Proof : Since DE is parallel to BC and AB is a transversal.

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∴ ∠B = ∠DAB (Pair of alternate angles)
Similarly ∠C = ∠EAC (Pair of alternate angles)
∴ ∠B + ∠C = ∠DAB + ∠EAC ...(1)
Notes
Now adding ∠A to both sides of (1)
∠A + ∠B + ∠C = ∠A + ∠DAB + ∠EAC
= 180o (Angles making a straight angle)

10.3.3 Exterior Angles of a Triangle

Let us produce the side BC of ΔABC to a point D.

Fig. 10.38
In Fig. 10.39, observe that there are six exterior angles of the ΔABC, namely ∠1, ∠2,
∠3, ∠4, ∠5 and ∠6.

Fig. 10.39
In Fig. 10.38, ∠ACD so obtained is called an exterior angle of the ΔABC. Thus,
The angle formed by a side of the triangle produced and another side of the
triangle is called an exterior angle of the triangle.
Corresponding to an exterior angle of a triangle, there are two interior opposite angles.
Interior opposite angles are the angles of the triangle not forming a linear
pair with the given exterior angle.
For example in Fig. 10.38, ∠A and ∠B are the two interior opposite angles correspond-
ing to the exterior angle ACD of ΔABC. We measure these angles.
∠A = 60o
∠B = 50o

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and ∠ACD = 110o
We observe that ∠ACD = ∠A + ∠B.
This observation is true in general.
Notes
Thus, we may conclude :
An exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the two interior
opposite angles.
Examples 10.3 : Choose the correct answer out of the given alternatives in the fol-
lowing multiple choice questions:
(i) Which of the following can be the angles of a triangle?
(A) 65o, 45o and 80o (B) 90o, 30o and 61o
(C) 60o, 60o and 59o (D) 60o, 60o and 60o. Ans (D)

Fig. 10.40
(ii) In Fig. 10.40 ∠A is equal to
(A) 30o (B) 35o
(C) 45o (D) 75o Ans (C)
(iii) In a triangle, one angle is twice the other and the third angle is 600. Then the
largest angle is
(A) 60o (B) 80o
(C) 100o (D) 120o Ans (B)
Example 10.4:

Fig. 10.41
In Fig. 10.41, bisctors of ∠PQR and ∠PRQ intersect each other at O. Prove that
1
∠QOR = 90o + ∠P.
2

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1
Solution : ∠QOR = 180o – [∠PQR + ∠PRQ)]
2

1
= 180o – (∠PQR + ∠PRQ) Notes
2

1
= 180o – (180ο – ∠P)
2

1 1
= 180o – 90o + ∠P = 90o + ∠P
2 2

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 10.2

1. Choose the correct answer out of given alternatives in the following multiple choice
questions:
(i) A triangle can have
(A) Two right angles (B) Two obtuse angles
(C) At the most two acute angles (D) All three acute angles
(ii) In a right triangle, one exterior angles is 1200, The smallest angle of the triangles is
(A) 20o (B) 300
(C) 40o (D) 600
(iii)

Fig. 10.42
In Fig. 10.42, CD is parallel to BA. ∠ACB is equal to
(A) 55o (B) 60o
(C) 65o (D) 70o
2. The angles of a triangle are in the ratio 2 : 3 : 5, find the three angles.
3. Prove that the sum of the four angles of a quadrilateral is 360o.

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4. In Fig. 10.43, ABCD is a trapezium such that AB||DC. Find ∠D and ∠C and
verify that sum of the four angles is 360o.

Notes

Fig. 10.43
5. Prove that if one angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the other two angles,
then it is a right triangle.
6. In Fig. 10.44, ABC is triangle such that ∠ABC = ∠ACB. Find the angles of the
triangle.

Fig. 10.44

10.4 LOCUS
During the game of cricket, when a player hits the ball, it describes a path, before being
caught or touching the ground.

Fig. 10.44
The path described is called Locus.
A figure in geometry is a result of the path traced by a point (or a very small particle)
moving under certain conditions.
For example:
(1) Given two parallel lines l and m, also a point P between them equidistant from both
the lines.

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.
Notes
Fig. 10.45
If the particle moves so that it is equidistant from both the lines, what will be its path?

.. . .
Fig. 10.46
The path traced by P will be a line parallel to both the lines and exactly in the middle of
them as in Fig. 10.46.

.
(2) Given a fixed point O and a point P at a fixed distance d.

.
Fig. 10.47
If the point P moves in a plane so that it is always at a constant distance d from the
fixed point O, what will be its path?

Fig. 10.48
The path of the moving point P will be a circle as shown in Fig. 10.48.
(3) Place a small piece of chalk stick or a pebble on top of a table. Strike it hard with a
pencil or a stick so that it leaves the table with a certain speed and observe its path
after it leaves the table.

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Notes

Fig. 10.49
The path traced by the pebble will be a curve (part of what is known as a parabola) as
shown in Fig. 10.49.
Thus, locus of a point moving under certain conditions is the path or the geometrical figure,
every point of which satisfies the given conditon(s).

10.4.1 Locus of a point equidistant from two given points

Let A and B be the two given points.

.
P

. .
A B
Fig. 10.50
We have to find the locus of a point P such that PA = PB.
Joint AB. Mark the mind point of AB as M. Clearly, M is a point which is equidistant from
A and B. Mark another point P using compasses such that PA = PB. Join PM and extend
it on both sides. Using a pair of divider or a scale, it can easily be verified that every point
on PM is equidistant from the points A and B. Also, if we take any other point Q not lying
on line PM, then QA ≠ QB.
Also ∠AMP = ∠BMP = 90o
That is, PM is the perpendicular bisector of AB.

Fig. 10.51

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Thus, we may conclude the following:
The locus of a point equidistant from two given poitns is the perpendicular
bisector of the line segment joining the two points.
Activity for you : Notes
Mark two points A and B on a sheet of paper and join them. Fold the paper along mid-
point of AB so that A coincides with B. Make a crease along the line of fold. This crease
is a straight line. This is the locus of the point equidistant from the given points A and B. It
can be easily checked that very point on it is equidistant from A and B.

10.4.2 Locus of a point equidistant from two lines intersecting at O

Let AB and CD be two given lines intersecting at O.

D
Fig. 10.52
We have to find the locus of a point P which is equidistant from both AB and CD.
Draw bisectors of ∠BOD and ∠BOC.

Fig. 10.53
If we take any point P on any bisector l or m, we will find perpendicular distances PL and
PM of P from the lines AB and CD are equal.
that is, PL = PM
If we take any other point, say Q, not lying on any bisector l or m, then QL will not be
equal to QM.
Thus, we may conclude :
The locus of a point equidistant from two intersecting lines is the pair of
lines, bisecting the angles formed by the given lines.

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Activity for you :
Draw two lines AB and CD intersecting at O, on a sheet of paper. Fold the paper through
O so that AO falls on CO and OD falls on OB and mark the crease along the fold. Take
Notes a piont P on this crease which is the bisector of ∠BOD and check using a set square that
PL = PM

Fig. 10.54
In a similar way find the other bisector by folding again and getting crease 2. Any point on
this crease 2 is also equidistant from both the lines.
Example 10.5 : Find the locus of the centre of a circle passing through two given points.
Solution : Let the two given points be A and B. We have to find the position or positions
of centre O of a circle passing through A and B.
.
O

. .
A B

Fig. 10.55
Point O must be equidistant from both the points A and B. As we have already learnt, the
locus of the point O will be the perpendicular bisector of AB.

Fig. 10.56

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CHECK YOU PROGRESS 10.3

1. Find the locus of the centre of a circle passing through three given points A, B
and C which are non-collinear. Notes
2. There are two villages certain distance apart. A well is to be dug so that it is equidis-
tant from the two villages such that its distance from each village is not more than
the distance between the two villages. Representing the villages by points A and B
and the well by point P. show in a diagram the locus of the point P.
3. Two straight roads AB and CD are intersecting at a point O. An observation post
is to be constructred at a distance of 1 km from O and equidistant from the roads
AB and CD. Show in a diagram the possible locations of the post.
4. Find the locus of a point which is always at a distance 5 cm from a given line AB.

LET US SUM UP
• A line extends to inifinity on both sides and a line segment is only a part of it
between two points.
• Two distinct lines in a plane may either be intersecting or parallel.
• If three or more lines intersect in one point only then they are called cocurrent lines.
• Two rays starting from a common point form an angle.
• A pair of angles, whose sum is 900 is called a pair of complementary angles.
• A pair of angles whose sum is 1800 is called a pair of supplementary angles.
• If a ray stands on a line then the sum of the two adjacent angles, so formed is 1800
• If two lines intersect each other the pairs of vertically opposite angles are equal
• When a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then
(i) corresponding angles in a pair are equal.
(ii) alternate angles are equal.
(iii) interior angles on the same side of the transversal are supplementary.
• The sum of the angles of a triangle is 1800
• An exterior angle of a triangle to equal to the sum of the two interior opposite angles
• Locus of a point equidistant from two given points is the perpendicular bisector
of the line segment joing the points.

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• The locus of a point equidistant from the intersecting lines is the pair of lines, bisecting
the angle formed by the given lines.

Notes
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. In Fig. 10.57, if x = 42, then determine (a) y (b) ∠AOD

Fig. 10.57

2.

Fig. 10.58
In the above figure p, q and r are parallel lines intersected by a transversal l at A, B
and C respectively. Find ∠1 and ∠2.
3. The sum of two angles of a triangle is equal to its third angle. Find the third angle.
What type of triangle is it?

4.

Fig. 10.59
In Fig. 10.59, sides of Δ ABC have been produced as shown. Find the angles of the
triangle.

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5.

Notes

Fig. 10.60
In Fig. 10.60, sides AB, BC and CA of the triangle ABC have been produced as
shown. Show that the sum of the exterior angles so formed is 360o.
6.

Fig. 10.61
In Fig. 10.61 ABC is a triangle in which bisectors of ∠B and ∠C meet at O. Show
that ∠BOC = 125o.
7.

Fig. 10.62
In Fig. 10.62 above, find the sum of the angles, ∠A , ∠F , ∠C , ∠D , ∠B and ∠E.
8.

Fig. 10.63

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In Fig. 10.63 in Δ ABC, AD is perpendicular to BC and AE is bisector of ∠ΒAC.
Find ∠DAE,
9.
Notes

Fig. 10.64
In Fig. 10.64 above, in Δ PQR, PT is bisector of ∠P and QR is produced to S.
Show that ∠PQR + ∠PRS = 2 ∠PTR.
10. Prove that the sum of the (interior) angles of a pentagon is 5400.
11. Find the locus of a point equidistant from two parallel lines l and m at a distance of 5
cm from each other.
12. Find the locus of a point equidistant from points A and B and also equidistant from
rays AB and AC of Fig. 10.65.

B .
A . .
C
Fig. 10.65

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

10.1
1. (i) (B) (ii) (A) (iii) (B) (iv) (C)
2. x = 170.
3. ∠1 = ∠3 = ∠4 = ∠6 = 110o
and ∠2 = ∠5 = ∠7 = 70o.
10.2
1. (i) (D) (ii) (B) (iii) (B)
2. 36o, 54o and 90o 4. ∠D = 140o and ∠C = 110o
6. ∠ABC = 45o, ∠ACB = 45o and ∠A = 90o

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10.3
1. Only a point, which is the point of intersection of perpendicular bisectors of AB
and BC.
2. Let the villages be A and B, then locus will be the line segment PQ, perpendicular Notes
bisector of AB such that
AP = BP = QA = QB = AB

Fig. 10.65
3. Possible locations will be four points two points P and Q on the bisector of ∠AOC
and two points R and S on the bisector of ∠BOC.

Fig. 10.66
4. Two on either side of AB and lines parallel to AB at a distance of 5 cm from AB.

ANSWERS TO TERMINAL EXERCISE

1. (a) y = 27 (b) = 126o 2. ∠1 = 48o and ∠2 = 132o
3. Third angle = 90o, Right triangle 4. ∠A = 35o, ∠B = 75o ∠C = 70o
7. 360o 8. 12o
11. A line parallel to locus l and m at a distance of 2.5 cm from each.
12. Point of intersection of the perpendicular bisector of AB and bisector of ∠BAC.

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Notes
11
CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES

You might have observed that leaves of different trees have different shapes, but leaves of
the same tree have almost the same shape. Although they may differ in size. The geometrical
figures which have same shape and same size are called congruent figures and the property
is called congruency.
In this lesson you will study congruence of two triangles, some relations between their
sides and angles in details.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to
• verify and explain whether two given figures are congruent or not.
• state the criteria for congruency of two triangles and apply them in solving
problems.
• prove that angles opposite to equal sides of a triangle are equal.
• prove that sides opposite to equal angles of a triangle are equal.
• prove that if two sides of triangle are unequal, then the longer side has the
greater angle opposite to it.
• state and verify inequalities in a triangle involving sides and angles.
• solve problems based on the above results.

EXPECTED BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE

• Recognition of plane geometrical figures
• Equality of lines and angles
• Types of angles
• Angle sum property of a triangle
• Paper cutting and folding.

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11.1 CONCEPT OF CONGRUENCE

In our daily life you observe various figures and objects. These figures or objects can be
categorised in terms of their shapes and sizes in the following manner.
(i) Figures, which have different shapes and sizes as shown in Fig. 11.1 Notes

Fig. 11.1
(ii) Objcts, which have same shpaes but different sizes as shown in Fig. 11.2

Fig. 11.2
(iii) Two one-rupee coins.

Fig. 11.3
(iv) Two postage stamps on post cards

Fig. 11.4

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(v) Two photo prints of same size from the same negative.

Notes

Fig. 11.5
We will deal with the figures which have same shapes and same sizes.

Two figures, which have the same shape and same size are called congruent
figures and this property is called congruence.

11.1.1. Activity

Take a sheet of paper, fold it in the middle and keep a carbon (paper) between the two
folds. Now draw a figure of a leaf or a flower or any object which you like, on the upper
part of the sheet. You will get a carbon copy of it on the sheet below.
The figure you drew and its carbon copy are of the same shape and same size. Thus, these
are congruent figures. Observe a butterfly folding its two wings. These appear to be one.

11.1.2 Criteria for Congruence of Some Figures

Congruent figures, when palced one over another, exactly coincide with one another or
cover each other. In other words, two figures will be congruent, if parts of one figure are
equal to the corresponding parts of the other. For example :
(1) Two line - segments are congruent, when they are of equal length.

A B C D

Fig. 11.6
(2) Two squares are congruent if their sides are equal.

Fig. 11.7

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(3) Two circles are congruent, if their radii are equal, implying their circumferences are
also equal.

Notes

Fig. 11.8

11.2 CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES

Triangle is a basic rectilinear figure in geometry, having minimum number of sides. As such
congruence of triangles plays a very important role in proving many useful results. Hence
this needs a detailed study.
Two triangles are congruent, if all the sides and all the angles of one are
equal to the corresponding sides and angles of other.
For example, in triangles PQR and XYZ in Fig. 11.9

Fig. 11.9
PQ = XY, PR = XZ, QR = YZ
∠P = ∠X, ∠Q = ∠Y and ∠R = ∠Z
Thus we can say
Δ PQR is congruent to Δ XYZ and we write
Δ PQR ≅ Δ XYZ
Relation of congruence between two triangles is always written with corresponding or
matching parts in proper order.
Here Δ PQR ≅ Δ XYZ
also means P corresponds to X, Q corresponds to Y and R corresponds to Z.

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This congruence may also be written as Δ QRP ≅Δ YZX whichmeans, Q corresponds to
Y, R corresponds to Z and P corresponds to X. It also means corresponding parts, (ele-
ments) are equal, namely

Notes QR = YZ, RP = ZX, QP = YX, ∠Q = ∠Y, ∠R = ∠Z

and ∠P = ∠X
This congruence may also be written as
Δ RPQ ≅ Δ ZXY
but NOT as Δ PQR ≅ Δ YZX.
Or NOT as Δ PQR ≅ Δ ZXY.

11. 3 CRITERIA FOR CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES

In order to prove, whether two triangles are congruent or not, we need to know that all the
six parts of one triangle are equal to the corresponding parts of the other triangle. We shall
now learn that it is possible to prove the congruence of two triangles, even if we are able
to know the equality of three of their corresponding parts.
Consider the triangle ABC in Fig. 11.10
A

B C
Fig. 11.10
Construct another triangle PQR such that QR = BC, ∠Q = ∠B and PQ = AB.
(See Fig. 11.11)

Q R

Fig. 11.11
If we trace or cut out triangle ABC and place it over triangle PQR. we will observe that
one covers the other exactly. Thus, we may say that they are congruent.
Alternatively we can also measure the remaining parts, and observe that

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AC = PR, ∠A = ∠P and ∠C = ∠R
showing that Δ PQR ≅ Δ ABC.
It should be noted here that in constructing Δ PQR congruent to Δ ABC we used only two
parts of sides PQ = AB, QR = BC and the included angle between them ∠Q = ∠B. Notes
This means that equality of these three corresponding parts results in congruent triangles.
Thus we have

Criterion 1 : If any two sides and the included angle of one triangle are
equal to the corresponding sides and the included angle of the other triangle,
the two triangles are congruent.

This criterion is referred to as SAS (Side Angle Side).

Again, consider Δ ABC in Fig. 11.12

Fig. 11.12
Construct another Δ PQR such that, QR = BC, ∠Q = ∠B and ∠R = ∠C. (See Fig. 11.13)

Fig. 11.13
By superimposition or by measuring the remaining corresponding parts, we observe that
∠P = ∠A, PQ = AB and PR = AC establishing that Δ PQR ≅ Δ ABC, which again means
that equality of the three corresponding parts (two angles and the inluded side) of two
triangles results in congruent triangles.
We also know that the sum of the three angles of a triangle is 180o, as such if two angles of
one triangle are equal to the corresponding angles of another triangle, then the third angles
will also be equal. Thus instead of included side we may have any pair of corresponding
sides equal. Thus we have

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Criterion 2 : If any two angles and one side of a triangle are equal to
corresponding angles and the side of another triangle, then the two triangles
are congruent.
Notes This criterion is referred to as ASA or AAS (Angle Side Angle or Angle Angle Side)

11.3.1 Activity
In order to explore another criterion we again take a triangle ABC (See Fig. 11.14)

Fig. 11.14
Now take three thin sticks equal in lengths to sides AB, BC and CA of Δ ABC. Place them
in any order to form Δ PQR or Δ P′Q′R′ near the Δ ABC (Fig. 11.15)
Q Q′

P′
R

Fig. 11.15 R′

By measuring the corresponding angles. we find that, ∠P = ∠P′ = ∠A, ∠Q = ∠Q′ = ∠B

and ∠R = ∠R′ = ∠C, establishing that
Δ PQR ≅ Δ P′Q′R′ ≅ Δ ABC
which means that equality of the three corresponding sides of two triangles results in con-
gruent triangles. Thus we have
Criterion 3 : If the three sides of one trianle are equal to the corresponding
sides of another triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.
This is referred to as SSS (Side, Side, Side), criterion.
Similarly, we can establish one more criterion which will be applicable for two right trangles
only.
Criterion 4 : If the hypotenuse and a side of one right triangle are respec-
tively equal to the hypotenuse and a side of another right triangle, then the
two triangles are congruent.

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This criterion is referred to as RHS (Right Angle Hypotenuse Side).
Using these criteria we can easily prove, knowing three corresponding parts only, whether
two triangles are congruent and establish the equality of remaining corresponding parts.
Example 11.1 : In which of the following criteria, two given triangles are NOT congruent. Notes

(a) All corresponding sides are equal

(b) All corresponding angles are equal
(c) All corresponding sides and their included angles are equal
(d) All corresponding angles and any pair of corresponding sides are equal.
Ans. (b)
Example 11.2 : Two rectilinear figures are congruent if they have
(a) All corresponding sides equal
(b) All corresponding angles equal
(c) The same area
(d) All corresponding angles and all corresponding sides equal.
Ans. (d)
Example 11.3 : In Fig. 11.16, PX and QY are perpendicular to PQ and PX = QY. Show
that AX = AY.

Fig. 11.16
Solution :
In Δ PAX and Δ QAY,
∠XPA = ∠YQA (Each is 90o)
∠PAX = ∠QAY (Vertically opposite angles)

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and PX = QY
∴ Δ PAX ≅ Δ QAY (AAS)
∴ AX = AY.
Notes
Example 11.4 : In Fig. 11.17, Δ ABC is right triangle in which ∠B = 900 and D is the mid
point of AC.

1
Prove that BD = AC.
2

Fig. 11.17
Solution : Produce BD to E such that BD = DE. Join CE

Fig.. 11.18
In Δ ADB and Δ CDE,
AD = CD (D being and point of AC)
DB = DE (By construction)
and ∠ADB = ∠CDE (Vertically opposite angles)
∴ Δ ADB ≅ Δ CDE (i)
∴ AB = EC
Also ∠DAB = ∠DCE
But they make a pair of alternate angles
∴ AB is parallel to EC
∴ ∠ABC + ∠ECB = 1800 (Pair of interior angles)

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∴ ∠900 + ∠ECB = 1800
∴ ∠ECB = 1800 − 900 = 900
Now in Δ ABC and Δ ECB,
Notes
AB = EC (From (i) above)
BC = BC (Common)
and ∠ABC = ∠ECB (Each 900)
∴ Δ ABC ≅ Δ ECB
∴ AC = EB

1
But BD = EB
2

1
∴ BD = AC
2

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 11.1

1. In Δ ABC (Fig. 11.19) if ∠B = ∠C and AD ⊥ BC, then Δ ABD ≅ Δ ACD by the
criterion.

Fig. 11.19
(a) RHS (b) ASA
(c) SAS (d) SSS
2. In Fig. 11.20, Δ ABC ≅ Δ PQR. This congruence may also be written as

Fig. 11.20

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(a) Δ BAC ≅ Δ RPQ (b) Δ BAC ≅ Δ QPR
(c) Δ BAC ≅ Δ RQP (d) Δ BAC ≅ Δ PRQ.
3. In order that two given triangles are congruent, along with equality of two corre-
Notes sponding angles we must know the equality of :
(a) No corresponding side
(b) Minimum one corresponding side
(c) Minimum two corresponding sides
(d) All the three corresponding sides
4. Two triangles are congruent if ....
(a) All three corresponding angles are equal
(b) Two angles and a side of one are equal to two angles and a side of the other.
(c) Two angles and a side of one are equal to two angles and the corresponding
side of the other.
(d) One angle and two sides of one are equal to one angle and two sides of the
other.
5. In Fig. 11.21, ∠B = ∠C and ΑB = AC. Prove that Δ ABE ≅ Δ ACD. Hence show
that CD = BE.

Fig. 11.21
6. In Fig. 11.22, AB is parallel to CD. If O is the mid-point of BC, show that it is also
the mid-point of AD.

Fig. 11.22

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7. In Δ ABC (Fig. 11.23), AD is ⊥ BC, BE is ⊥ AC and AD = BE. Prove that
AE = BD.

Notes

Fig. 11.23
8. From Fig. 11.24, show that the triangles are congruent and make pairs of equal
angles.

Fig. 11.24

11.4 ANGLES OPPOSITE TO EQUAL SIDES OF A

TRIANGLE AND VICE VERSA
Using the criteria for congruence of triangles, we shall now prove some important theo-
rems.
Theorem : The angles opposite to equal sides of a triangle are equal.
Given : A triangle ABC in which AB = AC.
To prove : ∠B = ∠C.
Construction : Draw bisector of ∠B AC meeting BC at D.
Proof : In Δ ABD and Δ ACD,
AB = AC (Given)
∠BAD = ∠CAD (By construction)
Fig. 11.25
and AD = AD (Common)

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Δ ABD ≅ Δ ACD (SAS)
Hence ∠B = ∠C (Corresponding parts of congruent triangles)
The converse of the above theorem is also true. We prove it as a theorem.
Notes
11.4.1 The sides opposite to equal angles of a triangle are equal

Given : A triangle ABC in which ∠B = ∠C

To prove : AB = AC
Construction : Draw bisector of ∠BAC meeting BC at D.
Proof : In Δ ABD and Δ ACD,
∠B = ∠C (Given)
∠BAD = ∠CAD (By construction)
and AD = AD (Common) Fig. 11.26
Δ ABD ≅ Δ ACD (SAS)
Hence AB = AC (c.p.c.t)
Hence the theorem.
Example 11.5 : Prove that the three angles of
an equilateral triangle are equal.
Solution :
Given : An equilateral Δ ABC
To prove : ∠A = ∠B = ∠C
Fig. 11.27
Proof : AB = AC (Given)

∴ ∠C = ∠B (Angles opposite equal sides) ...(i)

Also AC = BC (Given)

∴ ∠B = ∠A ...(ii)
From (i) and (ii),
∠A = ∠B = ∠C
Hence the result.
Example 11.6 : ABC is an isosceles triangle in which AB = AC
(Fig. 11.28), If BD ⊥ AC and CE ⊥ AB, proe that BD = CE.

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Solution : In ΔBDC and ΔCEB
∠BDC = ∠CEB (Measure of each is 90o)
∠DCB = ∠EBC (Angles opposite equal sides of a triangle)
Notes
and BC = CB (Common)
∴ Δ BDC ≅ Δ CEB (AAS)
Hence BD = CE (c.p.c.t.) Fig. 11.28
This result can be stated in the following manner:
Perpendiculars (altitudes) drawn to equal sides, from opposite vertices of
an isosceles triangle are equal.
The result can be extended to an equilateral triangle after which we can say that all the
three altitudes of an equilateral triangle are equal.
Example : 11.7 : In Δ ABC (Fig. 11.29), D and E are mid-points of AC and AB
respectively.
If AB = AC, then prove that BD = CE.

1
Solution : BE = AB
2

1
and CD = AC
2
Fig. 11.29
∴ BE = CD ...(i)
In Δ BEC and Δ CDB,
BE = CD [By (i)]
BC = CB (Common)
and ∠ΕBC = ∠DCB ( Q AB = AC)
∴ Δ BEC ≅ Δ CDB (SAS)
Hence, CE = BD (c.p.c.t)
Example 11.8 : In Δ ABC (Fig. 11.30) AB = AC and
∠DAC = 124o; find the angles of the triangle.
Solution ∠BAC = 180o – 124o = 56o
∠B = ∠C
(Angles opposite to equal sides of a triangle)
Fig. 11.30

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Also ∠B + ∠C = 124o

1240
∠B = ∠C = = 620
2
Notes
Hence ∠A = 56o, ∠B = 62o, and ∠C = 62o

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 11.2

1. In Fig. 11.31, PQ = PR and SQ = SR. Prove that ∠PQS = ∠PRS.

Fig. 11.31
2. Prove that ΔABC is an isosceles triangle, if the altitude AD bisects the base BC
(Fig. 11.32).

Fig. 11.32
3. If the line l in Fig. 11.33 is parallel to the base BC of the isosceles ΔABC, find the
angles of the triangle.

Fig. 11.33
4. ΔABC is an isosceles triangle such that AB = AC. Side BA is produced to a point D
such that AB = AD. Prove that ∠ΒCD is a right angle.

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Notes

Fig. 11.34
5. In Fig. 11.35. D is the mid point of BC and perpendiculars DF and DE to sides AB
and AC respectively are equal in length. Prove that ΔABC is an isosceles triangle.

Fig. 11.35
6. In Fig. 11.36, PQ = PR, QS and RT are the angle bisectors of ∠Q and ∠R
respectively. Prove that QS = RT.

Fig. 11.36
7. ΔPQR and ΔSQR are isosceles triangles on the same base QR (Fig. 11.37). Prove
that ∠PQS = ∠PRS.

Fig. 11.37
8. In ΔABC, AB = AC (Fig. 11.38). P is a point in the interior of the triangle such that
∠ΑΒP = ∠ΑCP . Prove that AP bisects ∠BAC.

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Notes

Fig. 11.38

11.5 INEQUALITIES IN A TRIANGLE

We have learnt the relationship between sides and angles of a triangle when they are
equal. We shall now study some relations among sides and angles of a triangle, when
they are unequal.

Fig. 11.39
In Fig. 11.39, triangle ABC has side AB longer than the side AC. Measure ∠Β and
∠C. You will find that these angles are not equal and ∠C is greater than ∠B. If you
repeat this experiment, you will always find that this observation is true. This can be
proved easily, as follows.

11.5.1 Theorem
If two sides of a triangle are unequal, then the longer side has the greater angle oppo-
site to it.
Given. A triangle ABC in which AB > AC.
To prove. ∠ΑCB > ∠ΑΒC
Construction. Make a point D on the side AB such that
AD = AC and join DC.
Proof: In ΔACD,
AD = AC Fig. 11.40

∴ ∠ΑCD = ∠ADC (Angles opposite equal sides)

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But ∠ADC > ∠ABC
(Exterior angle of a triangle is greater than opposite
interior angle)
Again ∠ACB > ∠ACD (Point D lies in the interior of the ∠ACB). Notes
∴ ∠ACB > ∠ABC
What can we say about the converse of this theorem. Let us examine.
In ΔABC, (Fig. 11.41) compare ∠C and ∠B. It is clear
that ∠C is greater than ∠B. Now compare sides AB and
AC opposite to these angles by measuring them. We
observe that AB is longer than AC.
Again compare ∠C and ∠A and measure sides AB and
BC opposite to these angles. We observe that ∠C > ∠A
Fig. 11.41
and AB > BC; i.e. side opposite to greater angle is longer.
Comparing ∠A and ∠B, we observe a similar result. ∠A > ∠B and BC > AC; i.e. side
opposite to greater angle is longer.
You can also verify this property by drawing any type of triangle, a right triangle or an
obtuse triangle.
Measure any pair of angles in a triangle. Compare them and then compare the sides
opposite to them by measurement. You will find the above result always true, which we
state as a property.

In a triangle, the greater angle has longer side opposite to it.

Observe that in a triangle if one angle is right or an obtuse then the side opposite to that
angle is the longest.
You have already learnt the relationship among the three angles of a triangle i.e., the sum of
the three angles of a triangle is 180o. We shall now study whether the three sides of a
triangle are related in some way.
Draw a triangle ABC.

Fig. 11.42

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Measure its three sides AB, BC and CA.
Now find the sum of different pairs AB+BC, BC+CA, and CA+AB separately and
compare each sum of a pair with the third side, we observe that
Notes (i) AB + BC>CA
(ii) BC + CA > AB and
(iii) CA + AB > BC
Thus we conclude that

Sum of any two sides of a triangle is greater than the third side.

ACTIVITY
Fix three nails P, Q and R on a wooden board or any surface.

Fig. 11.43

Take a piece of thread equal in length to QR and another piece of thread equal in
length (QP + PR). Compare the two lengths, you will find that the length correspond-
ing to (QP + PR) > the length corresponding to QR confirming the above property.

Example 11.9 : In which of the following four cases, is construction of a triangle

possible from the given measurements

(a) 5 cm, 8 cm and 3 cm

(b) 14 cm, 6 cm and 7 cm

(c) 3.5 cm, 2.5 cm and 5.2 cm

(d) 20 cm, 25 cm and 48 cm.

Solution. In (a) 5 + 3 >/ 8, in (b) 6 + 7 >/ 14

in (c) 3.5 + 2.5 > 5.2, 3.5 + 5.2 > 2.5 and 2.5 + 5.2 > 3.5 and

in (d) 20 + 25 >/ 48.

Ans. (c)

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Example 11.10 : In Fig. 11.44, AD is a median of ΔABC. Prove that AB + AC > 2AD.

Notes

Fig. 11.44 Fig. 11.45

Solution: Produce AD to E such that AD = DE and join C to E.
Consider ΔABD and ΔECD
Here, BD = CD
∠ADB = ∠EDC
and AD = ED
∴ ΔABC ≅ ΔECD
>/
∴ AB = EC
Now in ΔACE,
EC + AC > AE
or AB + AC > 2AD (∴ AD = ED ⇒ AE = 2AD)

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 11.3

1. PQRS is a quadrilateral in which diagonals PR and QS intersect at O. Prove that
PQ + QR + RS + SP > PR + QS.
2. In triangle ABC, AB = 5.7 cm, BC = 6.2 cm and CA = 4.8 cm. Name the greatest
and the smallest angle.
3. In Fig. 11.46, if ∠CBD > ∠BCE then prove that AB > AC.

Fig. 11.46

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4. In Fig. 11.47, D is any point on the base BC of a ΔABC. If AB > AC then prove
that AB > AD.

Notes

Fig. 11.47
5. Prove that the sum of the three sides of triangle is greater than the sum of its three
medians.
(Use Example 11.10)
6. In Fig. 11.48, if AB = AD then prove that BC > CD.
[Hint : ∠ADB = ∠ABD].

Fig. 11.48
7. In Fig. 11.49, AB is parallel to CD. If ∠A > ∠B then prove that BC > AD.

Fig. 11.49

LET US SUM UP
• Figures which have the same shape and same size are called congruent figures.
• Two congruent figures, when placed one over the other completely cover each
other. All parts of one figure are equal to the corresponding parts of the other figure.

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• To prove that two triangles are congruent we need to know the equality of only three
corresponding parts. These corresponding parts must satisfy one of the four criteria.
(i) SAS (ii) ASA or AAS
(iii) SSS (iv) RHS
• Angles opposite to equal sides of a triangle are equal. Notes
• Sides opposite to equal angles of a triangle are equal.
• If two sides of a triangle are unequal, then the longer side has the greater angle opposite
to it.
• In a triangle, the greater angle has the longer side opposite to it.
• Sum of any two sides of a triangle is greater than the third side.

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Two lines AB and CD bisect each other at O. Prove that CA = BD (Fig. 11.50)

Fig. 11.50
2. In a ΔABC, if the median AD is perpendicular to the base BC then prove that the
triangle is an isosceles triangle.
3. In Fig. 11.51, ΔABC and ΔCDE are such that BC = CE and AB = DE. If ∠B = 60o,
∠ACE = 30o and ∠D = 90o, then prove that the two triangles are congruent.

Fig. 11.51

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4. In Fig. 11.52 two sides AB and BC and the altitude AD of ΔABC are respectively
equal to the sides PQ and QR and the altitude PS, Prove that ΔABC ≅ ΔPQR.

Notes

Fig. 11.52
5. In a right triangle, one of the acute angles is 30o. Prove that the hypotenuse is twice
the side opposite to the angle of 30o.
6. Line segments AB and CD intersect each other at O such that O is the midpoint of
AB. If AC is parallel to DB then prove that O is also the mid piont of CD.
7. In Fig. 11.53, AB is the longest side and DC is the shortest side of a quadrilateral
ABCD. Prove that ∠C > ∠A and ∠D> ∠B. [Hint : Join AC and BD].

Fig. 11.53
8. ABC is an isosceles triangle in which AB = AC and AD is the altitude from A to the
base BC. Prove that BD = DC.

Fig. 11.54

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9. Prove that the medians bisecting the equal sides of an isosceles triangle are also
equal. [Hint : Show that ΔDBC ≅ ΔECB]

Notes

Fig. 11.55

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

11.1
1. (a) 2. (b)
3. (b) 4. (c)
8. ∠P = ∠C ∠Q = ∠A and ∠R = ∠B.
11.2
3. ∠B = ∠C = 65o, ∠A = 50o
11.3
2. Greatest angle is A and smallest angle is B.

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Notes
12
CONCURRENT LINES

You have already learnt about concurrent lines, in the lesson on lines and angles. You have
also studied about triangles and some special lines, i.e., medians, right bisectors of sides,
angle bisectors and altitudes, which can be drawn in a triangle. In this lesson, we shall
study the concurrency property of these lines, which are quite useful.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to
• define the terms concurrent lines, median, altitude, angle bisector and
perpendicular bisector of a side of a triangle.
• Verify the concurrnence of medians, altitudes, perpendicular bisectors of sides
and angle bisectors of a triangle.

EXPECTED BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE

Properties of intersecting lines, such as:
• Two lines in a plane can either be parallel [See Fig 12.1 (a)] or intersecting
(See Fig. 12.1 (b) and (c)].

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 12.1

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• Three lines in a plane may
(i) be paralled to each other, i.e., intersect in no point [See Fig. 12.2 (a)] or
(ii) intersect each other in exactly one point [Fig. 12.2(b)], or
Notes
(iii) intersect each other in two points [Fig. 12.2(c)], or
(iv) intersect each other at the most in three points [Fig. 12.2(d)]

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 12.2

12.1 CONCURRENT LINES

Three lines in a plane which intersect each other in exactly one point or which pass through
the same point are called concurrent lines and the common point is called the point of
concurrency (See Fig. 12.3).

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 12.3

12.1.1 Angle Bisectors of a Triangle

In triangle ABC, the line AD bisects ∠A of the triangle. (See Fig. 12.4)
C

A B
Fig. 12.4

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A line which bisects an angle of a triangle is called an angle bisector of the triangle.
How many angle bisectors can a triangle have? Since a triangle has three angles, we can
draw three angle bisectors in it. AD is one of the three angle bisectors of ΔABC. Let us
Notes draw second angle bisector BE of ∠B (See Fig. 12.5)

C C

D E D
E

I I
A B A B
F

Fig. 12.5 Fig. 12.6

The two angle bisectors of the ΔABC intersect each other at I. Let us draw the third angle
bisector CF of ∠C (See Fig. 12.6). We observe that this angle bisector of the triangle also
passes through I. In other words they are concurrent and the point of concurrency is I.
We may take any type of triangle—acute, right or obtuse triangle, and draw its angle
bisectors, we will always find that the three angle bisectors of a triangle are concurrent
(See Fig. 12.7)

C
D
E D
E
I

B
A A F B
F

Fig. 12.7
Thus we conclude the following:
Angle bisectors of a triangle pass through the same point, that is they are
concurrent
The point of concurrency I is called the ‘Incentre’ of the triangle.
Can you reason out, why the name incentre for this point?
Recall that the locus of a point equidistant from two intersecting lines is the pair of angle
bisectors of the angles formed by the lines. Since I is a point on the bisector of ∠BAC, it
must be equidistant from AB and AC. Also I is a point on angle bisector of ∠ABC, (See

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Fig. 12.8), it must also be equidistant from AB and BC. Thus point of concurrency I is at
the same distance from all the three sides of the triangle.
C
L
M D Notes
E
I

A N B
F
Fig. 12.8
Thus, we have IL = IM = IN (Fig. 12.8). Taking I as the centre and IL as the radius, we
can draw a circle touching all the three sides of the triangle called ‘Incircle’ of the triangle.
I being the centre of the incircle is called the Incentre and IL, the radius of the incircle is
called the inradius of the triangle.
Note: The incentre always lies in the interior of the triangle.

12.1.2: Perpendicular Bisectors of the Sides of a Triangle

ABC is a triangle, line DP bisects side BC at right angle. A line which bisects a side of a
triangle at right angle is called the perpendicular bisector of the side. Since a triangle has
three sides, so we can draw three perpendicular bisectors in a triangle. DP is one of the
three perpendicular bisectors of ΔABC (Fig. 12.9). We draw the second perpendicular
bisector EQ, intersecting DP at O (Fig. 12.10). Now if we also draw the third perpendicular
bisector FR, then we observe that it also passes through the point O (Fig. 12.11). In other
words, we can say that the three perpendicular bisectors of the sides are concurrent at O.

A A
P P
E
O
B C B C
D Q D

Fig. 12.9 Fig. 12.10

A
P
E
F
O

B C
Q D
R

Fig. 12.11

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We may repeat this experiment with any type of triangle, but we will always find that the
three perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle pass through the same point.
A
Notes A
O
F O
E
F

B D C B D C

(b)
(a)
Fig. 12.12

Thus we conclude that:

The three perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle pass through

the same point, that is, they are concurrent.
The point of concurrency O is called the ‘circumcentre’ of the triangle

Can you reason out: why the name circumcentre for this point?

Recall that the locus of a point equidistant from two given points is the perpendicular
bisector of the line joining the two points. Since O lies on the perpendicular bisector of
BC, so it must be equidistant from both the point B and C i.e., BO = CO (Fig. 12.13).

F
E
O

B C
D

Fig. 12.13
The point O also lies on the perpendicular bisector of AC, so it must be equidistant from
both A and C, that is, AO = CO. Thus, we have AO = BO = CO.

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If we take O as the centre and AO as the radius, we can draw a circle passing through the
three vertices, A, B and C of the triangle, called ‘Circumcircle’ of the triangle. O being
the centre of this circle is called the circumcentre and AO the radius of the circumcircle is
called circumradius of the triangle.
Note that the circumcentre will be Notes

1. in the interior of the triangle for an acute triangle (Fig. 12.11)

2. on the hypotenuse for a right triangle [Fig. 12.12(a)]
3. in the exterior of the triangle for an obtuse triangle [Fig. 12.12(b)].
12.1.3 Altitudes of a Triangle

In ΔABC, the line AL is the perpendicular drawn from vertex A to the opposite side BC.
(Fig. 12.14).

A A

B L C L B C

Fig. 12.14
Perpendicular drawn from a vertex of a triangle to the oposite side is called its altitude.
How many altitudes can be drawn in a triangle? There are three vertices in a triangle, so
we can draw three of its altitudes. AL is one of these altitudes. Now we draw the second
altitude BM, which intersects the first altitude at a point H (see Fig. 12.15). We also draw
the third altitude CN and observe that it also passes through the point H (Fig. 12.16). This
shows that the three altitudes of the triangle pass through the same point.
A
A

M
N M

H H

B L C
B L C
Fig. 12.15 Fig. 12.16

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We may take any type of triangle and draw its three altitudes. We always find that the three
altitudes of a triangle are concurrent.

A
Notes A
M

C M
N B

B
H C
H

Fig. 12.17 Fig. 12.18

Thus we conclude that:

In a triangle, the three altitudes pass through the same point, that is, they
are concurrent.
The point of concurrency is called the ‘Orthocentre’of the triangle.

Again observe that the orthocentre will be

1. in the interior of the triangle for an acute triangle (Fig. 12.16)

2. in the exterior of the triangle for an obtuse triangle (Fig. 12.17)
3. at the vertex containing the right angle for a right triangle (Fig. 12.18)
12.1.4 Medians of a Triangle

In ΔABC, AD joins the vertex A to the mid point D of the opposite side BC (Fig. 12.19)

A A

B D C B C
D

(a) (b)
Fig. 12.19

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A line joining a vertex to the mid point of the opposite side of a triangle is called its median.
Clearly, three medians can be drawn in a triangle. AD is one of the medians. If we draw all
the three medians in any triangle, we always find that the three medians pass through the
same point [Fig. 12.20 (a), (b), (c)]
Notes
A A
A

F E E
G E F
F G

B C B C B D C
D D

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 12.20
Here in each of the triangles ABC given above (Fig. 12.20) the three medians AD, BE and
CF are concurrent at G.. In each triangle we measure the parts into which G divides each
median. On measurement, we observe that
AG = 2GD, BG = 2GE
and CG = 2 GF
that is, the point of concurrency G divides each of the medians in the ratio 2 : 1.
Thus we conclude that:
Medians of a triangle pass through the same point, which divides each of
the medians in the ratio 2 : 1.
The point of concurrency G is called the ‘centroid’of the triangle.
ACTIVITY FOR YOU
Cut out a triangle from a piece of cardboard. Draw its three medians and mark the centroid
G of the triangle. Try to balance the triangle by placing the tip of a pointed stick or a needle
of compasses below the point G or at G. If the position of G is correctly marked then the
weight of the triangle will balance at G (Fig. 12.21).

Fig. 12.21

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Can you reason out, why the point of concurrency of the medians of a triangle is called its
centroid. It is the point where the weight of the triangle is centered or it is the point through
which the weight of the triangle acts.

Notes We consider some examples using these concepts.

Example 12.1: In an isosceles triangle, show that the bisector of the angle formed by the
equal sides is also a perpendicular bisector, an altitude and a median of the triangle.
Solution: In ΔABD and ΔACD,
AB = AC (Given)
∠BAD = ∠CAD [Q AD is bisector of ∠A]
and AD = AD A

∴ ΔABD ≅ ΔACD
∴ BD = CD
⇒ AD is also a median
⇒ Also ∠ADB = ∠ADC = 90o
⇒ AD is an altitude B C
D
Since, BD = DC, Fig. 12.22
AD is perpendicular bisector of side BC.
Example 12.2: In an equilateral triangle, show that the three angle bisectors are also the
three perpendicular bisectors of sides, three altitudes and the three medians of the triangle.
Solution: Since AB = AC A

Therefore, AD, the bisector of ∠A is also a

perpendicular bisector of BC, an altitude and a
median of the ΔABD. F E
(Refer Example 12.1 above)
G
Similarly, since AB = BC and BC = AC
∴ BE and CF, angle bisectors of ∠B and ∠C
respectively, are also perpendicular bisectors, B D C
altitudes and medians of the ΔABC. Fig. 12.23
Example 12.3: Find the circumradius of circumcircle and inradius of incircle of an equilateral
triangle of side a.
Solution: We draw perpendicular from the vertex A to the side BC.
AD is also the angle bisector of ∠A, perpendicular bisector of side BC and a median
joining vertex to the midpoint of BC.

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F E
G
Notes
B C
D

Fig. 12.24
3
∴ AD = a, as BC = a
2

2 3 3
⇒ AG = circumradius in this case = × a= a
3 2 3
1 3 3
and GD = inradius in this case = × a= a.
3 2 6

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 12.1

1. In the given figure BF = FC, ∠BAE = ∠CAE and ∠ADE = ∠GFC = 90o, then name
a median, an angle bisector, an altitude and a perpendicular bisector of the triangle.

A
G

B D E F C

Fig. 12.25
2. In an equilateral triangle show that the incentre, the circumcentre, the orthocentre and
the centroid are the same point.
3. In an equilateral ΔABC (Fig. 12.26). G is the centroid of the triangle. If AG is 4.8 cm,
find AD and BE.

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A

Notes F E

B D C
Fig. 12.26

4. If H is the orthocentre of ΔABC, then show that A is the orthocentre of the ΔHBC.
5. Choose the correct answers out of the given alternatives in the following questions:
(i) In a plane, the point equidistant from vertices of a triangle is called its
(a) centroid (b) incentre
(c) circumcentre (d) orthocentre
(ii) In the plane of a triangle, the point equidistant from the sides of the triangle is
called its
(a) centroid (b) incentre
(c) circumcentre (d) orthocentre

LET US SUM UP
• Three or more lines in a plane which intersect each other in exactly one point are called
concurrent lines.
• A line which bisects an angle of a triangle is called an angle bisector of the triangle.
• A line which bisects a side of a triangle at right angle is called the perpendicular bisector
of the side of the triangle.
• A line drawn perpendicular from a vertex of a triangle to its opposite side is called an
altitude of the triangle.
• A line which joins a vertex of a triangle to the mid-point of the opposite side is called
a median of the triangle.
• In a triangle
(i) angle bisectors are concurrent and the point of concurrency is called incentre.

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(ii) perpendicular bisectors of the sides are concurrent and the point of concurrency is
called circumcentre.
(iii) altitudes are concurrent and the point of concurrency is called orthocentre.
(iv) medians are concurrent and the point of concurrency is called centroid, which Notes
divides each of the medians in the ratio 2 : 1.

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. In the given Fig. 12.27, D, E and F are the mid points of the sides of ΔABC. Show
3
that BE + CF > BC .
2
A

E
F
G

C
D
B
Fig. 12.27
2. ABC is an isoceles triangle such that AB = AC and D is the midpoint of BC. Show that
the centroid, the incentre, the circumcentre and the orthocentre, all lie on AD.
A

B D C
Fig. 12.28
3. ABC is an isoceles triangle such that AB = AC = 17 cm and base BC = 16 cm. If G
is the centroid of ΔABC, find AG.
4. ABC is an equilateral triangle of side 12 cm. If G be its centroid, find AG.

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ACTIVITIES FOR YOU

1. Draw a triangle ABC and find its circumcentre. Also draw the circumcircle of the
triangle.
Notes
2. Draw an equilateral triangle. Find its incentre and circumcentre. Draw its incircle and
circumcircle.
3. Draw the circumcircle and the incircle for an equilateral triangle of side 5 cm.

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

12.1
1. Median - AF, Angle bisector AE
Altitude - AD and perpendicular bisector - GF
3. AD = 7.2 cm, BE = 7.2 cm
5. (i) (c) (ii) (b)

ANSWERS TO TERMINAL EXERCISE

3. AG = 10 cm

4. AG = 4 3 cm

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Geometry

Notes
13
QUADRILATERALS

If you look around, you will find many objects bounded by four line-segments. Any surface
of a book, window door, some parts of window-grill, slice of bread, the floor of your
room are all examples of a closed figure bounded by four line-segments. Such a figure is
called a quadrilateral.
The word quadrilateral has its origin from the two words “quadric” meaining four and
“lateral” meaning sides. Thus, a quadrilateral is that geometrical figure which has four
sides, enclosing a part of the plane.
In this lesson, we shall study about terms and concepts related to quadrilateral with their
properties.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to
• describe various types of quadrilaterals viz. trapeziums, parallelograms,
rectangles, rhombuses and squares;
• verify properties of different types of quadrilaterals;
• verify that in a triangle the line segment joining the mid-points of any two sides
is parallel to the third side and is half of it;
• verify that the line drawn through the mid-point of a side of a triangle parallel to
another side bisects the third side;
• verify that if there are three or more parallel lines and the intercepts made by
them on a transversal are equal, the corresponding intercepts on any other
transversal are also equal;
• verify that a diagonal of a parallelogram divides it into two triangles of equal
area;
• solve problem based on starred results and direct numerical problems based on
unstarred results given in the curriculum;

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• prove that parallelograms on the same or equal bases and between the same
parallels are equal in area;
• verify that triangles on the same or equal bases and between the same parallels
Notes are equal in area and its converse.

EXPECTED BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE

• Drawing line-segments and angles of given measure.
• Drawing circles/arcs of given radius.
• Drawing parallel and perpendicular lines.
• Four fundamental operations on numbers.

13.1 QUADRILATERAL
Recall that if A, B, C and D are four points in a plane such that no three of them are
collinear and the line segments AB, BC, CD and DA do not intersect except at their end
points, then the closed figure made up of these four line segments is called a quadrilateral
with vertices A, B, C and D. A quadrilateral with vertices A, B, C and D is generally
denoted by quad. ABCD. In Fig. 13.1 (i) and (ii), both the quadrilaterals can be named as
quad. ABCD or simply ABCD.
In quadrilateral ABCD,

(i) (ii)
Fig. 13.1

(i) AB and DC ; BC and AD are two pairs of opposite sides.

(ii) ∠A and ∠C ; ∠B and ∠D are two pairs of opposite angles.
(iii) AB and BC ; BC and CD are two pairs of consecutive or adjacent sides. Can you
name the other pairs of consecutive sides?
(iv) ∠A and ∠B ; ∠B and ∠C are two pairs of consecutive or adjacent angles. Can you
name the other pairs of consecutive angles?

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(v) AC and BD are the two diagonals.
In Fig. 13.2, angles denoted by l, 2, 3 and 4 are the interior angles or the angles of the
quad. ABCD. Angles denoted by 5, 6, 7 and 8 are the exterior angles of the quad. ABCD.
Measure ∠l, ∠2, ∠3 and ∠4. Notes

(i) (ii)
Fig. 13.2
What is the sum of these angles You will find that ∠l + ∠2 + ∠3 + ∠4 = 360°.
i.e. sum of interior angles of a quadrilateral equals 360°.
Also what is the sum of exterior angles of the quadrilateral ABCD?
You will again find that ∠5 + ∠6 + ∠7 + ∠8 = 360°
i.e., sum of exterior angles of a quadrilateral is also 360°.

13.2 TYPES OF QUADRILATERALS

You are familiar with quadrilaterals and their different shapes. You also know how to name
them. However, we will now study different types of quadrilaterals in a systematic way. A
family tree of quadrilaterals is given in Fig. 13.3 below:
Quadrilateral

Parallelogram Kite Trapezium

Rectangle Rhombus

Square

Fig. 13.3
Let us describe them one by one.
1. Trapezium
A quadrilateral which has only one pair of opposite sides parallel is called a trapezium. In

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Fig. 13.4 [(i) and (ii)] ABCD and PQRS are trapeziums with AB || DC and PQ || SR
respectively.

Notes

(i) (ii)
Fig. 13.4
2. Kite
A quadrilateral, which has two pairs of equal sides next to each other, is called a kite.
Fig. 13.5 [(i) and (ii)] ABCD and PQRS are kites with adjacent sides AB and AD, BC
and CD in (i) PQ and PS, QR and RS in (ii) being equal.
P
A

B D Q S
(i) (ii)

R
C Fig. 13.5
3. Parallelogram
A quadrilateral which has both pairs of opposite sides parallel, is called a parallelogram. In
Fig. 13.6 [(i) and (ii)] ABCD and PQRS are parallelograms with AB||DC, AD||BC and
PQ||SR, SP||RQ. These are denoted by ||gm ABCD (Parallelogram ABCD) and ||gm PQRS
(Parallelogram PQRS).

(i) (ii)
Fig. 13.6

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4. Rhombus
A rhombus is a parallelogram in which any pair of
adjacent sides is equal.
Notes
In Fig. 13.7 ABCD is a rhombus.
You may note that ABCD is a parallelogram with
AB = BC = CD = DA i.e., each pair of adjacent sides
being equal.
5. Rectangle Fig. 13.7

A parallelogram one of whose angles is a right angle is

called a rectangle.
In Fig. 13.8, ABCD is a rectangle in which AB||DC, AD||BC
and ∠A = ∠B = ∠C = ∠D = 90o.

Fig. 13.8
6. Square
A square is a rectangle, with a pair of adjacent sides equal.
In other words, a parallelogram having all sides equal and each angle a right angle is called
a square.

Fig. 13.9

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In Fig. 13.9, ABCD is a square in which AB||DC, AD||BC, and AB = BC = CD = DA and

∠A = ∠B = ∠C = ∠D = 90o.
Let us take some examples to illustrate different types of quadrilaterals.
Notes
Example 13.1: In Fig 13.10, PQR is a triangle.
S and T are two points on the sides PQ and PR
respectively such that ST||QR. Name the type of
quadrilateral STRQ so formed.
Solution: Quadrilateral STRQ is a trapezium,
because ST||QR.
Example 13.2: The three angles of a quadrilateral
are 100o, 50o and 70o. Find the measure of the
fourth angle. Fig. 13.10
Solution: We know that the sum of the angles of a quadrilateral is 360o.
Then 100o + 50o + 70o + xo = 360o
220o + xo = 360o
x = 140
Hence, the measure of fourth angle is 140o.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 13.1

1. Name each of the following quadrilaterals.

(i) (ii) (iii)

(iv) (v) (vi)

Fig. 13.10

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2. State which of the following statements are correct ?

(i) Sum of interior angles of a quadrilateral is 360°.

(ii) All rectangles are squares, Notes

(iii) A rectangle is a parallelogram.

(iv) A square is a rhombus.

(v) A rhombus is a parallelogram.

(vi) A square is a parallelogram.

(vii) A parallelogram is a rhombus.

(viii) A trapezium is a parallelogram.

(ix) A trapezium is a rectangle.

(x) A parallelogram is a trapezium.

3. In a quadrilateral, all its angles are equal. Find the measure of each angle.

4. The angles of a quadrilateral are in the ratio 5:7:7: 11. Find the measure of each angle.

5. If a pair of opposite angles of a quadrilateral are supplementary, what can you say
about the other pair of angles?

13.3 PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF

QUADRILATERALS

1. Properties of a Parallelogram

We have learnt that a parallelogram is a quadrilateral with both pairs of opposite sides
parallel. Now let us establish some relationship between sides, angles and diagonals of a
parallelogram.

Draw a pair of parallel lines l and m as shown in Fig. l3.12. Draw another pair of parallel
lines p and q such that they intersect l and m. You observe that a parallelogram ABCD is
formed. Join AC and BD. They intersect each other at O.

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Notes

Fig. l3.12

Now measure the sides AB, BC, CD and DA. What do you find?

You will find that AB = DC and BC = AD.

Also measure ∠ABC, ∠BCD, ∠CDA and ∠DAB.

What do you find?

You will find that ∠DAB = ∠BCD and ∠ABC = ∠CDA

Again, Measure OA, OC, OB and OD.

What do you find?

You will find that OA = OC and OB = OD

Draw another parallelogram and repeat the activity. You will find that

The opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal.

The opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal.
The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.

The above mentioned properties of a parallelogram can also be verified by Cardboard

model which is as follows:
Let us take a cardboard. Draw any parallelogram ABCD on it. Draw its diagonal AC as
shown in Fig 13.13 Cut the parallelogram ABCD from the cardboard. Now cut this
parallelogram along the diagonal AC. Thus, the parallelogram has been divided into two
parts and each part is a triangle.
In other words, you get two triangles, ΔABC and ΔADC. Now place ΔADC on
ΔABC in such a way that the vertex D falls on the vertex B and the side CD falls along the
side AB.

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Notes

Fig. 13.13
Where does the point C fall?
Where does the point A fall?
You will observe that ΔADC will coincide with ΔABC. In other words ΔABC ≅ ΔADC.
Also AB = CD and BC = AD and ∠B = ∠D.
You may repeat this activity by taking some other parallelograms, you will always get the
same results as verified earlier, thus, proving the above two properties of the parallelogram.
Now you can prove the third property of the parallelogram, i.e., the diagonals of a
parallelogram bisect each other.
Again take a thin cardboard. Draw any parallelogram PQRS on it. Draw its diagonals
PR and QS which intersect each other at O as shown in Fig. l3.14. Now cut the
parallelogram PQRS.

Fig. 13.14
Also cut ΔPOQ and ΔROS.
Now place ΔROS and ΔPOQ in such a way that the vertex R coincides with the vertex P
and RO coincides with the side PO.
Where does the point S fall?
Where does the side OS fall?
Is ΔROS ≅ ΔPOQ? Yes, it is.

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So, what do you observe?

We find that RO = PO and OS = OQ

Notes You may also verify this property by taking another pair of triangles i.e. ΔPOS and ΔROQ
You will again arrive at the same result.
You may also verify the following properties which are the converse of the properties of a
parallelogram verified earlier.

A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if its opposite sides are equal.

A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if its opposite angles are equal.
A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if its diagonals bisect each other.

2. Properties of a Rhombus
In the previous section we have defined a rhombus. We know that a rhombus is a
parallelogram in which a pair of adjacent sides is equal. In Fig. 13.15, ABCD is a
rhombus.

Fig. 13.15
Thus, ABCD is a parallelogram with AB = BC. Since every rhombus is a parallelogram,
therefore all the properties of a parallelogram are also true for rhombus, i.e.

(i) Opposite sides are equal,

i.e., AB = DC and AD = BC
(ii) Opposite angles are equal,
i.e., ∠ A = ∠ C and ∠ B = ∠ D
(iii) Diagonals bisect each other
i.e., AO = OC and DO = OB
Since adjacent sides of a rhombus are equal and by the property of a parallelogram opposite
sides are equal. Therefore,
AB = BC = CD = DA

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Thus, all the sides of a rhombus are equal. Measure ∠AOD and ∠BOC.
What is the measures of these angles?
You will find that each of them equals 90°
Notes
Also ∠ AOB = ∠ COD (Each pair is a vertically opposite angles)
and ∠ BOC = ∠ DOA
∴ ∠ AOB = ∠ COD = ∠ BOC = ∠ DOA = 90°
Thus, the diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other at right angles.
You may repeat this experiment by taking different rhombuses, you will find in each case,
the diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other.
Thus, we have the following properties of a rhombus.
All sides of a rhombus are equal
Opposite angles of a rhombus are equal
The diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other at right angles.

3. Properties of a Rectangle
We know that a rectangle is a parallelogram one of whose angles is a right angle. Can you
say whether a rectangle possesses all the properties of a parallelogram or not?
Yes it possesses. Let us study some more properties of a rectangle.
Draw a parallelogram ABCD in which ∠ B = 90°.
Join AC and BD as shown in the Fig. 13.16

Fig. 13.16
Measure ∠BAD, ∠BCD and ∠ADC, what do you find?
What are the measures of these angles?
The measure of each angle is 90°. Thus, we can conclude that
∠A = ∠B = ∠C = ∠D = 90o

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i.e., each angle of a rectangle measures 90°. Now measure the diagonals AC and BD. Do
you find that AC = BD.
Now, measure AO, OC, BO and OD.
Notes
You will find that AO = OC and BO = OD.
Draw some more rectangles of different dimensions. Label them again by ABCD. Join AC
and BD in each case. Let them intersect each other at O. Also measure AO, OC and BO,
OD for each rectangle. In each case you will find that
The diagonals of a rectangle are equal and they bisect each other. Thus, we have the
following properties of a rectangle;

The opposite sides of a rectangle are equal

Each angle of a rectangle is a right-angle.
The diagonals of a rectangle are equal.
The diagonals of a rectangle bisect each other.

4. Properties of a Square
You know that a square is a rectangle, with a pair of adjacent sides equal. Now, can you
conclude from definition of a square that a square is a rectangle and possesses all the
properties of a rectangle? Yes it is. Let us now study some more properties of a square.
Draw a square ABCD as shown in Fig. 13.17.

Fig 13.17

Since ABCD is a rectangle, therefore we have

(i) AB = DC, AD = BC
(ii) ∠A = ∠B = ∠C = ∠D = 90o
(iii) AC = BD and AO = OC, BO = OD

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But in a square we have AB = AD
∴ By property (i) we have
AB = AD = CD = BC.
Notes
Since a square is also a rhombus. Therefore, we conclude that the diagonals AC and BD
of a square bisect each other at right angles.
Thus, we have the following properties of a square.

All the sides of a square are equal

Each of the angles measures 90o.
The diagonals of a square are equal.
The diagonals of a square bisect each other at right angles.
Let us study some examples to illtustrate the above properties:
Example 13.3: In Fig. 13.17, ABCD is a parallelogram. If ∠A = 80o, find the measures
of the remaining angles
Solution: As ABCD is a parallelogram.
∠A = ∠C and ∠B = ∠D
It is given that
∠A = 80o
∴ ∠C = 80o
∴ AB || DC
∴ ∠A + ∠D = 180o Fig 13.18
∴ ∠D = (180 – 80)o = 100o
∴ ∠B = ∠D = 100o
Hence ∠C = 80o, ∠B = 100o and ∠D 100o
Example 13.4: Two adjacent angles of a rhombus are in the ratio 4 : 5. Find the measure
of all its angles.
Solution: Since opposite sides of a rhombus are parallel, the sum of two adjacent angles
of a rhombus is 180o.
Let the measures of two angles be 4xo and 5xo,
Therefore, 4x + 5x = 180
i.e. 9x = 180

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x = 20
∴ The two measures of angles are 80o and 100o.
Notes i.e. ∠A = 80o and ∠B = 100o
Since ∠A = ∠C ⇒ ∠C = 100o
Also, ∠B = ∠D ⇒ ∠D =100o
Hence, the measures of angles of the
rhombus are 80o, 100o, 80o and 100o. Fig 13.19
Example 13.5: One of the diagonals of a rhombus is equal to one of its sides. Find the
angles of the rhombus.
Solution: Let in rhombus, ABCD,
AB = AD = BD
∴ ΔABD is an equilateral triangle.
∴ ∠DAB = ∠1 = ∠2 = 60o ....(1)
Similarly ∠BCD = ∠3 = ∠4 = 60o ....(2)
Also from (1) and (2)
Fig 13.20
∠ABC = ∠B = ∠1 + ∠3 = 60o + 60o = 120o
∠ADC = ∠D = ∠2 + ∠4 = 60o + 60o = 120o
Hence, ∠A = 60o, ∠B = 120o, ∠C = 60o and ∠D = 120o
Example 13.6: The diagonals of a rhombus ABCD intersect at O. If ∠ADC = 120o and
OD = 6 cm, find
(a) ∠OAD
(b) side AB
(c) perimeter of the rhombus ABCD
Solution: (a) Given that
∠ADC = 120o
i.e. ∠ADO + ∠ODC = 120o Fig 13.21
But ∠ADO = ∠ODC (ΔAOD ≅ ΔCOD)
∴ 2∠ADO = 120o
i.e. ∠ADO = 60o ...(i)

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Also, we know that the diagonals of a rhombus bisect each that at 90o.
∴ ∠DOA = 90o ...(ii)
Now, in ΔDOA
Notes
∠ADO + ∠DOA + ∠OAD = 180 o

From (i) and (ii), we have

60o + 90o + ∠OAD = 180o
⇒ ∠OAD = 30o
(b) Now, ∠DAB = 60o [since ∠OAD = 30o, similarly ∠OAB = 30o]
∴ΔDAB is an equilateral triangle.
OD = 6 cm [given]
⇒ OD + OB = BD
6 cm + 6 cm = BD
⇒ BD = 12 cm
so, AB = BD = AD = 12 cm
AB = 12 cm
(c) Now Perimeter = 4 × side
= (4 × 12) cm
= 48 cm
Hence, the perimeter of the rhombus = 48 cm.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 13.2

1. In a parallelogram ABCD, ∠A = 62o. Fing the measures of the other angles.
2. The sum of the two opposite angles of a parallelogram is 150o. Find all the angles of
the parallelogram.
3. In a parallelogram ABCD, ∠A = (2x + 10)o and ∠C = (3x – 20)o. Find the value of x.
4. ABCD is a parallelogram in which ∠DAB = 70o and ∠CBD = 55o. Find ∠CDB and
∠ADB.
5. ABCD is a rhombus in which ∠ABC = 58o. Find the measure of ∠ACD.

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6. In Fig. 13.22, the diagonals of a rectangle PQRS intersect each other at O. If ∠ROQ
= 40o, find the measure of ∠OPS.

Notes

Fig 13.22

7. AC is one diagonal of a square ABCD. Find the measure of ∠CAB.

13.4 MID POINT THEOREM

Draw any triangle ABC. Find the mid points of side AB and AC. Mark them as D and E
respectively. Join DE, as shown in Fig. 13.23.
Measure BC and DE.
What relation do you find between the
length of BC and DE?

1
Of course, it is DE = BC
2

Again, measure ∠ADE and ∠ABC.

Fig 13.23
Are these angles equal?
Yes, they are equal. You know that these angles make a pair of corresponding angles. You
know that when a pair of corresponding angles are equal, the lines are parallel
∴ DE || BC
You may repeat this expreiment with another two or three triangles and naming each of
them as triangle ABC and the mid point as D and E of sides AB and AC respectively.

1
You will always find that DE = BC and DE || BC.
2

Thus, we conclude that

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In a triangle the line-segment joining the mid points of any two sides is
parallel to the third side and is half of it.
We can also verify the converse of the
above stated result. Notes
Draw any ΔPQR. Find the mid point of
side RQ, and mark it as L. From L, draw
a line LX || PQ, which intersects, PR at
M.
Measure PM and MR. Are they equal?
Yes, they are equal.
You may repeat with different triangles
and by naming each of them as PQR and
taking each time L as the mid-point of Fig 13.24
RQ and drawing a line LM || PQ, you
will find in each case that RM = MP.
Thus, we conclude that
“The line drawn through the mid point of one side of a triangle parallel to
the another side bisects the third side.”
Example 13.7: In Fig. 13.25, D is the mid-point of the side AB of ΔABC and DE || BC.
If AC = 8 cm, find AE.
Solution: In ΔABC, DE || BC and D is the mid point of AB
∴ E is also the mid point of AC

1
i.e. AE = AC
2

⎛1 ⎞
= ⎜ × 8 ⎟ cm [Q AC = 8 cm]
⎝2 ⎠
= 4 cm Fig 13.25

Hence, AE = 4 cm
Example 13.8: In Fig. 13.26, ABCD is a
trapezium in which AD and BC are its non-parallel
sides and E is the mid-point of AD. EF || AB.
Show that F is the mid-point of BC.
Solution: Since EG || AB and E is the mid-point
of AD (considering ΔABD)
∴ G is the mid point of DB Fig 13.26

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In ΔDBC, GF || DC and G is the mid-point of DB,

∴ F is the mid-point of BC.

Notes Example 13.9: ABC is a triangle, in which P, Q and R are mid-points of the sides AB, BC
and CA respectively. If AB = 8 cm, BC = 7 cm and CA = 6 cm, find the sides of the
triangle PQR.
Solution: P is the mid-point of AB and R the mid-point of AC.

1
∴ PR || BC and PR = BC
2
1
= × 7 cm [Q BC = cm]
2
= 3.5 cm
1
Similarly, PQ = AC
2
1
= × 6 cm [Q AC = 6 cm]
2
Fig 13.27
= 3 cm
1
and QR = AB
2
1
= × 8 cm [Q AB = 8 cm]
2
= 4 cm
Hence, the sides of ΔPQR are PQ = 3 cm, QR = 4 cm and PR = 3.5 cm.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 13.3

1. In Fig. 13.28, ABC is an equilateral triangle. D, E and F are the mid-points of the sides
AB, BC and CA respectively. Prove that DEF is also an equilateral triangle.

Fig. 13.28
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2. In Fig. 13.29, D and E are the mid-points of the sides AB and AC respectively of a
ΔABC. If BC = 10 cm; find DE.

Notes

Fig. 13.29
3. In Fig. 13.30, AD is a median of the ΔABC and E is the mid-point of AD, BE is
produced to meet AC at F. DG || EF, meets AC at G. If AC = 9 cm, find AF.
[Hint: First consider ΔADG and next consider ΔCBF]

Fig. 13.30
4. In Fig. 13.31, A and C divide the side PQ of ΔPQR into three equal parts, AB||CD||QR.
Prove that B and D also divide PR into three equal parts.

Fig. 13.31

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5. In Fig. 13.32, ABC is an isosceles triangle in which AB = AC. M is the mid-point of

AB and MN||BC. Show that ΔAMN is also an isosceles triangle.

Notes

Fig. 13.32

13.5 EQUAL INTERCEPT THEORM

Recall that a line which intersects two or more lines is called a transversal. The line-segment
cut off from the transversal by a pair of lines is called an intercept. Thus, in Fig. 13.33, XY
is an intercept made by line l and m on transversal n.

Fig. 13.33
The intercepts made by parallel lines on a transversal have some special properties which
we shall study here.
Let l and m be two parallel lines and XY be an intercept made on the transversal “n”. If
there are three parallel lines and they are intersected by a transversal, there will be two
intercepts AB and BC as shown in Fig. 13.34 (ii).

(i) (ii)
Fig. 13.34

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Now let us learn an important property of intercepts made on the transversals by the
parallel lines.
On a page of your note-book, draw any two transversals l and m intersecting the equidistant
parallel lines p, q, r and s as shown in Fig. 13.35. These transversals make different Notes
intercepts. Measure the intercept AB, BC and CD. Are they equal? Yes, they are equal.

Fig. 13.35
Also, measure LM, MN and NX. Do you find that they are also equal? Yes, they are.
Repeat this experiment by taking another set of two or more equidistant parallel lines and
measure their intercepts as done earlier. You will find in each case that the intercepts made
are equal.
Thus, we conclude the following:

If there are three or more parallel lines and the intercepts made by them on
a transversal are equal, the corresponding intercepts made on any other
transversal are also equal.

Let us illustrate it by some examples: This result is

known as Equal Intercept Theorm.
Example 13.10: In Fig. 13.36, p || q ||r. The
transversal l, m and n cut them at L, M, N; A, B,
C and X, Y, Z respectively such that XY = YZ.
Show that AB = BC and LM = MN.
Solution: Given that XY = YZ
∴ AB = BC (Equal Intercept theorem)
and LM = MN
Thus, the other pairs of equal intercepts are Fig. 13.36

AB = BC and LM = MN.
Example 13.11: In Fig. 13.37, l || m || n and PQ = QR. If XZ = 20 cm, find YZ.

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Solution: We have PQ = QR
∴ By intercept theorem,

Notes XY = YZ
Also XZ = XY + YZ
= YZ + YZ
∴ 20 = 2YZ ⇒ YZ = 10 cm
Hence, YZ = 10 cm
Fig. 13.37

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 13.4

1. In Fig. 13.38, l, m and n are three equidistant parallel lines. AD, PQ and GH are three
transversal, If BC = 2 cm and LM = 2.5 cm and AD || PQ, find MS and MN.

Fig. 13.38
2. From Fig. 13.39, when can you say that AB = BC and XY = YZ?

Fig. 13.39

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3. In Fig. 13.40, LM = MZ = 3 cm, find XY, XP and BZ. Given that l || m || n and PQ =
3.2 cm, AB = 3.5 cm and YZ = 3.4 cm.

Notes

Fig. 13.40

13.6 THE DIAGONAL OF A PARALLELOGRAM AND

RELATION TO THE AREA
Draw a parallelogram ABCD. Join its diagonal AC. DP ⊥ DC and QC ⊥ DC.
Consider the two triangles ADC and ACB in which the parallelogram ABCD has been
divided by the diagonal AC. Because AB || DC, therefore PD = QC.

Fig. 13.41
1
Now, Area of ΔADC = DC × PD ....(i)
2

1
Area of ΔACB = AB × QC ....(ii)
2
As AB = DC and PD = QC
∴ Area (ΔADC) = Area (ΔACB)
Thus, we conclude the following:

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A diagonal of a parallelogram divides it into two triangles of equal area.

Notes 13.7 PARALLELOGRAMS AND TRIANGLES BETWEEN

THE SAME PARALLELS
Two parallelograms or triangles, having same or equal bases and having their other vertices
on a line parallel to their bases, are said to be on the same or equal bases and between the
same parallels.
We will prove an important theorem on parallelogram and their area.

Theorm: Parallelogrm on the same base (or equal bases) and between the
same parallels are equal in area.

Let us prove it logically.

Given: Parallelograms ABCD and PBCQ stand
on the same base BC and between the same
parallels BC and AQ.
To prove: Area (ABCD) = Area (BCQP)
Fig. 13.42
we have AB = DC (Opposite sides of a parallelogram)
and BP = CQ (Opposite sides of a parallelogram)
∠1 = ∠2
∴ ΔABP ≅ ΔDCQ
∴ Area (ΔABP) = Area (ΔDCQ) ...(i)
Now, Area (||gm ABCD) = Area (ΔABP) + Area Trapezium, BCDP) ...(ii)
Area (||gm BCQP) = Area (ΔDCQ) + Area Trapezium, BCDP) ...(iii)
From (i), (ii) and (iii), we get
Area (||gm ABCD) = Area (||gm BCQP)
Parallelogram on the same base (or equal bases) and between the same
parallels are equal in area.

Note: ||gm stands for parallelogram.

Result: Triangles, on the same base and between the same parallels, are equal in area.
Consider Fig. 13.42. Join the diagonals BQ and AC of the two parallelograms BCQP and
ABCD respectively. We know that a diagonals of a ||gm divides it in two triangles of equal
area.

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∴ Area (ΔBCQ) = Area (ΔPBQ) [Each half of ||gm BCQP]
and Area (ΔΑBC) = Area (ΔCAD) [Each half of ||gm ABCD]
∴ Area (ΔABC) = Area (ΔBCQ) [Since area of ||gm ABCD = Area of ||gm BCQP]
Notes
Thus we conclude the following:
Triangles on the same base (or equal bases) and between the same parallels
are equal in area.

13.8 TRIANGLES ON THE SAME OR EQUAL BASES

HAVING EQUAL AREAS HAVE THEIR
CORRESPONDING ALTITUDES EQUAL
1
Recall that the area of triangle = (Base) × Altitude
2

Fig. 13.43
Here BC = QR
and Area (ΔABC) = Area (ΔDBC) = Area (ΔPQR) [Given] ..(i)
Draw perpendiculars DE and PS from D and P to the line m meeting it in E and S
respectively.

1
Now Area (ΔABC) = BC × DE
2

1
Area (ΔDBC) = BC × DE ...(ii)
2
1
and Area (ΔPQR) = QR × PS
2
Also, BC = QR (given) ...(iii)
From (i), (ii) and (iii), we get

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1 1
BC × DE = QR × PS
2 2

Notes 1 1
or BC × DE = BC × PS
2 2
∴ DE = PS
i.e., Altitudes of ΔABC, ΔDBC and ΔPQR are equal in length.
Thus, we conclude the following:

Triangles on the same or equal bases, having equal areas have their
corresponding altitudes equal.

Let us consider some examples:

Example 13.12: In Fig. 13.44, the area of parallelogram ABCD is 40 sq cm. If
BC = 8 cm, find the altitude of parallelogram BCEF.
Solution: Area of ||gm BCEF = Area of ||gm ABCD = 40 sq cm
we know that Area (||gm BCEF) = EF × Altitude
or 40 = BC × Altitude of ||gm BCEF
or 40 = BC × Altitude of ||gm BCEF

40
∴ Altitude of ||gm BCEF = cm or 5 cm. Fig. 13.44
8
Example 13.13: In Fig. 13.45, the area of ΔABC is given to be 18 cm2. If the altitude DL
equals 4.5 cm, find the base of the ΔBCD.
Solution: Area (ΔBCD) = Area (ΔABC) = 18 cm2
Let the base of ΔBCD be x cm
1
∴ Area of ΔBCD = x × DL
2
⎛1 ⎞
= ⎜ x × 4.5 ⎟ cm2
⎝2 ⎠
⎛9 ⎞
or 18 = ⎜ x ⎟ Fig. 13.45
⎝4 ⎠
⎛ 4⎞
∴ x = ⎜18 × ⎟ cm = 8 cm.
⎝ 9⎠

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Example 13.14: In Fig. 13.46, ABCD and ACED are two parallelograms. If area of
ΔABC equals 12 cm2, and the length of CE and BC are equal, find the area of the trapezium
ABED.
Notes

Fig. 13.46
gm gm
Solution: Area (|| ABCD) = Area (|| ACED)
The diagonal AC divides the ||gm ABCD into two triangles of equal area.

1
∴ Area (ΔBCD) = Area (||gm ABCD)
2
∴ Area (||gm ABCD) = Area (||gm ACED) = 2 × 12 cm2
= 24 cm2
∴ Area of Trapezium ABED
= Area (ΔABC) + Area (||gm ACED)
= (12 + 24) cm2
= 36 cm2

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 13.5

1. When do two parallelograms on the same base (or equal bases) have equal areas?
2. The area of the triangle ABC formed by joining the diagonal AC of a ||gm ABCD is 16
cm2. Find the area of the ||gm ABCD.
3. The area of ΔACD in Fig. 13.47 is 8 cm2. If EF = 4 cm, find the altitude of ||gm BCFE.

Fig. 13.47

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LET US SUM UP
Notes • A quadrilateral is a four sided closed figure, enclosing some region of the plane.
• The sum of the interior or exterior angles of a quadrilateral is equal to 360o each.
• A quadrilateral is a trapezium if its only one pair of opposite sides is parallel.
• A quadrilateral is a parallelogrm if both pairs of sides are parallel.
• In a parallelogram:
(i) opposite sides and angles are equal.
(ii) diagonals bisect each other.
• A parallelogram is a rhombus if its adjacent sides are equal.
• The diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other at right angle.
• A parallelogram is a rectangle if its one angle is 90o.
• The diagonals of a rectangle are equal.
• A rectangle is a square if its adjacent sides are equal.
• The diagonals of a square intersect at right angles.
• The diagonal of a parallelogram divides it into two triangles of equal area.
• Parallelogram on the same base (or equal bases) and between the same parallels are
equal in area.
• The triangles on the same base (or equal bases) and between the same parallels are
equal in area.
• Triangles on same base (or equal bases) having equal areas have their corrsponding
altitudes equal.

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Which of the following are trapeziums?

Fig. 13.48

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2. In Fig. 13.49, PQ || FG || DE || BC. Name all the trapeziums in the figure.

Notes

Fig. 13.49
3. In Fig. 13.50, ABCD is a parallelogram with an area of 48 cm2. Find the area of (i)
shaded region (ii) unshaded region.

Fig. 13.49
4. Fill in the blanks in each of the following to make them true statements:
(i) A quadrilateral is a trapezium if ....
(ii) A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if ....
(iii) A rectangle is a square if ...
(iv) the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other at right angle. If none of the
angles of the quadrilateral is a right angle, it is a ...
(v) The sum of the exterior angles of a quadrilateral is ...
5. If the angles of a quadrilateral are (x – 20)o, (x + 20)o, (x – 15)o and (x + 15)o, find x
and the angles of the quadrilateral.
6. The sum of the opposite angles of a parallelograms is 180o. What type of a parallelogram
is it?

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7. The area of a ΔABD in Fig. 13.51 is 24 cm2. If DE = 6 cm, and AB || CD, BD || CE,
AE || BC, find

Notes

Fig. 13.51
(i) Altitude of the parallelogram BCED.
(ii) Area of the parallelogram BCED.
8. In Fig. 13.52, the area of parallelogram ABCD is 40 cm2. If EF = 8 cm, find the
altitude of ΔDCE.

Fig. 13.52

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

13.1
1. (i) Rectangle (ii) Trapezium (iii) Rectangle (iv) Parallelogram
(v) Rhombus (vi) Square
2. (i) True (ii) False (iii) True (iv) True
(v) True (vi) True (vii) False (viii) False
(ix) False (x) False
o
3. 90
4. 60o, 84o, 84o and 132o
5. Other pair of opposite angles will also be supplementary.
13.2
1. ∠B = 118o, ∠C = 62o and ∠D = 118o
2. ∠A = 105o, ∠B = 75o, ∠C = 105o and ∠D = 75o

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3. 30
4. ∠CDB = 55o and ∠ADB = 55o
5. ∠ACD = 61o
6. ∠OPS = 70o 7. ∠CAB = 45o Notes
13.3
2. 5 cm
3. 3 cm
13.4
1. MS = 2 cm and MN = 2.5 cm
2. 1, m and n are three equidistant parallel lines
3. XY = 3.4 cm, XP = 3.2 cm and BZ = 3.5 cm
13.5
1. When they are lying between the same parallel lines
2. 32 cm2
3. 4 cm

ANSWERS TO TERMINAL EXERCISE

1. (i) and (iii)
2. PFGQ, FDEG, DBCE, PDEQ, FBCG and PBCQ
3. (i) 24 cm2 (ii) 24 cm2
4. (i) any one pair of opposite sides are parallel.
(ii) both pairs of opposite sids are parallel
(iii) pair of adjacent sides are equal
(iv) rhombus
(v) 360o
5. x = 90o, angles are 70o, 110o, 75o and 105o respectively.
6. Rectangle.
7. (i) 8 cm (ii) 48 cm2
8. 5 cm

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Notes
14
SIMILARITY OF TRIANGLES

Looking around you will see many objects which are of the same shape but of same or
different sizes. For examples, leaves of a tree have almost the same shape but same or
different sizes. Similarly, photographs of different sizes developed from the same negative
are of same shape but different sizes, the miniature model of a building and the building
itself are of same shape but different sizes. All those objects which have the same
shape but not necessarily the same size are called similar objects.
Let us examine the similarity of plane figures (Fig. 14.1):

(i) Two line-segments of the same length are congruent as well as similar and of different
lengths are similar but not congruent.

Fig. 14.1 (i)

(ii) Two circles of the same radius are congurent as well as similar and circles of different
radii are similar but not congruent.

Fig. 14.1 (ii)

(iii) Two equilateral triangles of different sides are similar but not congruent.

Fig. 14.1 (iii)

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(iv) Two squares of different sides are similar but not congruent.

Notes

Fig. 14.1 (iv)

In this lesson, we shall study about the concept of similarity, particularly similarity of triangles
and the conditions thereof. We shall also study about various results related to them.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to
• identify similar figures;
• distinguish between congurent and similar plane figures;
• prove that if a line is drawn parallel to one side of a triangle then the other two
sides are divided in the same ratio;
• state and use the criteria for similarity of triangles viz. AAA, SSS and SAS;
• verify and use unstarred results given in the curriculum based on similarity
experimentally;
• prove the Baudhayan/Pythagoras Theorem;
• apply these results in verifying experimentally (or proving logically) problems
based on similar triangles.

EXPECTED BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE

• knowledge of plane figures like triangles, quadrilaterals, circles, rectangles, squares,
etc.
• criteria of congruency of triangles.
• finding squares and square-roots of numbers.
• ratio and proportion.
• Interior and exterior angles of a triangle.

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14.1 SIMILAR PLANE FIGURES

Notes

Fig. 14.2
In Fig. 14.2, the two pentagons seem to be of the same shape.
We can see that if ∠A = ∠A′, ∠B = ∠B′, ∠C = ∠C′, ∠D = ∠D′ and ∠E = E′ and
AB BC CD DE EA
= = = = . then the two pentagons are similar. Thus we say
A' B' B' C' C' D' D' E' E' A'
that

Any two polygons, with corresponding angles equal and corresponding sides
proportional, are similar.

Thus, two polygons are similar, if they satisfiy the following two conditions:

(i) Corresponding angles are equal.

(ii) The corresponding sides are proportional.
Even if one of the conditions does not hold, the polygons are not similar as in the case of a
rectangle and square given in Fig. 14.3. Here all the corresponding angles are equal but
the corresponding sides are not proportional.

Fig. 14.3

14.2 BASIC PROPORTIONALITY THEORM

We state below the Basic Proportionality Theorm:
If a line is drawn parallel to one side of a triangle intersecting the other two
sides, the other two sides of the triangle are divided proportionally.

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Thus, in Fig. 14.4, DE || BC, According to the above result

AD AE
=
DB EC
Notes
We can easily verify this by measuring AD, DB, AE and
EC. You will find that

AD AE Fig. 14.4
=
DB EC
We state the converse of the above result as follows:
If a line divides any two sides of a triangle in the same ratio, the line is parallel to
third side of the triangle.

AD AE
Thus, in Fig 14.4, if DE divides side AB and AC of ΔABC such that = , then
DB EC
DE || BC.
We can verify this by measuring ∠ADE and ∠ABC and finding that
∠ADE = ∠ABC
These being corresponding angles, the line DE and BC are parallel.
We can verify the above two results by taking different triangles.
Let us solve some examples based on these.
Example 14.1: In Fig. 14.5, DE || BC. If AD = 3 cm, DB = 5 cm and AE = 6 cm, find
AC.
Solution: DE || BC (Given). Let EC = x
AD AE
∴ =
DB EC
3 6
∴ =
5 x
⇒ 3 x = 30
⇒ x = 10 Fig. 14.5
∴ EC = 10 cm
∴ AC = AE + EC = 16 cm
5
Example 14.2: In Fig. 14.6, AD = 4 cm, DB = 5 cm, AE = 4.5 cm and EC = 5 cm.
8
Is DE || BC? Given reasons for your answer.

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Solution: We are given that AD = 4 cm and DB = 5 cm

AD 4
∴ =
Notes DB 5

AE 4.5 9 8 4
= = × =
Similarly, EC 45 2 45 5
8
Fig. 14.6
AD AE
∴ =
DB EC
∴ According to converse of Basic Proportionality Theorem
DE || BC

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 14.1

1. In Fig. 14.7 (i) and (ii), PQ || BC. Find the value of x in each case.

(i) (ii)
Fig. 14.7
2. In Fig. 14.8 [(i)], find whether DE || BC is parallel to BC or not? Give reasons for your
answer.

(i)
Fig. 14.8

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14.3 BISECTOR OF AN ANGLE OF A TRIANGLE

We now state an important result as given below:
The bisector of an interior angle of a triangle divides the opposite side in Notes
the ratio of sides containing the angle.

According to the above result, if AD is the internal

bisector of ∠A of ΔABC, then

BD AB
= (Fig. 14.9)
DC AC
We can easily verify this by measuring BD, DC, AB
and AC and finding the ratios. We will find that
Fig. 14.9
BD AB
=
DC AC
Repeating the same activity with other triangles, we may verify the result.
Let us solve some examples to illustrate this.
Example 14.3: The sides AB and AC of a triangle are of length 6 cm and 8 cm respectively.
The bisector AD of ∠A intersects the opposite side BC in D such that BD = 4.5 cm (Fig.
14.10). Find the length of segment CD.
Solution: According to the above result, we have

BD AB
=
DC AC
( Q AD is internal bisector of ∠A of ΔABC)

4.5 6
or =
x 8
⇒ 6x = 4.5 × 8
x=6 Fig. 14.10

i.e., the length of line-segment CD = 6 cm.

Example 14.4: The sides of a triangle are 28 cm, 36 cm and 48 cm. Find the lengths of
the line-segments into which the smallest side is divided by the bisector of the angle opposite
to it.
Solution: The smallest side is of length 28 cm and the sides forming ∠A opposite to it are
36 cm and 48 cm. Let the angle bisector AD meet BC in D (Fig. 14.11).

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BD 36 3
∴ = =
DC 48 4

Notes 3
⇒ 4BD = 3DC or BD = DC
4
BC = BD + DC = 28 cm

3
∴ DC + DC = 28
4

⎛ 4⎞ Fig. 14.11
∴ DC = ⎜ 28 × ⎟cm = 16 cm
⎝ 7⎠

∴ BD = 12 cm and DC = 16 cm

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 14.2

1. In Fig. 14.12, AD is the bisector of ∠A, meeting BC in D. If AB = 4.5 cm,
BD = 3 cm, DC = 5 cm, find x.

Fig. 14.12
2. In Fig. 14.13, PS is the bisector of ∠P of ΔPQR. The dimensions of some of the sides
are given in Fig. 14.13. Find x.

Fig. 14.13

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3. In Fig. 14.14, RS is the bisector of ∠R of ΔPQR. For the given dimensions, express
p, the length of QS in terms of x, y and z.

Notes

Fig. 14.14

14.4 SIMILARITY OF TRIANGLES

Triangles are special type of polygons and therefore the conditions of similarity of polygons
also hold for triangles. Thus,
Two triangles are similar if

(i) their corresponding angles are equal, and

(ii) their corresponding sides are proportional.

Fig. 14.15

We say that ΔABC is similar to ΔDEF and denote it by writing

ΔABC ~ ΔDEF (Fig. 14.15)
The symbol ‘~’ stands for the phrase “is similar to”
If ΔABC ~ ΔDEF, then by definition

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AB BC CA
∠A = ∠D, ∠B = ∠E, ∠C = ∠F and = = .
DE EF FD

Notes 14.4.1 AAA Criterion for Similarity

We shall show that in the case of triangles if either of the above two conditions is satisfied
then the other automatically holds.

Let us perform the following experiment.

Construct two Δ’s ABC and PQR in which ∠P = ∠A, ∠Q = ∠B and ∠R = ∠C as shown
in Fig. 14.16.

Fig. 14.16

Measure the sides AB, BC and CA of the ΔABC and also measure the sides PQ, QR and
RP of ΔPQR.

AB BC CA
Now find the ratio , and .
PQ QR RP

What do you find? You will find that all the three ratios are equal and therefore the triangles
are similar.

Try this with different triangles with equal corresponding angles. You will find the same
result.

Thus, we can say that:

If in two triangles, the corresponding angles are equal the triangles are similar

This is called AAA similarity criterion.

14.4.2 SSS Criterion for Similarity

Let us now perform the following experiment:

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Draw a triangle ABC with AB = 3 cm, BC = 4.5 cm and CA = 3.5 cm [Fig. 14.17 (i)].
P

Notes

Q R

(i) (ii)
Fig. 14.17

Draw another ΔPQR as shown in Fig. 14.17(ii), with PQ = 6 cm, QR = 9 cm and

PR = 7 cm.
AB BC AC
We can see that = =
PQ QR PR
i.e., the sides of the two triangles are proportional.
Now measure ∠A, ∠B and ∠C of ΔABC and ∠P, ∠Q and ∠R of ΔPQR.
You will find that ∠A = ∠P, ∠B = ∠Q and ∠C = ∠R.
Repeat the experiment with another two triangles having corresponding sides proportional,
you will find that the corresponding angles are equal and so the triangles are similar.
Thus, we can say that

If the corresponding sides of two triangles are proportional the triangles

are similar.

14.4.3 SAS Criterian for Similarity

Let us conduct the following experiment.

Take a line AB = 3 cm and at A construct an angle of 60o. Cut off AC = 4.5 cm. Join BC.

Fig. 14.18

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Now take PQ = 6 cm. At P, draw an angle of 60o and cut off PR = 9 cm (Fig. 14.18) and
join QR.
Measure ∠B, ∠C, ∠Q and ∠R. We shall find that ∠B = ∠Q and ∠C = ∠R
Notes
Thus, ΔABC ~ ΔPQR
Thus, we conclude that
If one angle of a triangle is equal to one angle of the other triangle and the sides
containing these angles are proportional, the triangles are similar.
Thus, we have three important criteria for the similarity of triangles. They are given below:
(i) If in two triangles, the corresponding angles are equal, the triangles are similar.
(ii) If the corresponding sides of two triangles are proportional, the triangles are
similar.
(iii) If one angle of a triangle is equal to one angle of the other triangle and the
sides containing these angles are proportional, the triangles are similar.
Example 14.5: In Fig. 14.19 two triangles ABC and PQR are given in which ∠A = ∠P
and ∠B = ∠Q. Is ΔABC ~ ΔPQR?.

Fig. 14.19
Solution: We are given that
∠A = ∠P and ∠B = ∠Q
We also know that
∠A + ∠B + ∠C = ∠P + ∠Q + ∠R = 180o
Therefore ∠C = ∠R
Thus, according to first criterion of similarity (AAA)
ΔABC ~ ΔPQR

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Example 14.6: In Fig. 14.20, ΔABC ~ ΔPQR. If AC = 4.8 cm, AB = 4 cm and
PQ = 9 cm, find PR.

Notes

m
9c
4.
8
cm
m
4c

Fig. 14.20
Solution: It is given that ΔABC ~ ΔPQR

AB AC
∴ =
PQ PR

Let PR = x cm

4 4.8
∴ =
9 x
⇒ 4 x = 9 × 4.8
⇒ x = 10.8
i.e., PR = 10.8 cm.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 14.3

Find values of x and y of ΔABC ~ ΔPQR in the following figures:

(i)

Fig. 14.21

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Notes
(ii)

Fig. 14.22

(iii)

Fig. 14.23

14.5 SOME MORE IMPORTANT RESULTS

Let us study another important result on similarity in connection with a right triangle and the
perpendicular from the vertex of right angle to the opposite side. We state the result below
and try to verify the same.
If a perpendicualr is drawn from the vertex of the right angle of a right
triangle to the hypotenuse, the triangles on each side of the perpendicular
are similar to each other and to the original triangle.
Let us try to verify this by an activity.
Draw a ΔABC, right angled at A. Draw AD ⊥ to
the hypoenuse BC, meeting it in D.
Let ∠DBA = α,
As ∠ADB = 90o, ∠BAD = 90o – α
As ∠BAC = 90o and ∠BAD = 90o – α
Therefore ∠DAC = α
Fig. 14.24
Similarly ∠DCA = 90o – α
∴ ΔADB and ΔCDA are similar, as it has all the corresponding angles equal.

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Also, the angles B, A and C of ΔBAC are α, 90o and 90o – α respectively.
∴ ΔADB ~ ΔCDA ~ ΔCAB
Another important result is about relation between corresponding sides and areas of similar
triangles. Notes

It states that
The ratio of the areas of two similar triangles is equal to the ratio of the
squares of their corresponding sides.
Let us verify this result by the following activity. Draw two right triangles ABC and PQR
which are similar i.e., their sides are proportional (Fig. 14.25).

Fig. 14.25
Draw AD ⊥ BC and PS ⊥ QR.
Measure the lengths of AD and PS.
Find the product AD × BC and PS × QR
You will find that AD × BC = BC2 and PS × QR = QR2
Now AD × BC = 2 . Area of ΔABC
PS × QR = 2. Area of ΔPQR

Area of ΔABC AD × BC BC2

∴ = = ...(i)
Area of ΔPQR PS × QR QR 2

BC AB AC
As = =
QR PQ PR

Area of ΔABC BC2 AB2 AC2

∴ = = =
Area of ΔPQR QR 2 PQ 2 PR 2

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The activity may be repeated by taking different pairs of similar triangles.

Let us illustrate these results with the help of examples.

Notes Example 14.7: Find the ratio of the area of two similar triangles if one pair of their
corresponding sides are 2.5 cm and 5.0 cm.
Solution: Let the two triangles be ABC and PQR
Let BC = 2.5 cm and QR = 5.0 cm

Area (ΔABC) BC 2 (2.5)

2
1
= = =
Area (ΔPQR ) QR 2
(5.0) 4
2

Example 14.8: In a ΔABC, PQ || BC and intersects AB and AC at P and Q respectively.

AP 2
If = find the ratio of areas ΔAPQ and ΔABC.
BP 3
Solution: In Fig 14.26
PQ || BC

AP AQ 2
∴ = =
BP QC 3

BP QC 3
∴ = = Fig. 14.26
AP AQ 2

BP QC 3 5
∴1 + = 1+ = 1+ =
AP AQ 2 2

AB AC 5 AP AQ 2
⇒ = = ⇒ = =
AP AQ 2 AB AC 5

∴ ΔAPQ ~ ΔABC

Area (ΔAPQ ) AP 2 ⎛ AP ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞
2 2
4
∴ = =⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ = (Q ΔAPQ ~ ΔABC)
Area (ΔABC) AB ⎝ AB ⎠ ⎝ 5 ⎠
2
25

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 14.4

1. In Fig. 14.27, ABC is a right triangle with A = 90o and C = 30o. Show that ΔDAB ~
ΔDCA ~ ΔACB.

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Notes

Fig. 14.27
2. Find the ratio of the areas of two similar triangles if two of their corresponding sides
are of length 3 cm and 5 cm.
3. In Fig. 14.28, ABC is a triangle in which DE || BC. If AB = 6 cm and AD = 2 cm, find
the ratio of the areas of ΔADC and trapezium DBCE.

Fig. 14.28
4. P, Q and R are respectively the mid-points of the sides AB, BC and CA of the ΔABC.
Show that the area of ΔPQR is one-fourth the area of ΔABC.
5. In two similar triangles ABC and PQR, if the corresponding altitudes AD and PS are
in the ratio of 4 : 9, find the ratio of the areas of ΔABC and ΔPQR.

⎡ AB AD BC CA ⎤
⎢Hint : Use PQ = PS = QR = PR ⎥
⎣ ⎦
6. If the ratio of the areas of two similar triangles is 16 : 25, find the ratio of their
corresponding sides.

14.6 BAUDHYAN/PYTHAGORAS THEOREM

We now prove an important theorem, called Baudhayan/Phythagoras Theorem using the
concept of similarity.
Theorem: In a right triangle, the square on the hypotenuse is equal to sum
of the squares on the other two sides.
Given: A right triangle ABC, in which ∠B = 90o.

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To Prove: AC2 = AB2 + BC2

Construction: From B, draw BD ⊥ AC (See Fig. 14.29)
Notes Proof: BD ⊥ AC
∴ ΔADB ~ ΔABC ...(i)
and ΔBDC ~ ΔABC ...(ii)
AB AD
From (i), we get =
AC AB
⇒ AB2 = AC . AD ...(X)
BC DC
From (ii), we get =
AC BC
⇒ BC2 = AC . DC ...(Y)
Adding (X) and (Y), we get Fig. 14.29

AB2 + BC2 = AC (AD + DC)

= AC . AC = AC2
The theorem is known after the name of famous Greek Mathematician Pythagoras. This
was originally stated by the Indian mathematician Baudhayan about 200 years before
Pythagoras in about 800 BC.

14.6.1 Converse of Pythagoras Theorem

The conserve of the above theorem states:

In a triangle, if the square on one side is equal to sum of the squares on the
other two sides, the angle opposite to first side is a right angle.
This result can be verified by the following activity.
Draw a triangle ABC with side 3 cm, 4 cm and 5 cm.
i.e., AB = 3 cm, BC = 4 cm
and AC = 5 cm (Fig. 14.30)
You can see that AB2 + BC2 = (3)2 + (4)2
= 9 + 16 = 25
AC2 = (5)2 = 25
∴ AB2 + BC2 = AC2
The triangle in Fig. 14.30 satisfies the
condition of the above result. Fig. 14.30

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Measure ∠ABC, you will find that ∠ABC = 90o. Construct triangles of sides 5 cm, 12 cm
and 13 cm, and of sides 7 cm, 24 cm, 25 cm. You will again find that the angles opposite
to side of length 13 cm and 25 cm are 90o in each case.
Example 14.9: In a right triangle, the sides containing the right angle are of length 5 cm Notes
and 12 cm. Find the length of the hypotenuse.
Solution: Let ABC be the right triangle, right angled at B.
∴ AB = 5 cm, BC = 12 cm
Also, AC2 = BC2 + AB2
= (12)2 + (5)2
= 144 + 125
= 169
∴ AC = 13
i.e., the length of the hypotenuse is 13 cm.
Example 14.10: Find the length of diagonal of a rectangle the lengths of whose sides are
3 cm and 4 cm.
Solution: In Fig. 14.31, is a rectangle ABCD.
Join the diagonal BD. Now DCB is a right triangle.
∴ BD2 = BC2 + CD2
= 42 + 32
= 16 + 9 = 25
BD = 5 Fig. 14.31
i.e., the length of diagonal of rectangle ABCD is 5 cm.
Example 14.11: In an equilateral triangle, verify that three times the square on one side is
equal to four times the square on its altitude.
Solution: The altitude AD ⊥ BC
and BD = CD (Fig. 14.32)
Let AB = BC = CA = 2a
and BD = CD = a
Let AD = x
∴ x2 = (2a)2 – (a)2 = 3a2
3. (Side)2 = 3. (2a)2 = 12 a2
4. (Altitude)2 = 4. 3a2 = 12a2
Hence the result. Fig. 14.32

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Example 14.12: ABC is a right triangle, right angled at C. If CD, the length of perpendicular
from C on AB is p, BC = a, AC = b and AB = c (Fig. 14.33), show that:
(i) pc = ab
Notes
1 1 1
(ii) 2
= 2+ 2
p a b

Solution: (i) CD ⊥ AB
∴ ΔABC ~ ΔACD

c a
∴ =
b p

⇒ pc = ab
(ii) AB2 = AC2 + BC2 Fig. 14.33
or c2 = b2 + a2
2
⎛ ab ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = b 2 + a 2
⎝ p⎠

1 a 2 + b2 1 1
or = 2 2 = 2+ 2
p2 a b a b

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 14.5

1. The sides of certain triangles are given below. Determine which of them are right
triangles: [AB = c, BC = a, CA = b]

(i) a = 4 cm, b = 5 cm, c = 3 cm

(ii) a = 1.6 cm, b = 3.8 cm, c = 4 cm

(iii) a = 9 cm, b = 16 cm, c = 18 cm

(iv) a = 7 cm, b = 24 cm, c = 25 cm

2. Two poles of height 6 m and 11 m, stand on a plane ground. If the distance between
their feet is 12 m, find the distance between their tops.

3. Find the length of the diagonal of a square of side 10 cm.

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4. In Fig. 14.34, ∠C is acute and AD ⊥ BC. Show that AB2 = AC2 + BC2 – 2 BC. DC.

Notes

Fig. 14.34
5. L and M are the mid-points of the sides AB and AC of ΔABC, right angled at B.
Show that 4LC2 = AB2 + 4 BC2
6. P and Q are points on the sides CA and CB respectively of ΔABC, right angled at C
Prove that AQ2 + BP2 = AB2 + PQ2
7. PQR is an isosceles right triangle with ∠Q = 90o. Prove that PR2 = 2PQ2.
8. A ladder is placed against a wall such that its top reaches upto a height of 4 m of the
wall. If the foot of the ladder is 3 m away from the wall, find the length of the ladder.

LET US SUM UP
• Objects which have the same shape but different or same sizes are called similar objects.
• Any two polygons, with corresponding angles equal and corresponding sides
proportional are similar.
• If a line is drawn parallel to one-side of a triangle, it divides the other two sides in the
same ratio and its converse.
• The bisector of an interior angle of a triangle divides the opposite side in the ratio of
sides containing the angle.
• Two triangles are said to be similar, if
(a) their corresponding angles are equal and
(b) their corresponding sides are proportional
• Criteria of similarity
- AAA criterion
- SSS criterion
- SAS criterion

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• If a perpendicular is drawn from the vertex of the right angle of a right angled triangle
to the hypotenuse, the triangles so formed are similar to each other and to the given
triangle.
Notes
• The ratio of the areas of two similar triangles is equal to the ratio of squares of their
corresponding sides.
• In a right triangle, the square on the hypotenuse is equal to sum of the squares on the
remaining two sides – (Baudhayan Pythagoras Theorem).
• In a triangle, if the square on one side is equal to the sum of the squares on the
remaining two sides, then the angle opposite to the first side is a right angle – converse
of (Baudhayan) Pythagoras Theorem.

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Write the criteria for the similarity of two polygons.
2. Enumerate different criteria for the similarity of the two triangles.
3. In which of the following cases, Δ’s ABC and PQR are similar.
(i) ∠A = 40o, ∠B = 60o, ∠C = 80o, ∠P = 40o, ∠Q = 60o and ∠R = 80o
(ii) ∠A = 50o, ∠B = 70o, ∠C = 60o, ∠P = 50o, ∠Q = 60o and ∠R = 70o
(iii) AB = 2.5 cm, BC = 4.5 cm, CA = 3.5 cm
PQ = 5.0 cm, QR = 9.0 cm, RP = 7.0 cm
(iv) AB = 3 cm, QR = 7.5 cm, RP = 5.0 cm
PQ = 4.5 cm, QR = 7.5 cm, RP = 6.0 cm.
4. In Fig. 14.35, AD = 3 cm, AE = 4.5 cm, DB = 4.0 cm, find CE, give that DE || BC.

Fig. 14.35 Fig. 14.36

5. In Fig. 14.36, DE || AC. From the dimensions given in the figure, find the value of x.

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6. In Fig. 14.37 is shown a ΔABC in which AD = 5 cm, DB = 3 cm, AE = 2.50 cm and
EC = 1.5 cm. Is DE || BC? Give reasons for your answer.

Notes

Fig. 14.37 Fig. 14.38

7. In Fig. 14.38, AD is the internal bisector of ∠A of ΔABC. From the given dimensions,
find x.
8. The perimeter of two similar triangles ABC and DEF are 12 cm and 18 cm. Find the
ratio of the area of ΔABC to that of ΔDEF.
9. The altitudes AD and PS of two similar triangles ABC and PQR are of length 2.5 cm
and 3.5 cm. Find the ratio of area of ΔABC to that of ΔPQR.
10. Which of the following are right triangles?
(i) AB = 5 cm, BC = 12 cm, CA = 13 cm
(ii) AB = 8 cm, BC = 6 cm, CA = 10 cm
(iii) AB = 10 cm, BC = 5 cm, CA = 6 cm
(iv) AB = 25 cm, BC = 24 cm, 7 = 13 cm
(v) AB = a2 + b2, BC = 2ab, CA = a2 – b2 Fig. 14.39
11. Find the area of an equilateral triangle of side 2a.
12. Two poles of heights 12 m and 17 m, stand on a plane ground and the distance
between their feet is 12 m. Find the distance between their tops.
13. In Fig. 13.39, show that:
AB2 = AC2 + BC2 + 2 BC. CD

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MODULE - 3 Similarity of Triangles
Geometry

14. A ladder is placed against a wall and its top reaches a point at a height of 8 m from the
ground. If the distance between the wall and foot of the ladder is 6 m, find the length of
the ladder.
Notes
15. In an equilateral triangle, show that three times the square of a side equals four times
the square of medians.

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

14.1
1. (i) 6 (ii) 6 (iii) 10 cm
2. (i) No (ii) Yes (iii) Yes
14.2
1. 7.5 cm 2. 4 cm
yz
3. (x = –1 is not possible)
x
14.3
1. (i) x = 4.5, y = 3.5 (ii) x = 70, y = 50 (iii) x = 2 cm, y = 7 cm
14.4
2. 9 : 25 3. 1 : 8 5. 16 : 81 6. 4 : 5
14.5
1. (i) Yes (ii) No (iii) No (iv) Yes
2. 13 m 3. 10 2 cm 8. 5 m

ANSWERS TO TERMINAL EXERCISE

AD AE
3. (i) and (iii) 4. 6 cm 5. 4.5 cm 6. Yes : =
DB EC
7. 4.5 cm 8. 4 : 9 9. 25 : 49 10. (i), (ii), (iv) and (v)
11. 3 a2 12. 13 m 14. 10 m

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Circles MODULE - 3
Geometry

15 Notes

CIRCLES

You are already familiar with geometrical figures such as a line segment, an angle, a triangle,
a quadrilateral and a circle. Common examples of a circle are a wheel, a bangle, alphabet
O, etc. In this lesson we shall study in some detail about the circle and related concepts.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to
• define a circle
• give examples of various terms related to a circle
• illustrate congruent circles and concentric circles
• identify and illustrate terms connected with circles like chord, arc, sector, segment,
etc.
• verify experimentally results based on arcs and chords of a circle
• use the results in solving problems

EXPECTED BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE

• Line segment and its length
• Angle and its measure
• Parallel and perpendicular lines
• Closed figures such as triangles, quadrilaterals, polygons, etc.
• Perimeter of a closed figure
• Region bounded by a closed figure
• Congruence of closed figures

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15.1 CIRCLE AND RELATED TERMS

15.1.1 Circle
Notes
A circle is a collection of all points in a plane which are at
a constant distance from a fixed point in the same plane.
Radius : A line segment joining the centre of the circle to
a point on the circle is called its radius.
In Fig. 15.1, there is a circle with centre O and one of its Fig. 15.1
radius is OA. OB is another radius of the same circle.
Activity for you : Measure the length OA and OB and
observe that they are equal. Thus
All radii (plural of radius) of a circle are equal
The length of the radius of a circle is generally denoted by
the letter ‘r’. It is customry to write radius instead of the
length of the radius.
A closed geometric figure in the plane divides the plane
into three parts namely, the inner part of the figure, the
figure and the outer part. In Fig. 15.2, the shaded
portion is the inner part of the circle, the boundary is the
circle and the unshaded portion is the outer part of the
circle. Fig. 15.2

Activity for you

(a) Take a point Q in the inner part of the circle (See
Fig. 15.3). Measure OQ and find that OQ < r. The inner
part of the circle is called the interior of the circle.
(b) Now take a point P in the outer part of the circle
(Fig. 15.3). Measure OP and find that OP > r. The outer
part of the circle is called the exterior of the circle.
Fig. 15.3
15.1.2 Chord

A line segment joining any two points of a circle is called

a chord. In Fig. 15.4, AB, PQ and CD are three chords
of a circle with centre O and radius r. The chord PQ
passes through the centre O of the circle. Such a chord is
called a diameter of the circle. Diameter is usually de-
noted by ‘d’.
Fig. 15.4

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A chord passing though the centre of a circle is called its diameter.
Activity for you :
Measure the length d of PQ, the radius r and find that d is the same as 2r. Thus we have
Notes
d = 2r
i.e. the diameter of a circle = twice the radius of the circle.
Measure the length PQ, AB and CD and find that PQ > AB and PQ > CD, we may
conclude
Diameter is the longest chord of a circle.

15.1.3 Arc

A part of a circle is called an arc. In Fig. 15.5(a) ABC is an arc and is denoted by arc
ABC

(a) (b)
Fig. 15.5

15.1.4 Semicircle

A diameter of a circle divides a circle into two equal arcs, each of which is known as a
semicircle.
In Fig. 15.5(b), PQ is a diameter and PRQ is semicircle and so is PBQ.

15.1.5 Sector
The region bounded by an arc of a circle and two radii at
its end points is called a sector.
In Fig. 15.6, the shaded portion is a sector formed by the
arc PRQ and the unshaded portion is a sector formed by
the arc PTQ.

15.1.6 Segment Fig. 15.6

A chord divides the interior of a circle into two parts,

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Geometry
each of which is called a segment. In Fig. 15.7, the shaded
region PAQP and the unshaded region PBQP are both
segments of the circle. PAQP is called a minor segment
Notes and PBQP is called a major segment.
15.1.7 Circumference
Choose a point P on a circle. If this point moves along the
circle once and comes back to its original position then
the distance covered by P is called the circumference of
Fig. 15.7
the circle

Fig. 15.8
Activity for you :
Take a wheel and mark a point P on the wheel where it touches the ground. Rotate the
wheel along a line till the point P comes back on the ground. Measure the distance be-
tween the Ist and last position of P along the line. This distance is equal to the circumfer-
ence of the circle. Thus,
The length of the boundary of a circle is the circumference of the circle.
Activity for you
Consider different circles and measures their circumference(s) and diameters. Observe
that in each case the ratio of the circumference to the diameter turns out to be the same.
The ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter is always a con-
stant. This constant is universally denoted by Greek letter π .

c c
Therefore, = = π , where c is the circumference of the circle, d its diameter and r is
d 2r
its radius.
22
An approximate value of π is . Aryabhata -I (476 A.D.), a famous Indian Mathema-
7
tician gave a more accurate value of π which is 3.1416. In fact this number is an
irrational number.

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Geometry

15.2 MEASUREMENT OF AN ARC OF A CIRCLE

Consider an arc PAQ of a circle (Fig. 15.9). To measure its length we put a thread along
PAQ and then measure the length of the thread with the help of a scale.
Notes
Similarly, you may measure the length of the arc PBQ.

15.2.1 Minor arc

An arc of circle whose length is less than that of a semi-

circle of the same circle is called a minor arc. PAQ is a
minor arc (See Fig. 15.9)

15.2.2 Major arc Fig. 15.9

An arc of a circle whose length is greater than that of a semicircle of the same circle is
called a major arc. In Fig. 15.9, arc PBQ is a major arc.

15.3 CONCENTRIC CIRCLES

Circles having the same centre but different radii are called
concentric circles (See Fig. 15.10).

Fig. 15.10
15.4 CONGRUENT CIRCLES OR ARCS
Two cirlces (or arcs) are said to be congruent if we can superimpose (place) one over the
other such that they cover each other completely.

15.5 SOME IMPORTANT RULES

Activity for you :
(i) Draw two circles with cenre O1 and O2 and radius r and s respectively (See Fig. 15.11)

Fig. 15.11

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(ii) Superimpose the circle (i) on the circle (ii) so that O1
coincides with O2.
(iii) We observe that circle (i) will cover circle (ii) if and
Notes only if r = s
Two circles are congurent if and only if they have equal
radii.
In Fig. 15.12 if arc PAQ = arc RBS then ∠ POQ =
∠ ROS and conversely if ∠ POQ = ∠ ROS Fig. 15.12
then arc PAQ = arc RBS.
Two arcs of a circle are congurent if and only if the angles subtended by
them at the centre are equal.
In Fig. 15.13, if arc PAQ = arc RBS
then PQ = RS
and conversely if PQ = RS then
arc PAQ = arc RBS.
Two arcs of a circle are congurent if and only if
their corresponding chords are equal.
Fig. 15.13
Activity for you :

(i) Draw a circle with centre O

(ii) Draw equal chords PQ and RS (See Fig. 15.14)

(iii) Join OP, OQ, OR and OS

(iv) Measure ∠ POQ and ∠ ROS

We observe that ∠ POQ = ∠ ROS Fig. 15.14

Conversely if ∠ POQ = ∠ ROS

then PQ = RS

Equal chords of a circle subtend equal angles at the centre and conversely
if the angles subtended by the chords at the centre of a circle are equal,
then the chords are equal.

Note : The above results also hold good in case of congruent circles.

We take some examples using the above properties :

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Example 15.1 : In Fig. 15.15, chord PQ = chord RS.
Show that chord PR = chord QS.
Solution : The arcs corresponding to equal chords PQ
and RS are equal. Notes
Add to each arc, the arc QR,
yielding arc PQR = arc QRS
∴ chord PR = chord QS Fig. 15.15
Example 15.2 : In Fig. 15.16, arc AB = arc BC,
∠ AOB = 30o and ∠ AOD = 70o. Find ∠ COD.
Solution : Since arc AB = arc BC
∴ ∠ AOB = ∠ BOC
(Equals arcs subtend equal angles at the centre)
∴ ∠ BOC = 30o
Now ∠ COD = ∠ COB + ∠ BOA + ∠ AOD Fig. 15.16
= 30o + 30o + 70o
= 130o.
Activity for you :
(i) Draw a circle with centre O (See Fig. 15.17).
(ii) Draw a chord PQ.
(iii) From O draw ON ⊥ PQ
(iv) Measure PN and NQ
You will observe that Fig. 15.17

PN = NQ.
The perpendicular drawn from the centre of a circle to a chord bisects the
chord.
Activity for you :
(i) Draw a circle with centre O (See Fig. 15.18).
(ii) Draw a chord PQ.
(iii) Find the mid point M of PQ.
(iv) Join O and M.
Fig. 15.18

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(v) Measure ∠ OMP or ∠ OMQ with set square or protractor.
We observe that ∠ OMP = ∠ OMQ = 900.

Notes The line joining the centre of a circle to the mid point of a chord is perpen-
dicular to the chord.
Activity for you :
Take three non collinear points A, B and C. Join AB and
BC. Draw perpendicular bisectors MN and RS of AB
and BC respectively.
Since A, B, C are not collinear, MN is not parallel to RS.
They will intersect only at one point O. Join OA, OB and
OC and measure them.
Fig. 15.20
We observe that OA = OB = OC
Now taking O as the centre and OA as radius draw a circle which passes through A, B
and C.
Repeat the above procedure with another three non-collinear points and observe that
there is only one circle passing through three given non-collinear points.
There is one and only one circle passing through three non-collinear points.
Note. It is important to note that a circle can not be drawn to pass through three collinear
points.
Activity for you :
(i) Draw a circle with centre O [Fig. 15.20a]
(ii) Draw two equal chords AB and PQ of the circle.
(iii) Draw OM ⊥ PQ and ON ⊥ PQ
(iv) Measure OM and ON and observe that they are equal.
Fig. 15.20a
Equal chords of a circle are equidistant from the centre.
In Fig. 15.20 b, OM = ON
Measure and observe that AB = PQ. Thus,
Chords, that are equidistant from the centre of a
circle, are equal.
The above results hold good in case of congruent circles
also.
We now take a few examples using these properties of Fig. 15.20b
circle.

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Examples 15.3 : In Fig. 15.21, O is the centre of the
circle and ON ⊥ PQ. If PQ = 8 cm and ON = 3 cm, find
OP.
Solution: ON ⊥ PQ (given) and since perpendicular Notes
drawn from the centre of a circle to a chord bisects the
chord.
∴ PN = NQ = 4 cm Fig. 15.21
In a right triangle OPN,
∴ OP2 = PN2 + ON2
or OP2 = 42 + 32 = 25
∴ OP = 5 cm.
Examples 15.4 : In Fig. 15.22, OD is perpendicular to
the chord AB of a circle whose centre is O and BC is a Fig. 15.22
diameter. Prove that CA = 2OD.
Solution : Since OD ⊥ AB (Given)
∴ D is the mid point of AB (Perpendicular through the centre bisects the
chord)
Also O is the mid point of CB (Since CB is a diameter)
Now in ΔABC, O and D are mid points of the two sides BC and BA of the triangle ABC.
Since the line segment joining the mid points of any two sides of a triangle is parallel and
half of the third side.

1
∴ OD = CA
2

i.e. CA = 2OD.

Example 15.5 : A regular hexagon is inscribed in a circle. What angle does each side of
the hexagon subtend at the centre?
Solution : A regular hexagon has six sides which are equal.
Therefore each side subtends the same angle at the centre.
Let us suppose that a side of the hexagon subtends an
angle xo at the centre.
Then, we have
6xo = 360o ⇒ x = 60o Fig. 15.23
Hence, each side of the hexagon subtends an angle of 60o at the centre.

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Example 15.6 : In Fig. 15.24, two parallel chords PQ
and AB of a circle are of lengths 7 cm and 13 cm
respectively. If the distance between PQ and AB is 3 cm,
Notes find the radius of the circle.
Solution : Let O be the centre of the circle. Draw
perpendicular bisector OL of PQ which also bisects AB
at M. Join OQ and OB (Fig. 15.24)
Fig. 15.24
Let OM = x cm and radius of the circle be r cm
Then OB2 = OM2 +MB2 and OQ2 = OL2 + LQ2
2
⎛ 13 ⎞
∴ r = x +⎜ ⎟
2 2
...(i)
⎝2⎠

2
⎛7⎞
and r = ( x + 3) + ⎜ ⎟
2 2
...(ii)
⎝2⎠
Therefore from (i) and (ii),
2 2
⎛ 13 ⎞ ⎛7⎞
x + ⎜ ⎟ = ( x + 3) 2 + ⎜ ⎟
2

⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠

169 49
∴ 6x = −9−
4 4
or 6x = 21

7
∴ x=
2

2 2
⎛ 7 ⎞ ⎛ 13 ⎞ 49 169 218
∴ r = ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ =
2
+ =
⎝2⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ 4 4 4

218
∴ r=
2

218
Hence the radius of the circle is r = cm.
2

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Circles MODULE - 3
Geometry

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 15.1

In questions 1 to 5, fill in the blanks to make each of the
statements true. Notes
1. In Fig. 15.25,
(i) AB is a ... of the circle.
(ii) Minor arc corresponding to AB is... .
Fig. 15.25
2. A ... is the longest chord of a circle.
3. The ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle is always ... .
4. The value of π as 3.1416 was given by great Indian Mathematician... .
5. Circles having the same centre are called ... circles.
6. Diameter of a circle is 30 cm. If the length of a chord is 20 cm, find the distance of the
chord from the centre.
7. Find the circumference of a circle whose radius is

⎛ 22 ⎞
(i) 7 cm (ii) 11 cm. ⎜ Take π = ⎟
⎝ 7 ⎠

8. In the Fig. 15.26, RS is a diameter which bisects the chords PQ and AB at the points
M and N respectively. Is PQ || AB ? Given reasons.

Fig. 15.26 Fig. 15.27

9. In Fig. 15.27, a line l intersects the two concentric circles with centre O at points A,
B, C and D. Is AB = CD ? Give reasons.

LET US SUM UP
• The circumference of a circle of radius r is equal to 2 π r.

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MODULE - 3 Circles
Geometry
• Two arcs of a circle are congurent if and only if either the angles subtended by them at
the centre are equal or their corresponding chords are equal.
• Equal chords of a circle subtend equal angles at the centre and vice versa.
Notes
• Perpendicular drawn from the centre of a circle to a chord bisects the chord.
• The line joining the centre of a circle to the mid point of a chord is perpendicular to the
chord.
• There is one and only one circle passng through three non-collinear points.
• Equal chords of a circle are equidistant from the centre and the converse.

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. If the length of a chord of a circle is 16 cm and the distance of the chord from the
centre is 6 cm, find the radius of the circle.
2. Two circles with centres O and O′ (See Fig. 15.28) are congurent. Find the length of
the arc CD.

Fig. 15.28
3. A regular pentagon is inscribed in a circle. Find the angle which each side of the
pentagon subtends at the centre.
4. In Fig. 15.29, AB = 8 cm and CD = 6 cm are two parallel chords of a circle with
centre O. Find the distance between the chords.

Fig. 15.29

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Circles MODULE - 3
Geometry
5. In Fig.15.30 arc PQ = arc QR, ∠ POQ = 150 and ∠ SOR = 110o. Find ∠ SOP.

Notes

Fig. 15.30
6. In Fig. 15.31, AB and CD are two equal chords of a circle with centre O. Is chord
BD = chord CA? Give reasons.

Fig. 15.31
7. If AB and CD are two equal chords of a circle with centre O (Fig. 15.32) and
OM ⊥ AB, ON ⊥ CD. Is OM = ON ? Give reasons.

Fig. 15.32
8. In Fig. 15.33, AB = 14 cm and CD = 6 cm are two parallel chords of a circle with
centre O. Find the distance between the chords AB and CD.

Fig. 15.33

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9. In Fig. 15.34, AB and CD are two chords of a circle with centre O, intersecting at a
point P inside the circle.

Notes

Fig. 15.34
OM ⊥ CD, ON ⊥ AB and ∠ OPM = ∠ OPN. Now answer:
Is (i) OM = ON, (ii) AB = CD ? Give reasons.
10. C1 and C2 are concentric circles with centre O (See Fig. 15.35), l is a line intersecting
C1 at points P and Q and C2 at points A and B respectively, ON ⊥ l, is PA = BQ?
Give reasons.

Fig. 15.35
ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
15.1
1. (i) Chord (ii) APB 2. Diameter 3. Constant
4. Aryabhata-I 5. Concentric 6. 5 5 cm.
7. (i) 44 cm (ii) 69.14 cm 8. Yes 9. Yes

ANSWERS TO TERMINAL EXERCISE

1. 10 cm 2. 2a cm 3. 72o
4. 1 cm 5. 80o
6. Yes (Equal arcs have corresponding equal chrods of acircle)
7. Yes (equal chords are equidistant from the centre of the circle)
8. 10 2 cm 9. (i) Yes (ii) Yes (ΔOMP ≅ ΔONP)
10. Yes (N is the middle point of chords PQ and AB).

394 Mathematics Secondary Course

Angles in a Circle and Cyclic Quadrilateral MODULE - 3
Geometry

16 Notes

ANGLES IN A CIRCLE AND CYCLIC

QUADRILATERAL

You must have measured the angles between two straight lines. Let us now study the
angles made by arcs and chords in a circle and a cyclic quadrilateral.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to
• verify that the angle subtended by an arc at the centre is double the angle
subtended by it at any point on the remaining part of the circle;
• prove that angles in the same segment of a circle are equal;
• cite examples of concyclic points;
• define cyclic quadrilterals;
• prove that sum of the opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral is 180o;
• use properties of cyclic qudrilateral;
• solve problems based on Theorems (proved) and solve other numerical problems
based on verified properties;
• use results of other theorems in solving problems.

EXPECTED BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE

• Angles of a triangle
• Arc, chord and circumference of a circle
• Quadrilateral and its types

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MODULE - 3 Angles in a Circle and Cyclic Quadrilateral
Geometry

16.1 ANGLES IN A CIRCLE

Central Angle. The angle made at the centre of
a circle by the radii at the end points of an arc (or
Notes
a chord) is called the central angle or angle
subtended by an arc (or chord) at the centre.
In Fig. 16.1, ∠POQ is the central angle made by
arc PRQ. Fig. 16.1

The length of an arc is closely associated with the

central angle subtended by the arc. Let us define
the “degree measure” of an arc in terms of the
central angle.
The degree measure of a minor arc of a circle is
the measure of its corresponding central angle.
In Fig. 16.2, Degree measure of PQR = xo
The degree measure of a semicircle is 180o and
that of a major arc is 360o minus the degree Fig. 16.2
measure of the corresponding minor arc.
Relationship between length of an arc and its degree measure.
degree measure of the arc
Length of an arc = circumference ×
360O

If the degree measure of an arc is 40o

40o 2
then length of the arc PQR = 2πr. o
= πr
360 9
Inscribed angle : The angle subtended by an
arc (or chord) on any point on the remaining part
of the circle is called an inscribed angle.
In Fig. 16.3, ∠ PAQ is the angle inscribed by arc Fig. 16.3
PRQ at point A of the remaining part of the circle
or by the chord PQ at the point A.

16.2 SOME IMPORTANT PROPERTIES

ACTIVITY FOR YOU :
Draw a circle with centre O. Let PAQ be an arc and B any point on the remaining part of
the circle.

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Measure the central angle POQ and an inscribed
angle PBQ by the arc at remaining part of the
circle. We observe that
O
∠ POQ = 2 ∠ PBQ Notes
Repeat this activity taking different circles and
different arcs. We observe that
The angle subtended at the centre of a Fig. 16.4
circle by an arc is double the angle
subtended by it on any point on the B
remaining part of the circle.
Let O be the centre of a circle. Consider a
P Q
semicircle PAQ and its inscribed angle PBQ O

∴ 2 ∠ PBQ = ∠ POQ
(Since the angle subtended by an arc at the centre
Fig. 16.5
is double the angle subtended by it at any point
on the remaining part of the circle)
But ∠ POQ = 1800
2 ∠ PBQ = 1800
∴ ∠ PBQ = 900
Thus, we conclude the following:
Angle in a semicircle is a right angle.
Theorem : Angles in the same segment of a circle are equal
Given : A circle with centre O and the angles ∠ PRQ and ∠ PSQ in the same segment
formed by the chord PQ (or arc PAQ)
To prove : ∠ PRQ = ∠ PSQ
Construction : Join OP and OQ.
Proof : As the angle subtended by an arc at the
centre is double the angle subtended by it at any
point on the remaining part of the circle, therefore
we have
Fig. 16.6
∠ POQ = 2 ∠ PRQ ...(i)
and ∠ POQ = 2 ∠ PSQ ...(ii)
From (i) and (ii), we get

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MODULE - 3 Angles in a Circle and Cyclic Quadrilateral
Geometry
2 ∠ PRQ = 2 ∠ PSQ
∴ ∠ PRQ = ∠ PSQ

Notes We take some examples using the above results

The converse of the result is also true, which we can state as under and verify by the
activity.
“If a line segment joining two points subtends equal angles at two other
points on the same side of the line containing the segment, the four points
lie on a circle”
For verification of the above result, draw a line segment AB (of say 5 cm). Find two points
C and D on the same side of AB such that ∠ ACB = ∠ ADB.
Now draw a circle through three non-collinear points A, C, B. What do you observe?
Point D will also lie on the circle passing through A, C and B. i.e. all the four points A, B,
C and D are concyclic.
Repeat the above activity by taking another line segment. Every time, you will find that the
four points will lie on the same circle.
This verifies the given result.
Example 16.1 : In Fig. 16.7, O is the centre of the circle and ∠ AOC = 1200. Find
∠ ABC.
Solution : It is obvious that ∠ x is the central angle subtended by the arc APC and
∠ ABC is the inscribed angle.
∴ ∠ x = 2 ∠ ABC
But ∠ x = 360o – 1200 = 240o
∴ 2 ∠ ABC = 240o
∴ ∠ ABC = 120o
Example 16.2 : In Fig. 16.8, O is the centre of Fig. 16.7
the circle and ∠ PAQ = 35o. Find ∠ OPQ.
Solution : ∠ POQ =2 ∠ PAQ = 70o ...(i)
(Angle at the centre is double the angle on the
remaining part of the circle)
Since OP = OQ (Radii of the same circle)
∴ ∠ OPQ = ∠ OQP ...(ii)
(Angles opposite to equal sides are equal) Fig. 16.8

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But ∠ OPQ + ∠ OQP + ∠ POQ = 180o
∴ 2 ∠ OPQ = 180o–70o= 110o
∴ ∠ OPQ = 55
o

Notes
Example 16.3 : In Fig. 16.9, O is the centre of the circle and AD bisects ∠ BAC. Find
∠ BCD.
Solution : Since BC is a diameter
∠ BAC =90
o

(Angle in the semicircle is a right angle)

As AD bisects ∠ BAC
∴ ∠ BAD = 45o
But ∠ BCD = ∠ BAD
Fig. 16.9
(Angles in the same segment).

∴ ∠ BCD = 45o
Example 16.4 : In Fig. 16.10, O is the centre of the circle, ∠ POQ = 70o and PS⊥OQ.
Find ∠ MQS.

Solution :

2 ∠ PSQ = ∠ POQ = 70o

(Angle subtended at the centre of a circle is twice the angle subtended by it on the
remaining part of the circle)

∴ ∠ PSQ = 35o
Since ∠ MSQ + ∠ SMQ + ∠ MQS = 180o

(Sum of the angles of a triangle)

∴ 35o + 90o + ∠ MQS = 180o

Fig. 16.10
∴ ∠ MQS = 180 – 125 = 55
o o o

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 16.1

1. In Fig. 16.11, ADB is an arc of a circle with centre O, if ∠ ACB = 35o, find ∠ AOB.

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Notes

Fig. 16.11
2. In Fig. 16.12, AOB is a diameter of a circle with centre O. Is ∠APB = ∠AQB = 90o.
Give reasons.

Fig. 16.12
3. In Fig. 16.13, PQR is an arc of a circle with centre O. If ∠ PTR = 350, find ∠ PSR.

Fig. 16.13
4. In Fig. 16.14, O is the centre of a circle and ∠ AOB = 600. Find ∠ ADB.

Fig. 16.14

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16.3 CONCYLIC POINTS

Definition : Points which lie on a circle are called
concyclic points.
Notes
Let us now find certain conditions under which
points are concyclic.
If you take a point P, you can draw not only one
but many circles passing through it as in Fig. 16.15.
Now take two points P and Q on a sheet of a
paper. You can draw as many circles as you wish, Fig. 16.15
passing through the points. (Fig. 16.16).

Fig. 16.16
Let us now take three points P, Q and R which do not lie on the same straight line. In this
case you can draw only one circle passing through these three non-colinear points
(Fig. 16.17).

Fig. 16.17
Further let us now take four points P, Q, R, and S which do not lie on the same line. You
will see that it is not always possible to draw a circle passing through four non-collinear
points.
In Fig. 16.18 (a) and (b) points are noncyclic but concyclic in Fig. 16.18(c)

(c)

Fig. 16.18

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Note. If the points, P, Q and R are collinear then it is not possible to draw a circle passing
through them.
Thus we conclude
Notes
1. Given one or two points there are infinitely many circles passing through
them.
2. Three non-collinear points are always concyclic and there is only one
circle passing through all of them.
3. Three collinear points are not concyclic (or noncyclic).
4. Four non-collinear points may or may not be concyclic.

16.3.1 Cyclic Quadrilateral

A quadrilateral is said to be a cyclic quadrilateral

if there is a circle passing through all its four
vertices.
For example, Fig. 16.19 shows a cyclic
quadrilateral PQRS. Fig. 16.19
Theorem. Sum of the opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral is 1800.
Given : A cyclic quadrilateral ABCD
To prove : ∠ BAD + ∠ BCD = ∠ ABC + ∠ ADC = 1800.
Construction : Draw the diagonals AC and DB
Proof : ∠ ACB = ∠ ADB
and ∠ BAC = ∠ BDS
[Angles in the same segment]
∴ ∠ ACB + ∠ BAC = ∠ ADB + ∠ BDC = ∠ ADC Fig. 16.20

Adding ∠ ABC on both the sides, we get

∠ ACB + ∠ BAC + ∠ ABC = ∠ ADC + ∠ ABC
But ∠ ACB + ∠ BAC + ∠ ABC = 180o [Sum of the angles of a triangle]
∴ ∠ ADC + ∠ ABC = 180
o

∴ ∠ BAD + ∠ BCD = ∠ ADC + ∠ ABC = 180 .

0

Hence proved.
Converse of this theorem is also true.

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If a pair of opposite angles of a quadrilateral is supplementary, then the quadrilateral is
cyclic.
Verification :
Draw a quadrilateral PQRS Notes

Since in quadrilateral PQRS,

∠ P + ∠ R = 180
o

Fig. 16.21
and ∠ S + ∠ Q = 180o
Therefore draw a circle passing through the point P, Q and R and observe that it also
passes through the point S. So we conclude that quadrilateral PQRS is cyclic quadrilateral.
We solve some examples using the above results.
Example 16.5 : ABCD is a cyclic parallelogram.
Show that it is a rectangle.
Solution : ∠ A + ∠ C = 180o
(ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral)
Since ∠A= ∠C Fig. 16.22

[Opposite angles of a parallelogram]

or ∠ A + ∠ A = 180o
∴ 2 ∠ A = 180o
∴ ∠ A = 90o
Thus ABCD is a rectangle.
Example 16.6 : A pair of opposite sides of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal. Prove that its
diagonals are also equal (See Fig. 16.23)
Solution : Let ABCD be a cyclic quadrilateral and AB = CD.
⇒ arc AB = arc CD (Corresponding arcs)
Adding arc AD to both the sides;
arc AB + arc AD = arc CD + arc AD
∴ arc BAD = arc CDA
⇒ Chord BD = Chord CA
⇒ BD = CA
Fig. 16.23

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Example 16.7 : In Fig. 16.24, PQRS is a cyclic quadrilateral whose diagonals intersect
at A. If ∠ SQR = 80o and ∠ QPR = 30o, find ∠ SRQ.
Solution : Given ∠ SQR = 80o
Notes
Since ∠ SQR = ∠ SPR
[Angles in the same segment]
∴ ∠ SPR = 80o
∴ ∠ SPQ = ∠ SPR + ∠ RPQ
Fig. 16.24
o o
= 80 + 30 .
or ∠ SPQ = 110o.
But ∠ SPQ + ∠ SRQ = 180o. (Sum of the opposite angles of a cyclic
quadrilateral is 180o)
∴ ∠ SRQ = 180o – ∠ SPQ
= 180o – 110o = 70o
Example 16.8 : PQRS is a cyclic quadrilateral.
If ∠ Q = ∠ R = 65o, find ∠ P and ∠ S.
Solution : ∠ P + ∠ R = 180o
∴ ∠ P = 180o – ∠ R = 180o – 65o
∴ ∠ P = 115o

Similarly, ∠ Q + ∠ S = 180o
∴ ∠ S = 180o – ∠ Q =180o – 65o
Fig. 16.25
∴ ∠ S = 115o.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 16.2

1. In Fig. 16.26, AB and CD are two equal
chords of a circle with centre O. If
∠ AOB = 55 , find ∠ COD.
0

Fig. 16.26

2. In Fig. 16.27, PQRS is a cyclic quadrilateral, and the side PS is extended to the point
A. If ∠ PQR = 800, find ∠ ASR.

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Notes

Fig. 16.27
3. In Fig. 16.28, ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral whose diagonals intersect at O. If
∠ ACB = 50 and ∠ ABC = 110 , find ∠ BDC.
o o

Fig. 16.28
4. In Fig. 16.29, ABCD is a quadrilateral. If ∠ A = ∠ BCE, is the quadrilateral a cyclic
quadrilateral? Give reasons.

Fig. 16.29

LET US SUM UP
• The angle subtended by an arc (or chord) at the centre of a circle is called central
angle and an ngle subtended by it at any point on the remaining part of the circle is
called inscribed angle.
• Points lying on the same circle are called concyclic points.
• The angle subtended by an arc at the centre of a circle is double the angle subtended
by it at any point on the remaining part of the circle.

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Geometry
• Angle in a semicircle is a right angle.
• Angles in the same segment of a circle are equal.

Notes • Sum of the opposite angles of cyclic quadrilateral is 1800.

• If a pair of opposite angles of a quadrilateral is supplementary, then the quadrilateral is
cyclic.

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. A square PQRS is inscribed in a circle with centre O. What angle does each side
subtend at the centre O?
2. In Fig. 16.30, C1 and C2 are two circles with centre O1 and O2 and intersect each
other at points A and B. If O1O2 intersect AB at M then show that
(i) ΔO1AO2 ≅ ΔO1BO2
(ii) M is the mid point of AB
(iii) AB ⊥ O1O2

Fig. 16.30
[(Hint. From (i) conclude that ∠ 1 = ∠ 2 and then prove that ΔAO1M ≅ ΔBO1M
(by SAS rule)].
3. Two circles intersect in A and B. AC and AD are the diameters of the circles. Prove
that C, B and D are collinear.

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Notes

Fig. 16.31
[Hint. Join CB, BD and AB, Since ∠ ABC = 90o and ∠ ABD = 90o]
4. In Fig. 16.32, AB is a chord of a circle with centre O. If ∠ ACB = 40o, find
∠ OAB.

Fig. 16.32
5. In Fig. 16.33, O is the centre of a circle and ∠ PQR = 115o. Find ∠ POR.

Fig. 16.33
6. In Fig. 16.34, O is the centre of a circle, ∠ AOB = 80o and ∠ PQB = 70o. Find
∠ PBO.

Fig. 16.34

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ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

16.1
Notes
1. 70o 2. Yes, angle in a semi-circle is a right angle
3. 35o 4. 30o
16.2
1. 55o 2. 80o 3. 20o 4. Yes

ANSWERS TO TERMINAL EXERCISE

1. 90o 4. 50o 5. 130o 6. 70o

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Secants, Tangents and Their Properties MODULE - 3
Geometry

17 Notes

SECANTS, TANGENTS AND THEIR

PROPERTIES

Look at the moving cycle. You will observe that at any instant of time, the wheels of the
moving cycle touch the road at a very limited area, more correctly a point.
If you roll a coin on a smooth surface, say a table or floor, you will find that at any instant
of time, only one point of the coin comes in contact with the surface it is rolled upon.
What do you observe from the above situations?

(i) (ii)

Fotball

(iii)
Fig. 17.1

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Geometry

If you consider a wheel or a coin as a circle and the touching surface (road or table) as a
line, the above illustrations show that a line touches a circle. In this lesson, we shall study
about the possible contacts that a line and a circle can have and try to study their properties.
Notes

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to
• define a secant and a tangent to the circle;
• differentitate between a secant and a tangent;
• prove that the tangents drawn from an external point to a circle are of equal
length;
• verify the un-starred results (given in the curriculum) related to tangents and
secants to circle experimentally.

EXPECTED BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE

• Measurement of angles and line segments
• Drawing circles of given radii
• Drawing lines perpendicular and parallel to given lines
• Knowledge of previous results about lines and angles, congruence and circles
• Knowledge of Pythagoras Theorem

17.1 SECANTS AND TANGENTS—AN INTRODUCTION

You have read about lines and circles in your earlier lessons. Recall that a circle is the locus
of a point in a plane which moves in such a way that its distance from a fixed point in the
plane always remains constant. The fixed point is called the centre of the circle and the
constant distance is called the radius of the circle. You also know that a line is a collection
of points, extending indefinitely to both sides, whereas a line segment is a portion of a line
bounded by two points.

(i) (ii) (iii)

Fig. 17.2

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Now consider the case when a line and a circle co-exist in the same plane. There can be
three distinct possibilities as shown in Fig. 17.2.
You can see that in Fig. 17.2(i), the XY does not intersect the circle, with centre O. In
other words, we say that the line XY and the circle have no common point. In Fig. 17.2 Notes
(ii), the line XY intersects the circle in two distinct point A and B, and in Fig. 17.2 (iii), the
line XY intersects the circle in only one point and is said to touch the circle at the point P.
Thus, we can say that in case of intersection of a line and a circle, the following three
possibilities are there:

(i) The line does not intersect the circle at all, i.e., the line lies in the exterior of the circle.
(ii) The line intersects the circle at two distinct points. In that case, a part of the line lies in
the interior of the circle, the two points of intersection lie on the circle and the remaining
portion of the line lies in the exterior of the circle.
(iii) The line touches the circle in exactly one point. We therefore define the following:
Tangent:
A line which touches a circle at exactly one point is called a tangent line and
the point where it touches the circle is called the point of contact
Thus, in Fig. 17.2 (iii), XY is a tangent of the circle at P, which is called the point of contact.

Secant:
A line which interesects the circle in two distinct points is called a secant
line (usually referred to as a secant).
In Fig. 17.2 (ii), XY is a secant line to the circle and A and B are called the points of
intersection of the line XY and the circle with centre O.

17.2 TANGENT AS A LIMITING CASE

Consider the secant XY of the circle with centre
O, intersecting the circle in the points A and B.
Imagine that one point A, which lies on the circle,
of the secant XY is fixed and the secant rotates
about A, intersecting the circle at B′, B′′, B′′′,
B′′′′ as shown in Fig. 17.3 and ultimately attains
the position of the line XAY, when it becomes
tangent to the circle at A.
Thus, we say that:
A tangent is the limiting position of a
secant when the two points of intersection Fig. 17.3
coincide.

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17.3 TANGENT AND RADIUS THROUGH THE POINT OF

CONTACT
Let XY be a tangent to the circle, with centre O, at the point P. Join OP.
Notes
Take points Q, R, S and T on the tangent XY and join OQ, OR, OS and OT.
As Q, R, S and T are points in the exterior of the circle and P is on the circle.
∴ OP is less than each of OQ, OR, OS and OT.
From our, “previous study of Geometry, we know
that of all the segments that can be drawn from a
point (not on the line) to the line, the perpendicular
segment is the shortest”:
As OP is the shortest distance from O to the line
XY
∴ OP ⊥ XY Fig. 17.4
Thus, we can state that
A radius, though the point of contact of tangent to a circle, is perpendicular
to the tangent at that point.
The above result can also be verified by measuring angles OPX and OPY and
finding each of them equal to 90o.

17.4 TANGENTS FROM A POINT OUTSIDE THE CIRCLE

Take any point P in the exterior of the circle with
centre O. Draw lines through P. Some of these are
shown as PT, PA, PB, PC, PD and PT′ in Fig. 17.5
How many of these touch the circle? Only two.
Repeat the activity with another point and a circle.
You will again find the same result.
Thus, we can say that
From an external point, two tangents can
be drawn to a circle. Fig. 17.5
If the point P lies on the circle, can there still be two tangents to the circle from that point?
You can see that only one tangent can be drawn to the circle in that case. What about the
case when P lies in the interior of the circle? Note that any line through P in that case will
intersect the circle in two points and hence no tangent can be drawn from an interior point
to the circle.
(A) Now, measure the lengths of PT and PT′. You will find that
PT = PT′ ....(i)

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(B) Given: A circle with centre O. PT and PT′ are two tangents from a point P outside the
circle.
To Prove: PT = PT′
Construciton: Join OP, OT and OT′ (see Fig. 17.6) Notes
Proof: In Δ’s OPT and OPT′
∠ OTP = ∠ OT′P (Each being right angle)
OT = OT′
OP = OP (Common)
ΔOPT ≅ ΔOPT′ (RHS criterion) Fig. 17.6
∴ PT = PT′
The lengths of two tangents from an external point are equal
Also, from Fig. 17.6, ∠ OPT = ∠ OPT′ (As ΔOPT ≅ ΔOPT′)
The tangents drawn from an external point to a circle are equally inclined to
the line joining the point to the centre of the circle.
Let us now take some examples to illustrate:
Example 17.1: In Fig. 17.7, OP = 5 cm and radius of the circle is 3 cm. Find the length of
the tangent PT from P to the circle, with centre O.
Solution: ∠OTP = 90o, Let PT = x
In right triangle OTP, we have
OP2 = OT2 + PT2
or 52 = 32 + x2
or x2 = 25 – 9 = 16
∴ x=4
Fig. 17.7
i.e. the length of tangent PT = 4 cm
Example 17.2: In Fig. 17.8, tangents PT and PT′ are drawn from a point P at a distance
of 25 cm from the centre of the circle whose radius is 7 cm. Find the lengths of PT and
PT′.
Solution: Here OP = 25 cm and OT = 7 cm
We also know that
∠OTP = 90o
∴ PT2 = OP2 – OT2
= 625 – 49 = 576 = (24)2
∴ PT = 24 cm
Fig. 17.8

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We also know that
PT = PT′
∴ PT′ = 24 cm
Notes
Example 17.3: In Fig. 17.9, A, B and C are three exterior points of the circle with centre
O. The tangents AP, BQ and CR are of lengths 3 cm, 4 cm and 3.5 cm respectively. Find
the perimeter of ΔABC.
Solution: We know that the lengths of two tangents from an external point to a circle are
equal
∴ AP = AR
BP = BQ,
CQ = CR
∴ AP = AR = 3 cm
BP = BQ = 4 cm
and CR = CQ = 3.5 cm
AB = AP + PB;
= (3 + 4) cm = 7 cm
BC = BQ + QC;
= (4 + 3.5) cm = 7.5 cm Fig. 17.9

CA = AR + CR
= (3 + 3.5) cm
∴ = 6.5 cm
∴ Perimeter of ΔABC = (7 + 7.5 + 6.5) cm = 21 cm
Example 17.4: In Fig. 17.10, ∠AOB = 50o. Find ∠ABO and ∠OBT.
Solution: We know that OA ⊥ XY
⇒ ∠OAB = 90o
∴ ∠ABO = 180o – (∠OAB + ∠AOB)
= 180o – (90o + 50o) = 40o
We know that ∠OAB = ∠OBT
⇒ ∠OBT = 40o
B
∴ ∠ABO = ∠OBT = 40o
Fig. 17.10

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 17.1

1. Fill in the blanks:
(i) A tangent is __________ to the radius through the point of contact. Notes
(ii) The lengths of tangents from an external point to a circle are __________
(iii) A tangent is the limiting position of a secant when the two ______ coincide.
(iv) From an external point ________ tangents can be drawn to a circle.
(v) From a point in the interior of the circle, ______ tangent(s) can be drawn to the
circle.
2. In Fig. 17.11, ∠POY = 40o, Find the ∠OYP and ∠OYT.
3. In Fig. 17.12, the incircle of ΔPQR is drawn. If PX = 2.5 cm, RZ = 3.5 cm and
perimeter of ΔPQR = 18 cm, find the lenght of QY.

Fig. 17.11 Fig. 17.12

4. Write an experiment to show that the lengths of tangents from an external point to a
circle are equal.

17.5 INTERSECTING CHORDS INSIDE AND OUTSIDE A

CIRCLE
You have read various results about chords in the previous
lessons. We will now verify some results regarding chords
intersecting inside a circle or outside a circle, when
produced.
Let us perform the following activity:
Draw a circle with centre O and any radius. Draw two
chords AB and CD intersecting at P inside the circle.
Measure the lenghts of the line-segments PD, PC, PA Fig. 17.13
and PB. Find the products PA × PB and PC × PD.

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You will find that they are equal.
Repeat the above activity with another circle after drawing chrods intersecting inside. You
will again find that
Notes
PA × PB = PC × PD
Let us now consider the case of chrods intersecting outside the circle. Let us perform the
following activity:
Draw a circle of any radius and centre O. Draw two chords BA and DC intersecting each
other outside the circle at P. Measure the lengths of line segments PA, PB, PC and PD.
Find the products PA × PB and PC × PD.
You will see that the product PA × PB is equal to the
product PC × PD, i.e.,
PA × PB = PC × PD
Repeat this activity with two circles with chords
intersecting outside the circle. You will again find that
Fig. 17.14
PA × PB = PC × PD.
Thus, we can say that
If two chords AB and CD of a circle intersect at a point P (inside or outside the
circle), then
PA × PB = PC × PD

17.6 INTERSECTING SECANT AND TANGENT OF A

CIRCLE
To see if there is some relation beween the intersecting
secant and tangent outside a circle, we conduct the
following activity.
Draw a circle of any radius with centre O. From an
external point P, draw a secant PAB and a tangent
PT to the circle.
Measure the length of the line-segment PA, PB and
PT. Find the products PA × PB and PT × PT or
PT2. What do you find? Fig. 17.15

You will find that

PA × PB = PT2
Repeat the above activity with two other circles. You will again find the same result.

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Thus, we can say
If PAB is a secant to a circle intersecting the circle at A and B, and PT is a
tangent to the circle at T, then
PA × PB = PT2 Notes
Let us illustrate these with the help of examples:
Example 17.5: In Fig. 17.16, AB and CD are two
chords of a circle intersecting at a point P inside the
circle. If PA = 3 cm, PB = 2 cm and PC = 1.5 cm,
then find the length of PD.
Solution: It is given that PA = 3 cm, PB = 2 cm and
PC = 1.5 cm.
Let PD = x Fig. 17.16

We know that PA × PB = PC × PD
⇒ 3 × 2 = (1.5) × x

3× 2
⇒ x= =4
1.5
∴ Length of the line-segment PD = 4 cm.
Example 17.6: In Fig. 17.17, PAB is a secant to the circle from a point P outside the
circle. PAB passes through the centre of the circle and PT is a tangent. If PT = 8 cm and
OP = 10 cm, find the radius of the circle, using PA × PB = PT2
Solution: Let x be the radius of the circle.
It is given that OP = 10 cm
∴ PA = PO – OA = (10 – x) cm
and PB = OP + OB = (10 + x) cm
PT = 8 cm
We know that PA × PB = PT2
Fig. 17.17
∴ (10 – x) (10 + x) = 8 2

or 100 – x2 = 64
or x2 = 36 or x = 6
i.e., radius of the circle is 6 cm.
Example 17.7: In Fig. 17.18, BA and DC are two chords of a circle intersecting each
other at a point P outside the circle. If PA = 4 cm, PB = 10 cm, CD = 3 cm, find PC.

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Solution: We are given that PA = 4 cm, PB = 10 cm, CD = 3 cm
Let PC =x
We know that PA × PB = PC × PD
Notes
or 4 × 10 = (x + 3) x
or x2 + 3x – 40 = 0
(x + 8) (x – 5) = 0
⇒ x=5 Fig. 17.18
∴ PC = 5 cm

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 17.2

1. In Fig. 17.19, if PA = 3 cm, PB = 6 cm and PD = 4 cm then find the length of PC.
2. In Fig. 17.19, PA = 4 cm, PB = x + 3, PD = 3 cm and PC = x + 5, find the value of x.

Fig. 17.19 Fig. 17.20 Fig. 17.21

3. If Fig. 17.20, if PA = 4cm, PB = 10 cm, PC = 5 cm, find PD.
4. In Fig. 17.20, if PC = 4 cm, PD = (x + 5) cm, PA = 5 cm and PB = (x + 2) cm,
find x.
5. In Fig. 17.21, PT = 2 7 cm, OP = 8 cm, find the radius of the circle, if O is the centre
of the circle.

17.7 ANGLES MADE BY A TANGENT AND A CHORD

Let there be a circle with centre O and let XY be a tangent to the circle at point P. Draw a
chord PQ of the circle through the point P as shown in the Fig. 17.22. Mark a point R on
the major arc PRQ and let S be a point on the minor arc PSQ.
The segment formed by the major arc PRQ and chord PQ is said to be the alternate
segment of ∠QPY and the segment formed by the minor PSQ and chord PQ is said to be
the alternate segment to ∠QPX.

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Let us see if there is some relationship between angles
in the alternate segment and the angle between tangent
and chord.
Join QR and PR. Notes
Measure ∠PRQ and ∠QPY (See Fig. 17.22)
What do you find? You will see that ∠PRQ = ∠QPY
Fig. 17.22
Repeat this activity with another circle and same or
different radius. You will again find that
∠QPY = ∠PRQ
Now measure ∠QPX and ∠QSP. You will again find that these angles are equal.
Thus, we can state that
The angles formed in the alternate segments by a chord through the point
of contact of a tangent to a circle is equal to the angle between the chord
and the tangent.
This result is more commonly called as “Angles in the Alternate Segment”.
Let us now check the converse of the above result.
Draw a circle, with centre O, and draw a chord PQ
and let it form ∠PRQ in alternate segment as shown
in Fig. 17.23.
At P, draw ∠QPY = ∠QRP. Extend the line segment
PY to both sides to form line XY. Join OP and
measure ∠OPY. Fig. 17.23
What do you observe? You will find that ∠OPY =
90o showing thereby that XY is a tangent to the circle.
Repeat this activity by taking different circles and you find the same result. Thus, we can
state that
If a line makes with a chord angles which are equal respectively to the
angles formed by the chord in alternate segments, then the line is a tangent
to the circle.
Let us now take some examples to illustrate:
Example 17.8: In Fig. 17.24, XY is tangent to a
circle with centre O. If AOB is a diameter and ∠PAB
= 40o, find ∠APX and ∠BPY.
Solution: By the Alternate Segment theorem, we
know that Fig. 17.24

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MODULE - 3 Secants, Tangents and Their Properties
Geometry
∠BPY = ∠BAP
∴ ∠BPY = 40o
Again, ∠APB = 90o (Angle in a semi-circle]
Notes
And, ∠BPY + ∠APB + ∠APX = 180o (Angles on a line)
∴ ∠APX = 180o – (∠BPY + ∠APB)
= 180o – (40o + 90o) = 50o
Example 17.9: In Fig. 17.25, ABC is an isoceles
triangle with AB = AC and XY is a tangent to the
circumcircle of ΔABC. Show that XY is parallel to
base BC.
Solution: In ΔABC, AB = AC
∴ ∠1 = ∠2
Fig. 17.25
Again XY is tangent to the circle at A.
∴ ∠3 = ∠2 (Angles in the alternate segment)
∴ ∠1 = ∠3
But these are alternate angles
∴ XY || BC

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 17.3

1. Explain with the help of a diagram, the angle formed by a chord in the alternate segment
of a circle.
2. In Fig. 17.26, XY is a tangent to the circle with centre O at a point P. If ∠OQP = 40o,
find the value of a and b.

Fig. 17.26 Fig.17.27

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Secants, Tangents and Their Properties MODULE - 3
Geometry
3. In Fig. 17.27, PT is a tangent to the circle from an external point P. Chord AB of the
circle, when produced meets TP in P. TA and TB are joined and TM is the angle
bisector of ∠ATB.
If ∠PAT = 40o and ∠ATB = 60o, show that PM = PT.
Notes

LET US SUM UP
• A line which intersects the circle in two points is called a secant of the circle.
• A line which touches the circle at a point is called a tangent to the circle.
• A tangent is the limiting position of a secant when the two points of intersection coincide.
• A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius through the point of contact.
• From an external point, two tangents can be drawn to a circle, which are of equal
length.
• If two chords AB and CD of a circle intersect at a point P (inside or outside the circle), then
PA × PB = PC × PD
• If PAB is a secant to a circle intersecting the circle at A and B, and PT is a tangent to
the circle at T, then
PA × PB = PT2
• The angles formed in the alternate segments by a chord through the point of contact of
a tangent to a circle are equal to the angles between the chord and the tangent.
• If a line makes with a chord angles which are respectively equal to the angles formed
by the chord in alternate segments, then the line is a tangent to the circle.

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Differentitate between a secant and a tangent to a circle with the help of a figure.
2. Show that a tangent is a line perpendicular to the
radius through the point of contact, with the help
of an activity.
3. In Fig. 17.28, if AC = BC and AB is a diameter
of circle, find ∠x, ∠y and ∠z.

Fig. 17.28

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MODULE - 3 Secants, Tangents and Their Properties
Geometry
4. In Fig. 17.29, OT = 7 cm and OP = 25 cm, find
the length of PT. If PT′ is another tangent to the
circle, find the length of PT′ and ∠POT.
O
Notes
T’
Fig. 17.29

5. In Fig. 17.30, the perimeter of ΔABC equals

27 cm. If PA = 4 cm, QB = 5 cm, find the length
of QC.

6. In Fig. 17.30, if ∠ABC = 70o, find ∠BOC.

1 Fig. 17.30
[Hint: ∠OBC + ∠OCB = (∠ABC +
2
∠ACB)]
7. In Fig. 17.31, AB and CD are two chords of a
circle intersecting at the interior point P of a circle.
If PA = (x + 3) cm, PB = (x – 3) cm, PD = 3 cm
1
and PC = 5 cm, find x.
3
Fig. 17.31

8. In Fig. 17.32, chords BA and DC of the circle,

with centre O, intersect at a point P outside the
circle. If PA = 4 cm and PB = 9 cm, PC = x and
PD = 4x, find the value of x.

Fig. 17.32

9. In Fig. 17.33, PAB is a secant and PT is a tangent

to the circle from an external point. If PT = x cm,
PA = 4 cm and AB = 5 cm, find x.

Fig. 17.33

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Secants, Tangents and Their Properties MODULE - 3
Geometry
10. In Fig. 17.34, O is the centre of the circle and
∠PBQ = 40o, find
(i) ∠QPY
(ii) ∠POQ Notes

(iii) ∠OPQ
Fig. 17.34

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

17.1
1. (i) Perpendicular (ii) equal (iii) points of intersection
(iv) two (v) no
2. 50o, 50o
3. 3 cm
17.2
1. 4.3 cm 2. 3 cm 3. 8 cm
4. 10 cm 4. 6 cm
17.3
2. ∠a = ∠b = 50o

ANSWERS TO TERMINAL EXERCISE

1. ∠x = ∠y = ∠z = 45o
4. PT = 24 cm; PT’ = 24 cm, ∠POT’ = 60o
5. QC = 4.5 6. ∠BOC = 125o
7. x = 5 8. x = 3
9. x = 6
10. (i) 40o (ii) 80o (iii) 50o

Mathematics Secondary Course 423

MODULE - 3 Constructions
Geometry

Notes
18
CONSTRUCTIONS

One of the aims of studying Geometry is to acquire the skill of drawing figures accurately.
You have learnt how to construct geometrical figures namely triangles, squares and circles
with the help of ruler and compasses. You have constructed angles of 30o, 60o, 90o, 120o
and 45o. You have also drawn perpendicular bisector of a line segment and bisector of an
angle.
In this lesson we will extend our learning to construct some other important geometrical
figures.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to
• divide a given line segment internally in a given ratio;
• construct a triangle from the given data;
(i) SSS
(ii) SAS
(iii) ASA
(iv) RHS
(v) perimeter and base angles
(vi) base, sum/difference of the other two sides and one base angle.
(vii) two sides and a median corresponding to one of these sides.
• construct a triangle, similar to a given triangle; and;
• Construct tangents to a circle from a point:
(i) on it using the centre of the circle.
(i) outside it.

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Constructions MODULE - 3
Geometry

EXPECTED BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE

We assume that the learner already knows how to use a pair of compasses and ruler to
construct
Notes
• angles of 30o, 45o, 60o, 90o, 105o, 120o
• the right bisector of a line segment
• bisector of a given angle.

18.1 DIVISION OF A LINE SEGMENT IN THE GIVEN

RATIO INTERNALLY
Construction 1: To divide a line segment internally in a given ratio.
Given a line segment AB. You are required to divide it internally in the ratio 2 : 3. We go
through the following steps.
Step 1: Draw a ray AC making an acute angle with AB.
Step 2: Starting with A, mark off 5 points C1, C2, C3, C4 and C5 on AC at equal distances
from the point A.
Step 3: Join C5 and B.
Step 4: Through C2 (i.e. the second point), draw C2D parallel to C5B meeting AB in D.

Fig. 18.1
Then D is the required point which divides AB internally in the ratio 2 : 3 as shown in
Fig. 18.1.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 18.1

1. Draw a line segment 7 cm long. Divide it internally in the ratio 3 : 4. Measure each
part. Also write the steps of construction.

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Geometry

3
2. Draw a line segment PQ = 8 cm. Find point R on it such that PR = PQ.
4
[Hint: Divide the line segment PQ internally in the ratio 3 : 1]
Notes

18.2 CONSTRUCTION OF TRIANGLES

Construction 2: To construct a triangle when three sides are given (SSS)
Suppose you are required to construct ΔABC in which AB = 6 cm, AC = 4.8 cm and
BC = 5 cm.
We go through the following steps:
Step 1: Draw AB = 6 cm.
Step 2: With A as centre and radius 4.8 cm,
draw an arc.
Step 3: With B as centre and radius 5 cm draw
another arc intersecting the arc of Step 2 Fig. 18.2
at C.
Step 4: Join AC and BC.
Then ΔABC is the required triangle.
[Note: You may take BC or AC as a base]
Construction 3: To construct a triangle, when two sides and the included angle is given
(SAS).
Suppose you are required to construct a triangle PQR in which PQ = 5.6 cm,
QR = 4.5 cm and ∠PQR = 60o.
Step 1: Draw PQ = 5.6 cm
Step 2: At Q, construct an angle ∠PQX = 60o
Step 3: With Q as centre and radius 4.5 cm draw
an arc cutting QX at R.
Step 4: Join PR
Then ΔPQR is the required triangle. Fig. 18.3
[Note: You may take QR = 4.5 cm as the base instead of PQ]
Construction 4: To construct a triangle when two angles and the included side are given
(ASA).
Let us construct a ΔABC in which ∠B = 60o, ∠C = 45o and BC = 4.7 cm.

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Constructions MODULE - 3
Geometry
To construct the triangle we go through the following steps:
Step 1: Draw BC = 4.7 cm.
Step 2: At B, construct ∠CBQ = 60o
Notes
Step 3: At C, construct ∠BCR = 45o meeting BQ at A.
Then ΔABC is the required triangle.
Note: To construct a triangle when two angles
and any side (other than the included
side) are given, we find the third angle
(using angle sum property of the triangle)
and then use the above method for Fig. 18.4
constructing the triangle.
Construction 5: To construct a right triangle, when its hypotenuse and a side are given.
Let us construct a right triangle ABC, right angled at B, side BC = 3 cm and hypotenuse
AC = 5 cm
To construct the triangle, we go through the following steps:
Step 1: Draw BC = 3 cm
Step 2: At B, construct ∠CBP = 90o
Step 3: With C as centre and radius 5 cm draw
an arc cutting BP in A.
Step 4: Join AC
ΔABC is the required triangle.
Construction 6: To construct a triangle when its Fig. 18.5
perimeter and two base angles are given.
Suppose we have to construct a triangle whose perimeter is 9.5 cm and base angles are
60o and 45o
To construct the triangle, we go through the following steps:
Step 1: Draw XY = 9.5 cm
Step 2: At X, construct ∠YXP = 30o [which is 1/2 × 60o]
Step 3: At Y, construct ∠XYQ = 22½o [which is 1/2 × 45o]
Let XP and YQ intersect A.
Step 4: Draw right bisector of XA intersecting XY at B.
Step 5: Draw right bisector of YA intersecting XY at C.
Step 6: Join AB and AC.

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MODULE - 3 Constructions
Geometry

Notes

Fig. 18.6
ΔABC is the required triangle.
Construction 7: To construct a triangle when sum of two sides, third side and one of the
angles on the third side are given.
Suppose you are required to construct a triangle ABC in which
AB + AC = 8.2 cm, BC = 3.6 cm and ∠B = 45o
To construct the triangle, we go through the following steps:
Step 1: Draw BC = 3.6 cm
Step 2: At B, construct ∠CBK = 45o

Fig. 18.7
Step 3: From BK, cut off BP = 8.2 cm.
Step 4: Join CP.
Step 5: Draw right bisector of CP intersecting BP at A.
Step 6: Join AC
ΔABC is required triangle.

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Constructions MODULE - 3
Geometry
Construction 8: To construct a triangle when difference of two sides, the third side and
one of the angles on the third side are given.
Suppose we have to construct a ΔABC, in which BC = 4 cm, ∠B = 60o, AB – AC
= 1.2 cm. Notes
To construct the triangle we go through the following steps:
Step 1: Draw BC = 4 cm.
Step 2: Construct ∠CBP = 60o
Step 3: From BP cut off BK = 1.2 cm.
Step 4: Join CK.
Step 5: Draw right bisector of CK meeting BP produced at A.
Step 6: Join AC
Fig. 18.8
ΔABC is the required triangle.
Construction 9: To construct a triangle when its two sides and a median corresponding
to one of these sides, are given:
Suppose you have to construct a ΔABC in which AB = 6 cm, BC = 4 cm and
median CD = 3.5 cm.
We go through the following steps:
Step 1: Draw AB = 6 cm
Step 2: Draw right bisector of AB meeting AB in D.
Step 3: With D as centre and radius 3.5 cm draw an
arc.
Step 4: With B as centre and radius 4 cm draw
another arc intersecting the arc of Step 3 in Fig. 18.9
C.
Step 5: Join AC and BC.
Then ΔABC is required triangle.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 18.2

1. Construct a ΔDEF, given that DE = 5.1 cm, EF = 4 cm and DF = 5.6 cm. Write the
steps of construction.
Note: You are also required to write the steps of construction in each of the
remaining problems.

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Geometry
2. Construct a ΔPQR, given that PR = 6.5 cm, ∠P = 120o and PQ = 5.2 cm.
3. Construct a ΔABC given that BC = 5.5 cm, ∠B = 75o and ∠C = 45o.

Notes 4. Construct a right triangle in which one side is 3 cm and hypotenuse is 7.5 cm.
5. Construct a right angled isoceles triangle in which one of equal sides is 4.8 cm.
6. Construct a ΔABC given that AB + BC + AC = 10 cm, ∠B = 60o, ∠C = 30o.
7. Construct a ΔABC in which AB = 5 cm, ∠A = 60o, BC + AC = 9.8 cm.
8. Construct a ΔLMN, when ∠M = 30o, MN = 5 cm and LM – LN = 1.5 cm.
9. Construct a triangle PQR in which PQ = 5 cm, QR = 4.2 cm and median
RS = 3.8 cm.

18.3 TO CONSTRUCT A TRIANGLE SIMILAR TO A GIVEN

TRIANGLE, AS PER GIVEN SCALE FACTOR
[Here, Scale Factor means the ratio of the sides of the triangle to be constructed, to the
corresponding sides of the given triangle.]
Construction 10: Construct a triangle similar to a given triangle ABC with its sides equal
to 3/5 of the corresponding sides of the triangle ABC.
Steps of Construction:
A
1. Let ABC be the given Δ. Draw any ray BX
making an acute angle with BC on the side
opposite to vertex A. A′

2. Locate 5 points B1, B2, B3, B4 and B5 on BX

so that
C′
B C
BB1 = B1B2 = B2B3 = B3B4 = B4B5
B1
3. Join B5C and draw a line through B3 parallel B2
B3
to B5C to meet BC at C′. B4
B5
4. Draw a line though C′ parallel to CA to meet
AB in A′.
Fig. 18.10 X
Then ΔA′BC′ is the required Triangle.
Construction 11: Construct a triangle with sides 5cm, 6 cm and 7 cm. Construct another
2
triangle similar to this triangle with scale factor .
3

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Constructions MODULE - 3
Geometry
A
Steps of Construction:
1. Draw of a line segment BC = 7 cm
2. Through B draw an arc of radius 6 cm. A′
Through C draw another arc of radius 5 cm Notes
to intersect the first arc at A.
C′ C
3. Join AB and AC to get ΔABC. B
B1
4. Draw a ray BX making an acute angle with B2
BC. B3
5. Locate 3 points B1, B2 and B3 on BX such X
that BB1 = B1B2 = B2B3
6. Join B3C and through B2 draw a line parallel Fig. 18.11
to B3C to meet BC in C′.
7. Through C′, draw a line parallel to CA to meet AB at A′.
Then A′BC′ is the required triangle.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 18.3

1. Construct a triangle of sides 4cm, 5 cm and 7 cm and then a triangle similar to it whose
3
sides are of the corresponding sides of the first triangle.
4
2. Draw a triangle ABC with BC = 7 cm, AB = 5 cm and ∠ABC = 60o. Then construct
4
a triangle whose sides are of the corresponding sides of the triangle ABC.
5
3. Draw a right triangle with sides (other than hypotenuse) of lenghts 5 cm and 6 cm.
4
Then construct another triangle similar to this triangle with scale factor .
5
4. Draw a ΔABC with base BC = 6 cm, ∠ABC = 60o and side AB = 4.5 cm. Construct
5
a triangle A′BC′ similar to ABC with scale factor .
6

18.4 CONSTRUCTION OF TANGENTS TO A CIRCLE

Construction 12: To draw a tangent to a given circle at a given point on it using the centre
of the circle.

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MODULE - 3 Constructions
Geometry
Suppose C be the given circle with centre O and a point P on it. You have
to draw a tangent to the circle. We go through the following steps:
Step 1: Join OP.
Notes
Step 2: At P, draw PT ⊥ OP.
Step 3: Produce TP to Q
Then TPQ is the required tangent. Fig. 18.12
Construction 13: To draw tangents to a circle from a given point outside it.
Suppose C be the given circle with centre O and a point A outside it. You have to draw
tangents to the circle from the point A. For that, we go through the following steps:
Step 1: Join OA.
Step 2: Draw the right bisector of OA. Let R be
mid point of OA.
Step 3: With R as centre and radius equal to RO,
draw a circle intersecting the given circle
at P and Q.
Step 4: Join AP and AQ.
Then AP and AQ are the two required tangents. Fig. 18.13

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 18.4

1. Draw a circle of 3 cm radius. Take a point A on the circle. At A, draw a tangent to the
circle by using the centre of the circle. Also write steps of construction.
2. Draw a circle of radius 2.5 cm. From a point P outside the circle, draw two tangents
PQ and PR to the circle. Verify that lengths of PQ and PR are equal. Also write steps
of construction.

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Draw a line segment PQ = 8 cm long. Divide it internally in the ratio 3 : 5. Also write
the steps of construction.
Note: You are also required to write the steps of construction in each of the
following problems.
2. Draw a line segment AB = 6 cm. Find a point C on AB such that AC : CB = 3 : 2.
Measure AC and CB

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Geometry
3. Construct a triangle with perimeter 14 cm and base angles 60o and 90o.
4. Construct a right angled triangle whose hypotenuse is 8 cm and one of its other two
sides is 5.5 cm.
5. Construct a ΔABC in which BC = 3.5 cm, AB + AC = 8 cm and ∠B = 60o. Notes

6. Construct a ΔABC in which AB = 4 cm, ∠A = 45o, and AC – BC = 1 cm.

7. Construct a ΔPQR with PQ = 5 cm, PR = 5.5 cm and the base QR = 6.5 cm.
5
Construct another triangle P′QR′ similar to ΔPQR such that each of its sides are
7
times the corresponding sides of ΔPQR.
8. Construct a right triangle with sides 5 cm, 12 cm and 13 cm. Construct another triangle
similar to it with scale factor 5/6.
9. Draw a circle of diameter 6 cm. From a point P outside the circle at a distance of 6 cm
from the centre, draw two tangents to the circle.
10. Draw a line segment AB of length 8 cm. Taking A as centre, draw a circle of radius
4 cm and taking B as centre, draw another circle of radius 3 cm. Construct tangents to
each circle from the centre of the other circle.

Mathematics Secondary Course 433

MODULE - 3 Co-ordinate Geometry
Geometry

Notes
19
CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY

The problem of locating a village or a road on a large map can involve a good deal of
searching. But the task can be made easier by dividing it into squares of managable size.
Each square is identified by a combination of a letter and a number, or of two numbers,
one of which refers to a vertical division of the map into columns, and the other to a
horizontal division into rows.

Fig. 19.1

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Co-ordinate Geometry MODULE - 3
Geometry
In the above Fig. 19.l (i), we can identify the shaded square on the map by the coding,
(B,2)or (4, 2) [See Fig. 191 (ii))]. The pair of numbers used for coding is called ordered
pair. If we know the coding of a particular city, roughly we can indicate it’s location inside
the shaded square on the map. But still we do not know its precise location. The method
of finding the , position of a point in a plane very precisely was introduced by the French Notes
Mathematician and Philosopher, Rene Descartes (1596-1650).
In this, a point in the plane is represented by an ordered pair of numbers, called the
Cartesian co-ordinates of a point.
In this lesson, we will learn more about cartesian co-ordinates of a point, distance between
two points in a plane, section formula and co-ordinates of the centroid of a triangle.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to
• fix the position of different points in a plane, whose coordinates are given, using
rectangular system of coordinates and vice-versa;
• find the distance between two different points whose co-ordinates are given;
• find the co-ordinates of a point, which divides the line segment joining two
points in a given ratio internally;
• find the co-ordinates of the mid-point of the join of two points;
• find the co-ordinates of the centroid of a triangle with given vertices;
• solve problems based on the above concepts.

EXPECTED BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE

• Idea of number line
• Fundamental operations on numbers
• Properties of a right triangle

19.1 CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM

Recall that you have learnt to draw the graph of a linear equation in two variables in
Lesson 5.
The position of a point in a plane is fixed w.r.t. to its distances from two axes of reference,
which are usually drawn by the two graduated number lines XOX′ and YOY′, at right
angles to each other at O (See Fig, 19.2)

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MODULE - 3 Co-ordinate Geometry
Geometry

Notes

Fig. 19.2
The horizontal number line XOX′ is called x-axis and the vertical number line YOY′ is
called y-axis. The point O, where both axes intersect each other is called the origin. The
two axes together are called rectangular coordinate system.
It may be noted that, the positive direction of x-axis is taken to the right of the origin O,
OX and the negative direction is taken to the left of the origin O, i.e., the side OX′.
Similarly, the portion of y-axis above the origin O, i.e., the side OY is taken as positive and
the portion below the origin O, i.e., the side OY′ is taken as negative.

19.2 CO-ORDINATES OF A POINT

The position of a point is given by
two numbers, called co-ordinates
which refer to the distances of the
point from these two axes. By
convention the first number, the
x-co-ordinate (or abscissa), always
indicates the distance from the y-axis
and the second number, the
y-coordinate (or ordinate) indicates
the distance from the x-axis.
In the above Fig. 19.3, the
co-ordinates of the points A and B
are (3, 2) and (–2, –4) respectively.

Fig. 19.3

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Co-ordinate Geometry MODULE - 3
Geometry
You can say that the distance of the point A(3, 2) from the y-axis is 3 units and from the
x-axis is 2 units. It is customary to write the co-ordinates of a point as an ordered pair i.e.,
(x co-ordinate, y co-ordinate).
It is clear from the point A(3, 2) that its x co-ordinate is 3 and the y co-ordinate is 2. Notes
Similarly x co-ordinate and y co-ordinate of the point B(–2, –4) are –2 and –4 respectively.
In general, co-ordinates of a point P(x, y) imply that distance of P from the
y-axis is x units and its distance from the x-axis is y units.
You may note that the co-ordinates of the origin O are (0, 0). The y co-ordinate of every
point on the x-axis is 0 and the x co-ordinate of every point on the y-axis is 0.
In general, co-ordinates of any point on the x-axis to the right of the origin is (a, 0) and that
to left of the origin is (–a, 0), where ‘a’ is a non-zero positive number.
Similarly, y co-ordinates of any point on the y-axis above and below the x-axis would be
(0, b) and (0, –b) respectively where ‘b’ is a non-zero positive number.
You may also note that the position of points (x, y) and (y, x) in the rectangular, co-
ordinate system is not the same. For example position of points (3, 4) and (4, 3) are
shown in Fig 19.4.

Fig. 19.4
Example 19.1: Write down x and y co-ordinates for each of the following points
(a) (l, 1) (b) (–3, 2) (c) (–7, –5) (d) (2, –6)
Solution : (a) x co-ordinate is l (b) x co-ordinate is –3
y co-ordinate is l y co-ordinate is 2.
(c) x co-ordinate is –7 (d) x co-ordinate is 2
y co-ordinate is –5. y co-ordinate is –6.

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MODULE - 3 Co-ordinate Geometry
Geometry
Example 19.2 : Write down distances from y and x axes respectively for each of the
following points :
(a) A(3, 4) (b) B(–5, 1) (c) C(–3, –3) (d) D(8, –9)
Notes
Solution : (a) The distance of the point A from the y-axis is 3 units to the right of origin
and from the x-axis is 4 units above the origin.
(b) The distance of the point B from the y-axis is 5 units to the left of the
origin and from the x-axis is l unit above the origin.
(c) The distance of the point C from the y-axis is 3 units to the left of the
origin and from the x-axis is also 3 units below the origin.
(d) The distance of the point D from the y-axis is 8 units to the right of the
origin and from the x-axis is 9 units below the origin.

19.3 QUADRANTS
The two axes XOX′ and YOY′ divide the plane into four parts called quadrants.

Fig. 19.5
The four quadrants (See Fig. 19.5) are named as follows :
XOY : I Quadrant ; YOX’ : II Quadrant;
X’OY’ : III Quadrant ; Y’OX : IV Quadrant.
We have discussed in Section 19.4 that

(i) along x-axis, the positive direction is taken to the right of the origin and negative
direction to its left.
(ii) along y-axis, portion above the x-axis is taken as positive and portion below the
x-axis is taken as negative (See Fig. 19.6)

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Notes

Fig. 19.6 Fig. 19.7

Therefore, co-ordinates of all points in the first quadrant are of the type (+, +) (See Fig.
19.7)
Any point in the II quadrant has x co-ordinate negative and y co-ordinate positive (–, +),
Similarly, in III quadrant, a point has both x and y co-ordinates negative (–,–) and in IV
quadrant, a point has x co-ordinate positive and y co-ordinate negative (+,–).

For example :
(a) P(5, 6) lies in the first quadrant as both x and y co-ordinates are positive.
(b) Q(–3, 4) lies in the second quadrant as its x co-ordiante is negative and y co-ordinate
is positive.
(c) R (–2, –3) lies in the third quadrant as its both x and y co-ordinates are negative.
(d) S(4, –1) lies in the fourth quadrant as its x co-ordinate is positive and y coordinate is
negative.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 19.1

1. Write down x and y co-ordinates for each of the following points :
(a) (3, 3) (b) (–6, 5) (c) (–1, –3) (d) (4, –2)
2. Write down distances of each of the following points from the y and x axis respectively.
(a) A(2, 4) (b) B(–2, 4) (c) C(–2, –4) (d) D(2, –4)
3. Group each of the following points quadrantwise ;
A(–3, 2), B (2, 3), C(7, -6), D(l, 1), E(–9, –9),
F (–6, 1), G (–4, –5),. H(11, –3), P(3, 12), Q(–13, 6),

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19.4 PLOTTING OF A POINT WHOSE CO-ORDINATES

ARE GIVEN
The point can be plotted by measuring its distances
Notes
from the axes. Thus, any point (h, k) can be plotted
as follows:

(i) Measure OM equal to h along the x-axis (See

Fig. 19.8).
(ii) Measure MP perpendicular to OM and equal
to k.
Follow the rule of sign in both cases.
For example points (–3, 5) and (4, –6) would be
plotted as shown in Fig. 19.9. Fig. 19.8

Fig. 19.9

19.5 DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS

The distance between any two points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) in the plane is the length of the
line segment PQ.

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From P, Q draw PL and QM perpendicular on the
x-axis and PR perpendicular on QM.

Then, OL = x1, Om = x2, PL = y1 and QM = y2

Notes
∴ PR = LM = OM – OL = x2 – x1

QR = QM – RM = QM – PL = y2 – y1

Since PQR is a right angled triangle

Fig. 19.10
∴ PQ2 = PR2 + QR2

= (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2 (By Pythagoras Theorem)

∴ PQ = (x 2 − x1 )2 + (y 2 − y1 )2
Therefore,

Distance between two points = (difference of abscissae )2 + (difference of ordinates )2

The result will be expressed in Units in use.
Corollary: The distance of the point (x1, y1) from the origin (0, 0) is

(x1 − 0)2 + (y1 − 0)2 = x1 + y1

2 2

Let us consider some examples to illustrate.

Example 19.3: Find the distance between each of the following points:
(a) P(6, 8) and Q(–9, –12)
(b) A(–6, –1) and B(–6, 11)
Solution: (a) Here the points are P(6, 8) and Q(–9, –12)
By using distance formula, we have

PQ = (− 9 − 6)2 + {(− 12 − 8)}2

= 152 + 202 = 225 + 400 = 625 = 25
Hence, PQ = 25 units.
(b) Here the points are A(–6, –1) and B(–6, 11)

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By using distance formula, we have

AB = {− 6 − (− 6)}2 + {11 − (− 1)}2

Notes
= 02 + 122 = 12
Hence, AB = 12 units
Example 19.4: The distance between two points (0, 0) and (x, 3) is 5. Find x.
Solution: By using distance formula, we have the distance between (0, 0) and (x, 3) is

(x − 0)2 + (3 − 0)2
It is given that

(x − 0)2 + (3 − 0)2 =5

or x 2 + 32 = 5
Squaring both sides,
x2 + 9 = 25
or x2 = 16
or x= ±4
Hence x = + 4 or – 4 units
Example 19.5: Show that the points (1, 1), (3, 0) and (–1, 2) are collinear.
Solution: Let P(1, 1), Q(3, 0) and R(–1, 2) be the given points

∴ PQ = (3 − 1)2 + (0 − 1)2 = 4 + 1 or 5 units

QR = (– 1 − 3)2 + (2 − 0)2 = 16 + 4 or 2 5 units
RP = (– 1 − 1)2 + (2 − 1)2 = 4 + 1 or 5 units

Now, PQ + RP = ( )
5 + 5 units = 2 5 units = QR
∴ P, Q and R are collinear points.
Example 19.6: Find the radius of the circle whose centre is at (0, 0) and which passes
through the point (–6, 8).
Solution: Let O(0, 0) and B(–6, 8) be the given points of the line segment OB.

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∴ OB = (− 6 − 0)2 + (8 − 0)2
= 36 + 64 = 100
O Notes
= 10
Hence radius of the circle is 10 units.

Fig. 19.11
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 19.2
1. Find the distance between each of the following pair of points:
(a) (3, 2) and (11, 8) (b) (–1, 0) and (0, 3)
(c) (3, –4) and (8, 5) (d) (2, –11) and (–9, –3)
2. Find the radius of the circle whose centre is at (2, 0) and which passes through the
point (7, –12).
3. Show that the points (–5, 6), (–1, 2) and (2, –1) are collinear

19.6 SECTION FORMULA

To find the co-ordinates of a point, which divides
the line segment joining two points, in a given ratio
internally.
Let A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) be the two given points
and P(x, y) be a point on AB which divides it in
the given ratio m : n. We have to find the
co-ordinates of P.
Draw the perpendiculars AL, PM, BN on OX,
and, AK, PT on PM and BN respectively. Then,
from similar triangles APK and PBT, we have Fig. 19.12

AP AK KP
= = ...(i)
PB PT TB
Now, AK = LM = OM – OL = x – x1
PT = MN = ON – OM = x2 – x
KP = MP – MK = MP – LA = y – y1
TB = NB – NT = NB – MP = y2 – y
∴ From (i), we have

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MODULE - 3 Co-ordinate Geometry
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m x − x1 y − y1
= =
n x 2 − x y2 − y

Notes From the first two relations we get,

m x − x1
=
n x2 − x

or mx2 – mx = nx – nx1
or x(m + n) = mx2 + nx1

mx 2 + nx1
or x=
m+n

AP KP
Similarly, from the raltion = , we get
PB TB

m y − y1
=
n y 2 − y which gives on simplification.

my 2 + ny1
y=
m+n
mx 2 + nx1 my 2 + ny1
∴ x= , and y = ...(i)
m+n m+n
Hence co-ordiantes of a point which divides the line segment joining the points
(x1, y1) and (x2, y2) in the ratio m : n internally are :

⎛ mx 2 + nx 1 my 2 + ny 1 ⎞
⎜ , ⎟
⎝ m+n m+n ⎠

19.6.1 Mid- Point Formula

The co-ordinates of the mid-point of the line segment joining two points (x1, y1) and
(x2, y2) can be obtained by taking m = n in the section formula above.
Putting m = n in (1) above, we have

nx 2 + nx1 x 2 + x1
x= =
n+n 2

ny 2 + ny1 y 2 + y1
and y= =
n+n 2

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The co-ordinates of the mid-point joining two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are:
⎛ x 2 + x1 y 2 + y 1 ⎞
⎜ , ⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
Notes
Let us take some examples to illustrate:
Example 19.7: Find the co-ordinates of a point which divides the line segment joining
each of the following points in the given ratio:
(a) (2, 3) and (7, 8) in the ratio 2 : 3 internally.
(b) (–1, 4) and (0, –3) in the ratio 1 : 4 internally.
Solution: (a) Let A(2, 3) and B(7, 8) be the given points.
Let P(x, y) divide AB in the ratio 2 : 3 internally.
Using section formula, we have
2 × 7 + 3 × 2 20
x= = =4
2+3 5
2 × 8 + 3 × 3 25
and y= = =5
2+3 5
∴ P(4, 5) divides AB in the ratio 2 : 3 internally.
(b) Let A(–1, 4) and B(0, –3) be the given points.
Let P(x, y) divide AB in the ratio 1 : 4 internally.
Using section formula, we have

1× 0 + 4 × (− 1) 4
x= =−
1+ 4 5
1× (− 3) + 4 × 4 13
and y= =
1+ 4 5
⎛ 4 13 ⎞
∴ P⎜ − , ⎟ divides AB in the ratio 1 : 4 internally.
⎝ 5 5⎠
Example 19.8: Find the mid-point of the line segment joining two points (3, 4) and (5,
12).
Solution: Let A(3, 4) and B(5, 12) be the given points.
Let C(x, y) be the mid-point of AB. Using mid-point formula, we have,

3+5
x= =4
2

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MODULE - 3 Co-ordinate Geometry
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4 + 12
and y= =8
2

Notes ∴ C(4, 8) are the co-ordinates of the mid-point of the line segment joining two points (3,
4) and (5, 12).
Example 19.9: The co-ordinates of the mid-point of a segment are (2, 3). If co-ordinates
of one of the end points of the line segment are (6, 5), find the co-ordinates of the other
end point.
Solution: Let other end point be A(x, y) A(x, y) C(2, 3) B(6, 5)

It is given that C(2, 3) is the mid point

∴ We can write,

x+6 y+5
2= and 3=
2 2
or 4=x+6 or 6=y+5
or x=–2 or y=1
∴ (–2, 1) are the coordinates of the other end point.

19.7 CENTROID OF A TRIANGLE

To find the co-ordinates of the centroid of a triangle whose vertices are given.
Definition: The centroid of a triangle is the point of concurrency of its medians and
divides each median in the ratio of 2 : 1.
Let A(x1, y1), B(x2, y2) and C(x3, y3) be the vertices of the triangle ABC. Let AD be the
median bisecting its base BC. Then, using mid-point formula, we have

⎛ x + x 3 y 2 + y3 ⎞
D=⎜ 2 , ⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠

Fig. 19.14

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Now, the point G on AD, which divides it internally in the ratio 2 : 1, is the centroid. If
(x, y) are the co-ordinates of G, then

x2 + x3
2× + 1× x 1
2 x + x2 + x3 Notes
x= = 1
2 +1 3

y 2 + y3
2× + 1× y1
2 y + y 2 + y3
y= = 1
2 +1 3
Hence, the co-ordiantes of the centroid are given by

⎛ x1 + x 2 + x 3 y 1 + y 2 + y 3 ⎞
⎜ , ⎟
⎝ 3 3 ⎠
Example 19.10: The co-ordinates of the vertices of a triangle are (3, –1), (10, 7) and
(5, 3). Find the co-ordinates of its centroid.
Solution: Let A(3, –1), B(10, 7) and C(5, 3) be the vertices of a triangle.
Let G(x, y) be its centroid.
3 + 10 + 5
Then, x= =6
3
−1+ 7 + 3
and y= =3
3
Hence, the coordinates of the Centroid are (6, 3).

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 19.3

1. Find the co-ordinates of the point which divides internally the line segment joining the
points:
(a) (1, –2) and (4, 7) in the ratio 1 : 2
(b) (3, –2) and (–4, 5) in the ratio 1 : 1
2. Find the mid-point of the line joining:
(a) (0, 0) and (8, –5)
(b) (–7, 0) and (0, 10)
3. Find the centroid of the triangle whose vertices are (5, –1), (–3, –2) and (–1, 8).

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LET US SUM UP

Notes • If (2, 3) are the co-ordinates of a point, then x co-ordiante (or abscissa) is 2 and the
y co-ordinate (or ordinate) is 3.
• In any co-ordiante (x, y), ‘x’ indicates the distance from the y-axis and ý’ indicates the
distance from the x-axis.
• The co-ordinates of the origin are (0, 0)
• The y co-ordinate of every point on the x-axis is 0 and the x co-ordiante of every point
on the y-axis is 0.
• The two axes XOX’ and YOY’divide the plance into four parts called quadrants.
• The distance of the line segment joining two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is given by:

(x 2 − x1 )2 + (y 2 − y1 )2

• The distance of the point (x1, y1) from the origin (0, 0) is x1 + y1
2 2

• The co-ordinates of a point, which divides the line segment joining two points (x1, y1)
and (x2, y2) in a ratio m : n internally are given by:

⎛ mx 2 + nx1 my 2 + ny1 ⎞
⎜ , ⎟
⎝ m+n m+n ⎠

• The co-ordinates of the mid-point of the line segment joining two points (x1, y1) and
(x2, y2) are given by:

⎛ x 2 + x1 y 2 + y1 ⎞
⎜ , ⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠

• The co-ordiantes of the centroid of a triangle whose vertices are (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and
(x3, y3) are given by

⎛ x 1 + x 2 + x 3 y1 + y 2 + y 3 ⎞
⎜ , ⎟
⎝ 3 3 ⎠

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TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. In Fig. 19.15, AB = AC. Find x.
Notes

Fig. 19.15

2. The length of the line segment joining two points (2, 3) and (4, x) is 13 units. Find x.

3. Find the lengths of the sides of the triangle whose vertices are A(3, 4), B(2, –1) and
C(4, –6).
4. Prove that the points (2, –2), (–2, 1) and (5, 2) are the vertices of a right angled
triangle.
5. Find the co-ordinates of a point which divides the join of (2, –1) and (–3, 4) in the
ratio of 2 : 3 internally.
6. Find the centre of a circle, if the end points of a diameter are P(–5, 7) and Q(3, –11).
7. Find the centroid of the triangle whose vertices are P(–2, 4), Q(7, –3) and R(4, 5).

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

19.1
1. (a) 3; 3 (b) –6; 5 (c) –1; –3 (d) 4; –2
2. (a) 2 units; 4 units
(b) 2 units to the left of the origin; 4 units above the x-axis
(c) 2 units to the left of the origin; 4 units below the origin.
(d) 2 units; 4 units below the origin.
3. Quadrant I: B(2, 3), D(1, 1) and P(3, 12)
Quadrant II: A(ß, 2), F(–6, 1) and Q(–13, 6)

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MODULE - 3 Co-ordinate Geometry
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Quadrant III: E(–9, –9) and G(–4, –5)
Quadrant IV: C(7, –6) and H(11, –3)

Notes 19.2

1. (a) 10 units (b) 10 units (c) 106 units (d) 185 units

2. 13 units
19.3
1. (a) (2, 1) (b) (–1, 1)

⎛ 5⎞ ⎛ 7 ⎞
2. (a) ⎜ 4,− ⎟ (b) ⎜ − ,5 ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

⎛1 5⎞
3. ⎜ , ⎟
⎝3 3⎠

ANSWERS TO TERMINAL EXERCISE

1. 3 units
2. 0 or 6

3. AB = 26 units, BC = 29 units and CA = 101 units

5. (0, 1)
6. (–1, –2)
7. (3, 2)

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Co-ordinate Geometry MODULE - 3
Geometry

Secondary Course
Mathematics
Notes
Practice Work-Geometry

Maximum Marks: 25 Time : 45 Minutes

Instructions:

1. Answer all the questions on a separate sheet of paper.

2. Give the following informations on your answer sheet
Name
Enrolment number
Subject
Topic of practice work
Address
3. Get your practice work checked by the subject teacher at your study centre so that
you get positive feedback about your performance.
Do not send practice work to National Institute of Open Schooling
1. Lines AB and CD intersect each other at O as shown in the adjacent figure. A pair of
vertically opposite angles is: 1
(A) 1, 2
(B) 2, 3
(C) 3, 4
(D) 2, 4
2. Which of the following statements is true for a ΔABC? 1
(A) AB + BC = AC
(B) AB + BC < AC
(C) AB + BC > AC
(D) AB + BC + AC = 0

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MODULE - 3 Co-ordinate Geometry
Geometry
3. The quadrilateral formed by joining the mid points of the pair of adjacent sides of a
rectangle is a: 1
(A) rectangle
Notes
(B) square
(C) rhombus
(D) trapezium
4. In the adjacent figure, PT is a tangent to the circle at T. If ∠BTA = 45o and
∠PTB = 70o, Then ∠ABT is: 1
(A) 110o
(B) 70o
(C) 45o
(D) 23o
5. Two points A, B have co-ordinates (2, 3) and (4, x) respectively. If AB2 = 13, the
possible value of x is: 1
(A) –6
(B) 0
(C) 9
(D) 12

1
6. In ΔABC, AB = 10 cm and DE is parallel to BC such that AE = AC. Find AD. 2
4

7. If ABCD is a rhombus, then prove that 4AB2 = AC2 + BD2 2

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8. Find the co-ordinates of the point on x-axis which is equidistant from the points whose
co-ordinates are (3, 8) and (9, 5). 2
9. The co-ordiantes of the mid-point of a line segment are (2, 3). If co-ordinates of one
of the end points of the segment are (6, 5), then find the co-ordinates of the other end Notes
point. 2
10. The co-ordinates of the vertices of a triangle are (3, –1), (10, 7) and (5, 3). Find the
co-ordinates of its centroid. 2
11. In an acute angled triangle ABC, AD ⊥ BC. Prove that
AC2 = AB2 + BC2 – 2BC. BD 4
12. Prove that parallelograms on equal (or same) bases and between the same parallels
are equal in area. 6

Mathematics Secondary Course 453

 MODULE 4
Mensuration
All the mathematical ideas have emerged out of daily life experiences. The first ever
need of human being was counting objects. This gave rise to the idea of numbers.
When the man learnt to grow crops, following types of problems had to be handled:

(i) Fencing or construcing some kind of a boundary around the field, where the
crops were to be grown.
(ii) Allotting lands of different sizes for growing different crops.
(iii) Making suitable places for storing different products grown under different crops.
These problems led to the need of measurement of perimeters (lengths), areas and
volumes, which in turn gave rise to a branch of mathematics known as Mensuration.
In it, we deal with problems such as finding the cost of putting barbed wire around a
field, finding the number of tiles required to floor a room, finding the number of
bricks, required for creating a wall, finding the cost of ploughing a given field at a
given rate, finding the cost of constructing a water tank for supplying water in a
colony, finding the cost of polishing a table-top or painting a door and so on. Due to
the above type of problems, sometimes mensuration is referred to as the science of
“Furnitures and Walls”.
For solving above type of problems, we need to find the perimeters and areas of
simple closed plane figures (figure which lie in a plane) and surface areas and volumes
of solid figures (figures which do not lie wholly in a plane). You are already familiar
with the concepts of perimeters, areas, surface areas and volumes. In this module,
we shall discuss these in details, starting with the results and formulas with which
you are already familiar.
Perimeters and Areas of Plane Figures
MODULE - 4
Mensuration

20 Notes

PERIMETERS AND AREAS OF PLANE

FIGURES

You are already familair with a number of plane figures such as rectangle, square,
parallelogram, triangle, circle, etc. You also know how to find perimeters and areas of
these figures using different formulae. In this lesson, we shall consolidate this knowledge
and learn something more about these, particularly the Heron’s formula for finding the area
of a triangle and formula for finding the area of a sector of a circle.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to
• find the perimeters and areas of some triangles and quadrilaterals, using formulae
learnt earlier;
• use Heron’s formula for finding the area of a triangle;
• find the areas of some rectilinear figures (including rectangular paths) by dividing
them into known figures such as triangles, squares, trapeziums, rectangles, etc.;
• find the circumference and area of a circle;
• find the areas of circular paths;
• derive and understand the formulae for perimeter and area of a sector of a
circle;
• find the perimeter and the area of a sector, using the above formulae;
• find the areas of some combinations of figures involving circles, sectors as well
as triangles, squares and rectangles;
• solve daily life problems based on perimeters and areas of various plane
figures.

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Mensuration
EXPECTED BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE
• Simple closed figures like triangles, quadrilaterals, parallelograms, trapeziums, squares,
rectangles, circles and their properties.
Notes
• Different units for perimeter and area such as m and m2, cm and cm2, mm and mm2
and so on.
• Conversion of one unit into other units.
• Bigger units for areas such as acres and hectares.
• Following formulae for perimeters and areas of varioius figures:
(i) Perimeter of a rectangle = 2 (length + breadth)
(ii) Area of a rectangle = length × breadth
(iii) Perimeter of a square = 4 × side
(iv) Area of a square = (side)2
(v) Area of a parallelogram = base × corresponding altitude

1
(vi) Area of a triangle = base × corresponding altitude
2

1
(vii)Area of a rhombus = product of its diagonals
2

1
(viii) Area of a trapezium = (sum of the two parallel sides) × distance between them
2
(ix) circumference of a circle = 2 π × radius
(x) Area of a circle = π× (radius)2

20.1 PERIMETERS AND AREAS OF SOME SPECIFIC

QUADRILATEALS AND TRIANGLES
You already know that the distance covered to walk along a plane closed figure (boundary)
is called its perimeter and the measure of the region enclosed by the figure is called its
area. You also know that perimeter or length is measured in linear units, while area is
measured in square units. For example, units for perimeter (or length) are m or cm or mm
and that for area are m2 or cm2 or mm2 (also written as sq.m or sq.cm or sq.mm).
You are also familiar with the calculations of the perimeters and areas of some specific
quadrilaterals (such as squares, rectangles, parallelograms, etc.) and triangles, using certain
formulae. Lets us consolidate this knowledge through some examples.

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Perimeters and Areas of Plane Figures
MODULE - 4
Mensuration
Example 20.1: Find the area of square whose perimeter is 80 m.
Solution: Let the side of the square be a m.
So, perimeter of the square = 4 × a m.
Therefore, 4a = 80 Notes
80
or a= = 20
4
That is, side of the square = 20 m
Therefore, area of the square = (20m)2 = 400 m2
Example 20.2: Length and breadth of a rectangular field are 23.7 m and 14.5 m respectively.
Find:
(i) barbed wire required to fence the field
(ii) area of the field.
Solution: (i) Barbed wire for fencing the field = perimeter of the field
= 2 (length + breadth)
= 2(23.7 + 14.5) m = 76.4 m
(ii) Area of the field = length × breadth
= 23.7 × 14.5 m2
= 343.65 m2
Example 20.3: Find the area of a parallelogram of base 12 cm and corresponding altitude
8 cm.
Solution: Area of the parallelogram = base × corresponding altitude
= 12 × 8 cm2
= 96 cm2
Example 20.4: The base of a triangular field is three times its corresponding altitude. If
the cost of ploughing the field at the rate of ` 15 per square metre is ` 20250, find the base
and the corresponding altitutde of the field.
Solution: Let the corresponding altitude be x m.
Therefore, base = 3x m.
1
So, area of the field = base × corresponding altitude
2
1 3x 2 2
= 3x × x m2 = m ....(1)
2 2

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MODULE - 4 Perimeters and Areas of Plane Figures
Mensuration
Also, cost of ploughing the field at ` 15 per m2 = ` 20250

20250 2
Therefore, area of the field = m
15
Notes
= 1350 m2 ...(2)
From (1) and (2), we have:

3x 2
= 1350
2

1350 × 2
x2 = = 900 = (30 )
2
or
3
or x = 30
Hence, corresponding altitutde is 30 m and the base is 3 × 30 m i.e., 90 m.
Example 20.5: Find the area of a rhombus whose diagonals are of lengths 16 cm and
12 cm.

1 1
Solution: Area of the rhombus = product of its diagonals = × 16 × 12 cm2
2 2
= 96 cm2
Example 20.6: Length of the two parallel sides of a trapezium are 20 cm and 12 cm and
the distance between them is 5 cm. Find the area of the trapezium.

1
Solution: Area of a trapezium = (sum of the two parallel sides)×distance between them
2

1
= (20 + 12) × 5 cm2 = 80 cm2
2

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 20.1

1. Area of a square field is 225 m2. Find the perimeter of the field.
2. Find the diagonal of a square whose perimeter is 60 cm.
3. Length and breadth of a rectangular field are 22.5 m and 12.5 m respectively. Find:
(i) Area of the field
(ii) Length of the barbed wire required to fence the field

460 Mathematics Secondary Course

Perimeters and Areas of Plane Figures
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Mensuration
4. The length and breadth of rectangle are in the ratio 3 : 2. If the area of the rectangle is
726 m2, find its perimeter.
5. Find the area of a parallelogram whose base and corresponding altitude are respectively
20 cm and 12 cm.
Notes
2
6. Area of a triangle is 280 cm . If base of the triangle is 70 cm, find its corresponding
altitude.
7. Find the area of a trapezium, the distance between whose parallel sides of lengths 26
cm and 12 cm is 10 cm.
8. Perimeter of a rhombus is 146 cm and the length of one of its diagonals is 48 cm. Find
the length of its other diagonal.

20.2 HERON’S FORMULA

If the base and corresponding altitude of a triangle are known, you have already used the
formula:

1
Area of a triangle = base × corresponding altitude
2
However, sometimes we are not given the altitude (height) corresponding to the given
base of a triangle. Instead of that we are given the three sides of the triangle. In this case
also, we can find the height (or altitude) corresponding to a side and calculate its area. Let
us explain it through an example.
Example 20.7: Find the area of the triangle ABC, whose sides AB, BC and CA are
respectively 5 cm, 6 cm and 7 cm.
Solution: Draw AD ⊥ BC as shown in Fig. 20.1.
Let BD = x cm
A
So, CD = (6 – x) cm
7
Now, from right triangle ABD, we have: 5
AB2 = BD2 + AD2 (Pythagoras Theorem)
i.e. 25 = x2 + AD2 ...(1) B D C
6
Similarly, from right triangle ACD, we have:
Fig. 20.1
2 2 2
AC = CD + AD
i.e. 49 = (6 – x)2 + AD2 ...(2)
From (1) and (2), we have:
49 – 25 = (6 – x)2 – x2

Mathematics Secondary Course 461

MODULE - 4 Perimeters and Areas of Plane Figures
Mensuration
i.e. 24 = 36 – 12x + x2 – x2
or 12 x = 12, i.e., x = 1
Putting this value of x in (1), we have:
Notes
25 = 1 + AD2

i.e. AD2 = 24 or AD = 24 = 2 6 cm

1 1
Thus, area of ΔABC = BC × AD = × 6 × 2 6 cm2 = 6 6 cm2
2 2
You must have observed that the process involved in the solution of the above example is
lengthy. To help us in this matter, a formula for finding the area of a triangle with three given
sides was provided by a Greek mathematician Heron (75 B.C. to 10 B.C.). It is as
follows:

Area of a triangle = s(s − a )(s − b )(s − c )

a+b+c
where, a, b and c are the three sides of the triangle and s = . This formula can be
2
proved on similar lines as in Example 20.7 by taking a, b and c for 6, 7 and 5 respectively.
Let us find the area of the triangle of Example 20.7 using this formula.
Here, a = 6 cm, b = 7 cm and c = 5 cm

6+7+5
So, s = = 9 cm
2

Therefore, area of ΔABC = s(s − a )(s − b)(s − c )

= 9(9 − 6)(9 − 7)(9 − 5) cm2

9 × 3 × 2 × 3 cm
2
=

= 6 6 cm2, which is the same as obtained earlier.

Let us take some more examples to illustrate the use of this formula.
Example 20.8: The sides of a triangular field are 165 m, 154 m and 143 m. Find the area
of the field.

a+b+c (165 + 154 + 143) m = 231 m

Solution: s = =
2 2

462 Mathematics Secondary Course

Perimeters and Areas of Plane Figures
MODULE - 4
Mensuration
So, area of the field = s(s − a )(s − b)(s − c )

= 231× (231 − 165)(231 − 154)(231 − 143) m2

Notes
231× 66 × 77 × 88 m
2
=

= 11× 3 × 7 ×11× 2 × 3 ×11× 7 ×11× 2 × 2 × 2 m2

= 11 × 11 × 3 × 7 × 2 × 2 m2 = 10164 m2
Example 20.9: Find the area of a trapezium whose parallel sides are of lengths 11 cm
amd 25 cm and whose non-parallel sides are of lengths 15 cm and 13 cm.
Solution: Let ABCD be the trapezium in which AB = 11 cm, CD = 25 cm, AD = 15 cm
and BC =13 cm (See Fig. 20.2)
Through B, we draw a line parallel to AD to intersect DC at E. Draw BF ⊥ DC.
Now, clearly BE = AD = 15 cm
A B
BC = 13 cm (given)
and EC = (25 – 11) cm = 14 cm

15 + 13 + 14
So, for ΔBEC, s = cm = 21 cm
2 D E F C
Fig. 20.2
Therefore area of ΔBEC = s(s − a )(s − b)(s − c )

= 21× (21 − 15)(21 − 13)(21 − 14) cm2

= 21× 6 × 8 × 7 cm2
= 7 × 3 × 4 cm2 = 84 cm2 ...(1)
1
Again, area of ΔBEC = EC × BF
2
1
= × 14 × BF ...(2)
2
So, from (1) and (2), we have:
1
× 14 × BF = 84
2

84
i.e., BF = cm = 12 cm
7

Mathematics Secondary Course 463

MODULE - 4 Perimeters and Areas of Plane Figures
Mensuration
1
Therefore, area of trapezium ABCD = (AB + CD) × BF
2
1
Notes = (11 + 25) × 12 cm2
2
= 18 × 12 cm2 = 216 cm2

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 20.2

1. Find the area of a triangle of sides 15 cm, 16 cm and 17 cm.
2. Using Heron’s formula, find the area of an equilateral triangle whose side is 12 cm.
Hence, find the altitude of the triangle.

20.3 AREAS OF RECTANGULAR PATHS AND SOME

RECTILINEAR FIGURES
You might have seen different types of rectangular paths in the parks of your locality. You
might have also seen that sometimes lands or fields are not in the shape of a single figure.
In fact, they can be considered in the form of a shape made up of a number of polygons
such as rectangles, squares, triangles, etc. We shall explain the calculation of areas of such
figures through some examples.
E F
Example 20.10: A rectangular park of length 30 m
and breadth 24 m is surrounded by a 4 m wide path. A B
30 m
Find the area of the path.
24 m
Solution: Let ABCD be the park and shaded portion C D
is the path surrounding it (See Fig. 20.3).
H G
So, length of rectangle EFGH = (30 + 4 + 4) m = 38 m Fig. 20.3
and breadth of rectangle EFGH = (24 + 4 + 4) m = 32 m
Therefore, area of the path = area of rectangle EFGH – area of rectangle ABCD
= (38 × 32 – 30 × 24) m2
= (1216 – 720) m2 A P Q B

= 496 m2 M L
H E
Example 20.11: There are two rectangular paths in G F
O N
the middle of a park as shown in Fig. 20.4. Find the
cost of paving the paths with concrete at the rate of S R C
D
` 15 per m2. It is given that AB = CD = 50 m,
Fig. 20.4
AD = BC = 40 m and EF = PQ = 2.5 m.

464 Mathematics Secondary Course

Perimeters and Areas of Plane Figures
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Mensuration
Solution: Area of the paths = Area of PQRS + Area of EFGH – area of square MLNO
= (40 × 2.5 + 50 × 2.5 – 2.5 × 2.5) m2
= 218.75 m2
So, cost of paving the concrete at the rate of ` 15 per m2 = ` 218.75 × 15 Notes

= ` 3281.25
Example 20.12: Find the area of the figure ABCDEFG (See Fig. 20.5) in which ABCG
is a rectangle, AB = 3 cm, BC = 5 cm, GF = 2.5 cm = DE = CF., CD = 3.5 cm, EF = 4.5
cm, and CD || EF.
Solution: Required area = area of rectangle ABCG + area of isosceles triangle FGC
+ area of trapezium DCEF ...(1)
Now, area of rectangle ABCG = l × b = 5 × 3 cm2 = 15 cm2 ...(2)
For area of ΔFGC, draw FM ⊥ CG.
As FG = FC (given), therefore
A B
M is the mid point of GC.

3
That is, GM = = 1.5 cm
2
Now, from ΔGMF,
G M C D
GF2 = FM2 + GM2
or (2.5)2 = FM2 + (1.5)2
or FM2 = (2.5)2 – (1.5)2 = 4 F E
So, FM = 2, i.e., length of FM = 2 cm Fig. 20.5
1
So, area of ΔFGC = GC × FM
2
1
= × 3 × 2 cm2 = 3 cm2 ...(3)
2

1
Also, area of trapezium CDEF = (sum of the parallel sides) × distance between them
2

1
= (3.5 + 4.5) × 2 cm2
2

1
= × 8 × 2 cm2 = 8 cm2 ...(4)
2

Mathematics Secondary Course 465

MODULE - 4 Perimeters and Areas of Plane Figures
Mensuration
So, area of given figure
= (15 + 3 + 8) cm2 [From (1), (2), (3) and (4)]
= 26 cm2
Notes
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 20.3
1. There is a 3 m wide path on the inside running around a rectangular park of length 48
m and width 36 m. Find the area of the path. A

2. There are two paths of width 2 m each in the middle

of a rectangular garden of length 80 m and breadth
F 35m E
60 m such that one path is parallel to the length and G
B 45 m
the other is parallel to the breadth. Find the area of
the paths.
H D
50 m

3. Find the area of the rectangular figure ABCDE given C

in Fig. 20.6, where EF, BG and DH are perpendiculars Fig. 20.6
to AC, AF = 40 m, AG = 50 m, GH = 40 m and CH A G 3 cm F
= 50 m. 3 cm
5 cm
3 cm
B
4. Find the area of the figure ABCDEFG in Fig. 20.7, 8 cm E
where ABEG is a trapezium, BCDE is a rectangle, 2 cm
C 8 cm D
and distance between AG and BE is 2 cm.
Fig. 20.7

20.4 AREAS OF CIRCLES AND CIRCULAR PATHS

So far, we have discussed about the perimeters and areas
of figures made up of line segments only. Now we take
up a well known and very useful figure called circle, which
is not made up of line segments. (See. Fig. 20.8). You
already know that perimeter (circumference) of a
.
πr and its area is πr2, where r is the radius of
circle is 2π
the circle and π is a constant equal to the ratio of
circumference of a circle to its diameter. You also know Fig. 20.8
that π is an irrational number.
62832
A great Indian mathematician Aryabhata (476 - 550 AD) gave the value of π as ,
20000
which is equal to 3.1416 correct to four places of decimals. However, for practical purposes,
22
the value of π is generally taken as or 3.14 approximately. Unless, stated otherwise,
7

466 Mathematics Secondary Course

Perimeters and Areas of Plane Figures
MODULE - 4
Mensuration
22
we shall take the value of π as .
7
Example 20.13: The radii of two circles are 18 cm and 10 cm. Find the radius of the
circle whose circumference is equal to the sum of the circumferences of these two circles. Notes
Solution: Let the radius of the circle be r cm.
Its circumference = 2 πr cm ....(1)
Also, sum of the circumferences of the two circles = (2π × 18 + 2π × 10) cm
= 2π × 28 cm ...(2)
Therefore, from (1) and (2), 2πr = 2π × 28
or r = 28
i.e., radius of the circle is 28 cm.
Example 20.14: There is a circular path of width 2 m along the boundary and inside a
circular park of radius 16 m. Find the cost of paving the path with bricks at the rate of
` 24 per m2. (Use π = 3.14)
Solution: Let OA be radius of the park and shaded portion be the path (See. Fig. 20.9)
So, OA = 16 m A
and OB = 16 m – 2 m = 14 m.
B
Therefore, area of the path
= (π × 162 – π × 142) m2
O
= π(16 + 14) (16 – 14) m 2

= 3.14 × 30 × 2 = 188.4 m2
So, cost of paving the bricks at ` 24 per m2
Fig. 20.9
= ` 24 × 188.4
= ` 4521.60

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 20.4

1. The radii of two circles are 9 cm and 12 cm respectively. Find the radius of the circle
whose area is equal to the sum of the areas of these two circles.
2. The wheels of a car are of radius 40 cm each. If the car is travelling at a speed of 66
km per hour, find the number of revolutions made by each wheel in 20 minutes.
3. Around a circular park of radius 21 m, there is circular road of uniform width 7 m
outside it. Find the area of the road.

Mathematics Secondary Course 467

MODULE - 4 Perimeters and Areas of Plane Figures
Mensuration
20.5 PERIMETER AND AREA OF A SECTOR
You are already familar with the term sector of a

Notes
circle. Recall that a part of a circular region enclosed
between two radii of the corresponding circle is called
.
Q

a sector of the circle. Thus, in Fig. 20.10, the shaded

region OAPB is a sector of the circle with centre O. O
∠AOB is called the central angle or simply the angle
of the sector. Clearly, APB is the corresponding arc
of this sector. You may note that the part OAQB
(unshaded region) is also a sector of this circle. For
obvious reasons, OAPB is called the minor sector
A .
P
B

and OAQB is called the major sector of the circle Fig. 20.10
(with major arc AQB).
Note: unless stated otherwise, by sector, we shall mean a minor sector.

(i) Perimeter of the sector: Clearly, perimeter of the sector OAPB is equal to OA +
OB + length of arc APB.
Let radius OA (or OB) be r, length of the arc APB be l and ∠AOB be θ.
We can find the length l of the arc APB as follows:
We know that circumference of the circle = 2 πr
Now, for total angle 360o at the centre, length = 2πr

2πr
So, for angle θ, length l = ×θ
360 o
πrθ
or l= ...(1)
180o
Thus, perimeter of the sector OAPB = OA + OB + l

πrθ πrθ
=r+r+ o = 2 r +
180 180o
(ii) Area of the sector
Area of the circle = πr2
Now, for total angle 360o, area = πr2

πr 2
So, for angle θ, area = ×θ
360o

468 Mathematics Secondary Course

Perimeters and Areas of Plane Figures
MODULE - 4
Mensuration
πr 2θ
Thus, area of the sector OAPB =
360 o
Note: By taking the angle as 360o – θ, we can find the perimeter and area of the
major sector OAQB as follows Notes

Perimeter = 2r +
(
πr 360 o − θ )
180 o

πr 2
and area =
360 o
(
× 360 o − θ )
Example 20.15: Find the perimeter and area of the sector of a circle of radius 9 cm with
central angle 35o.

πrθ
Solution: Perimeter of the sector = 2r +
180 o

⎛ 22 9 × 35o ⎞
⎜
=⎜ 2 × 9 + × ⎟ cm
⎝ 7 180o ⎟⎠

⎛ 11× 1 ⎞ 47
= ⎜18 + ⎟ cm = cm
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2

πr 2 × θ
Area of the sector =
360o

⎛ 22 81× 35o ⎞
= ⎜⎜ × ⎟ 2
o ⎟ cm
⎝ 7 360 ⎠

⎛ 11× 9 ⎞ 2 99
=⎜ ⎟ cm = cm 2
⎝ 4 ⎠ 4

Example 20.16: Find the perimeter and area of the sector of a circle of radius 6 cm and
length of the arc of the sector as 22 cm.
Solution: Perimeter of the sector = 2r + length of the arc
= (2 × 6 + 22) cm = 34 cm
For area, let us first find the central angle θ.

πrθ
So, = 22
180 o

Mathematics Secondary Course 469

MODULE - 4 Perimeters and Areas of Plane Figures
Mensuration
22 θ
or × 6× = 22
7 180 o

Notes 180 o × 7
or θ= = 210o
6

πr 2θ
So, area of the sector =
360 o

22 36 × 210o
= ×
7 360o
= 66 cm2
Alternate method for area:
Circumference of the circle = 2πr

22
= 2× × 6 cm
7

22
and area of the circle = πr2 = × 6 × 6 cm2
7

22 22
For length 2 × × 6 cm, area = × 6 × 6 cm2
7 7

22 6 × 6 × 7 × 22
So, for length 22 cm, area = × cm2
7 2 × 22 × 6
= 66 cm2

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 20.5

1. Find the perimeter and area of the sector of a circle of radius 14 cm and central angle
30o.
2. Find the perimeter and area of the sector of a circle of radius 6 cm and length of the
arc as 11 cm.

470 Mathematics Secondary Course

Perimeters and Areas of Plane Figures
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Mensuration
20.6 AREAS OF COMBINATIONS OF FIGURES
INVOLVING CIRCLES
So far, we have been discussing areas of figures separately. We shall now try to calculate
areas of combinations of some plane figures. We come across these type of figures in daily Notes
life in the form of various designs such as table covers, flower beds, window designs, etc.
Let us explain the process of finding their areas through some examples.
A
Example 20.17: In a round table cover, a design is made
leaving an equilateral triangle ABC in the middle as shown
in Fig. 20.11. If the radius of the cover is 3.5 cm, find the
cost of making the design at the rate of ` 0.50 per cm2
(use π = 3.14 and 3 = 1.7)
B C
Solution: Let the centre of the cover be O.
Draw OP ⊥ BC and join OB, OC. (Fig. 20.12)
Fig. 20.11
Now, ∠BOC = 2 ∠BAC = 2 × 60o = 120o

1 1
Also, ∠BOP = ∠COP = ∠BOC = × 120o = 60o
2 2

BP 3
Now, = sin∠BOP = sin60 o = [See Lessons 22-23]
OB 2
A
BP 3
i.e., =
3.5 2
O
3.5 3
So, BC = 2 × cm = 3.5 3 cm
2 C
B P
3
Therefore, area of ΔABC = BC 2
4 Fig. 20.12
3
= × 3.5 × 3.5 × 3 cm2
4
Now, area of the design = area of the circle – area of ΔABC

3
= (3.14 × 3.5 × 3.5 – × 3.5 × 3.5 × 3) cm2
4

1.7 × 3.5 × 3.5 × 3

= (3.14 × 3.5 × 3.5 – ) cm2
4

Mathematics Secondary Course 471

MODULE - 4 Perimeters and Areas of Plane Figures
Mensuration
⎛ 12.56 − 5.10 ⎞
= 3.5 × 3.5⎜ ⎟ cm2
⎝ 4 ⎠

Notes ⎛ 7.46 ⎞
= 12.25⎜ ⎟ cm2 = 12.25 × 1.865 cm2
⎝ 4 ⎠
Therefore, cost of making the design at ` 0.50 per cm2
= ` 12.25 × 1.865 × 0.50 = ` 114.23 (approx)
Example 20.18: On a square shaped handkerchief,
nine circular designs, each of radius 7 cm, are made
as shown in Fig. 20.13. Find the area of the remainig
portion of the handkerchief.
Solution: As radius of each circular design is 7 cm,
diameter of each will be 2 × 7 cm = 14 cm
So, side of the square handkerchief = 3 × 14 = 42 cm ...(1)
Therefore, area of the square = 42 × 42 cm2 Fig. 20.13

22
Also, area of a circle = πr2 = × 7 × 7 cm 2 = 154 cm2
7
So, area of 9 circles = 9 × 154 cm2 ...(2)
Therefore, from (1) and (2), area of the remaining portion
= (42 × 42 – 9 × 154) cm2
= (1764 – 1386) cm2 = 378 cm2

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 20.6 D C

1. A square ABCD of side 6 cm has been

inscribed in a quadrant of a circle of radius A B
14 cm (See Fig. 20.14). Find the area of the Fig. 20.14
shaded region in the figure. 10 cm

2. A shaded design has been formed by drawing

10 cm

10 cm

semicircles on the sides of a square of side

length 10 cm each as shown in Fig. 20.15.
Find the area of the shaded region in the
10 cm
design. Fig. 20.14

472 Mathematics Secondary Course

Perimeters and Areas of Plane Figures
MODULE - 4
Mensuration

LET US SUM UP
• Perimeter of a rectangle = 2 (length + breadth)
Notes
• Area of a rectangle = length × breadth
• Perimeter of a square = 4 × side
• Area of a square = (side)2
• Area of a parallelogram = base × corresponding altitude

1
• Area of a triangle = base × corresponding altitude
2

and also s(s − a )(s − b)(s − c ) , where a, b and c are the three sides of the triangle
a+b+c
and s = .
2

1
• Area of a rhombus = product of its diagonals
2

1
• Area of a trapezium = (sum of the two parallel sides) × distance between them
2
• Area of rectangular path = area of the outer rectangle – area of inner rectangle
• Area of cross paths in the middle = Sum of the areas of the two paths – area of the
common portion
• circumference of a circle of radius r = 2 πr
• Area of a circle of radius r = πr2
• Area of a circular path = Area of the outer circle – area of the inner circle

πrθ
• Length l of the arc of a sector of a circle of radius r with central angle θ is l =
180o

πrθ
• Perimeter of the sector a circle with radius r and central angle θ = 2r +
180o

πr 2θ
• Area of the sector of a circle with radius r and central and θ =
360 o

Mathematics Secondary Course 473

MODULE - 4 Perimeters and Areas of Plane Figures
Mensuration
• Areas of many rectilinear figures can be found by dividing them into known figures
such as squares, rectangles, triangles and so on.
• Areas of various combinations of figures and designs involving circles can also be
Notes found by using different known formulas.

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. The side of a square park is 37.5 m. Find its area.
2. The perimeter of a square is 480 cm. Find its area.
3. Find the time taken by a person in walking along the boundary of a square field of area
40 000 m2 at a speed of 4 km/h.
4. Length of a room is three times its breadth. If its breadth is 4.5 m, find the area of the
floor.
5. The length and breadth of a rectangle are in the ratio of 5 : 2 and its perimeter is 980
cm. Find the area of the rectangle.
6. Find the area of each of the following parallelograms:
(i) one side is 25 cm and corresponding altitude is 12 cm
(ii) Two adjacent sides are 13 cm and 14 cm and one diagonal is 15 cm.
7. The area of a rectangular field is 27000 m2 and its length and breadth are in the ratio
6:5. Find the cost of fencing the field by four rounds of barbed wire at the rate of ` 7
per 10 metre.
8. Find the area of each of the following trapeziums:
S. No. Lengths of parellel sides Distance between the parallel sides
(i) 30 cm and 20 cm 15 cm
(ii) 15.5 cm and 10.5 cm 7.5 cm
(iii) 15 cm and 45 cm 14.6 cm
(iv) 40 cm and 22 cm 12 cm
9. Find the area of a plot which is in the shape of a quadrilateral, one of whose diagonals
is 20 m and lengths of the perpendiculars from the opposite corners on it are of lengths
12 m and 18 m respectively.
10. Find the area of a field in the shape of a trapezium whose parallel sides are of lengths
48 m and 160 m and non-parallel sides of lengths 50 m and 78 m.

474 Mathematics Secondary Course

Perimeters and Areas of Plane Figures
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Mensuration
11. Find the area and perimeter of a quadrilateral ABCCD in which AB = 8.5 cm, BC =
14.3 cm, CD = 16.5 cm, AD = 8.5 cm and BD = 15.4 cm.
12. Find the areas of the following triangles whose sides are
(i) 2.5 cm, 6 cm and 6.5 cm Notes

(ii) 6 cm, 11.1 cm and 15.3 cm

13. The sides of a triangle are 51 cm, 52 cm and 53 cm. Find:
(i) Area of the triangle
(ii) Length of the perpendicular to the side of length 52 cm from its opposite vertex.
(iii) Areas of the two triangles into which the given triangle is divided by the
perpendicular of (ii) above.
14. Find the area of a rhombus whose side is of length 5 m and one of its diagonals is of
length 8 m.
15. The difference between two parallel sides of a trapezium of area 312 cm2 is 8 cm. If
the distance between the parallel sides is 24 cm, find the length of the two parallel
sides.
16. Two perpendicular paths of width 10 m each run in the middle of a rectangular park of
dimensions 200 m × 150 m, one parallel to length and the other parallel ot the breadth.
Find the cost of constructing these paths at the rate of ` 5 per m2
17. A rectangular lawn of dimensions 65 m × 40 m has a path of uniform width 8 m all
around inside it. Find the cost of paving the red stone on this path at the rate of
` 5.25 per m2.
18. A rectangular park is of length 30 m and breadth 20 m. It has two paths, each of width
2 m, around it (one inside and the other outside it). Find the total area of these paths.
19. The difference between the circumference and diameter of a circle is 30 cm. Find its
radius.
20. A path of uniform width 3 m runs outside around a circular park of radius 9 m. Find the
area of the path.
21. A circular park of radius 15 m has a road 2 m wide all around inside it. Find the area
of the road.
22. From a circular piece of cardboard of radius 1.47 m, a sector of angle 60o has been
removed. Find the area of the remaining cardboard.
23. Find the area of a square field, in hectares, whose side is of length 360 m.

Mathematics Secondary Course 475

MODULE - 4 Perimeters and Areas of Plane Figures
Mensuration
24. Area of a triangular field is 2.5 hectares. If one of its sides is 250 m, find its corresponding
altitude.
25. A field is in the shape of a trapezium of parallel sides 11 m and 25 m and of non-
Notes parallel sides 15 m and 13 m. Find the cost of watering the field at the rate of 5 paise
per 500 cm2.
26. From a circular disc of diameter 8 cm, a square of side 1.5 cm is removed. Find the
area of the remaining poriton of the disc. (Use π = 3.14)
27. Find the area of the adjoining figure with the
2 cm
measurement, as shown. (Use π = 3.14)

1.5 cm

1.5 cm
6 cm
Fig. 20.16
28. A farmer buys a circular field at the rate of ` 700 per m2 for ` 316800. Find the
perimeter of the field.
29. A horse is tied to a pole at a corner of a square field of side 12 m by a rope of length
3.5 m. Find the area of the part of the field in which the horse can graze.
30. Find the area of the quadrant of a circle whose circumference is 44 cm.

..
A P

Q
31. In Fig. 20.17, OAQB is a quadrant of a circle
of radius 7 cm and APB is a semicircle. Find
the area of the shaded region.

O B
Fig. 20.17

32. In Fig 20.18, radii of the two concentric O

circles are 7 cm and 14 cm and ∠AOB =
45o, Find the area of the shaded region 45o
ABCD. D C
A B
Fig. 20.18

476 Mathematics Secondary Course

Perimeters and Areas of Plane Figures
MODULE - 4
Mensuration
33. In Fig. 20.19, four congruent circles of radius
7 cm touch one another and A, B, C, and D A B
are their centres. Find the area of the shaded
region.
D Notes
C

Fig. 20.19

34. Find the area of the flower bed with

semicircular ends of Fig. 20.20, if the
diameters of the ends are 14cm, 28 cm, 14
cm and 28 cm respectively.

Fig. 20.20

35. In Fig 20.21, two semicircles have been drawn

inside the square ABCD of side 14 cm. Find
the area of the shaded region as well as the
unshaded region.

Fig. 20.21

In each of the questions 36 to 42, write the correct answer from the four given options:
36. The perimeter of a square of side a is
(A) a2 (B) 4a (C) 2a (D) 2a
37. The sides of a triangle are 15 cm, 20 cm, and 25 cm. Its area is
(A) 30 cm2 (B) 150 cm2 (C) 187.5 cm2 (D) 300 cm2
38. The base of an isosceles triangle is 8 cm and one of its equal sides is 5 cm. The
corresponding height of the triangle is
(A) 5 cm (B) 4 cm (C) 3 cm (D) 2 cm
39. If a is the side of an equilateral triangle, then its altitude is

3 2 3 3 3
(A) a (B) (C) a (D)
2 2a 2 2 2a

Mathematics Secondary Course 477

MODULE - 4 Perimeters and Areas of Plane Figures
Mensuration
40. One side of a parallelogram is 15 cm and its corresponding altitude is 5 cm. Area of
the parallelogram is
(A) 75 cm2 (B) 37.5 cm2 (C) 20 cm2 (D) 3 cm2
Notes 41. Area of a rhombus is 156 cm2 and one of its diagonals is 13 cm. Its other diagonal is
(A) 12 cm (B) 24 cm (C) 36 cm (D) 48 cm
42. Area of a trapezium is 180 cm2 and its two parallel sides are 28 cm and 12 cm.
Distance between these two parallel sides is
(A) 9 cm (B) 12 cm (C) 15 cm (D) 18 cm
43. Which of the following statements are true and which are false?
(i) Perimeter of a rectangle is equal to length + breadth.
(ii) Area of a circle of radus r is πr2. r2
(iii) Area of the circular shaded path of the adjoining r1
figure is πr12 –πr22.
(iv) Area of a triangle of sides a, b and c is
s(s − a )(s − b )(s − c ) , where s is the perimeter of
the triangle.

πr 2
(v) Area of a sector of circle of radius r and central angle 60o is .
6
(vi) Perimeter of a sector of circle of radius 5 cm and central angle 120o is 5 cm +
10π
cm
3
44. Fill in the blanks:
1
(i) Area of a rhombus = product of its ___________________
2

1
(ii) Area of a trapezium = (sum of its ________) × distance between ______
2
(iii) The ratio of the areas of two sectors of two circles of radii 4 cm and 8 cm and
central angles 100o and 50o respectively is __________
(iv) The ratio of the lengths of the arcs of two sectors of two circles of radii 10 cm and
5 cm and central angles 75o and 150o is _____________.
(v) Perimeter of a rhombus of diagonals 16 cm and 12 cm is __________

478 Mathematics Secondary Course

Perimeters and Areas of Plane Figures
MODULE - 4
Mensuration

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

20.1
Notes
1. 60 m

2. 15 2 cm

3. (i) 281.25 m2 (ii) 70 m

4. 110 m [Hint 3x × 2x = 726 ⇒ x = 11 m]
5. 240 cm2
6. 80 cm
7. 190 cm2
8. 55 cm, 1320 cm2
20.2
1. 24 21 cm2

2. 36 3 cm2 ; 6 3 cm
20.3
1. 648 m2
2. 276 m2
3. 7225 m2

⎛ 5 ⎞
4. ⎜ 27 + 11 ⎟ cm2
⎝ 4 ⎠
20.4
1. 15 cm
2. 8750
3. 10.78 m2
20.5
1 154
1. Perimeter = 35 cm; Area = cm2
2 3
2. Perimeter = 23 cm, Area = 33 cm2

Mathematics Secondary Course 479

MODULE - 4 Perimeters and Areas of Plane Figures
Mensuration
20.6
1. 118 cm2

1
2. 4 × π × 5 – 10 × 10 cm2
2
Notes
2
= (50π – 100) cm2

ANSWERS TO TERMINAL EXERCISE

1. 1406.25 m2 2. 14400 cm2 3. 12 minutes
4. 60.75 m2 5. 49000 cm2 6. (i) 300 cm2 (ii) 168 cm2
7. ` 1848
8. (i) 375 cm2 (ii) 97.5 cm2 (iii) 438 m2 (iv) 372 cm2
9. 300 m2 10. 3120 m2 11. 129.36 cm2
12. (i) 7.5 cm2 (ii) 27.54 cm2
13. (i) 1170 cm2 (ii) 45 cm (iii) 540 cm2, 630 cm2
14. 24 m2 15. 17 cm and 9 cm 16. ` 17000
17. ` 7476 18. 400 m2 19. 7 cm
20. 198 m2 21. 176 m2 22. 1.1319 m2
23. 12.96 ha 24. 200 m 25. ` 216
3
26. 47.99 cm2 27. 22.78 cm2 28. 75 m
7
77 2 77 49
29. m 30. cm2 31. cm2
8 2 2
231
32. cm2 33. 42 cm2 34. 1162 cm2
4
35. 42 cm2, 154 cm2 36. (B) 37. (B)
38. (C) 39. (C) 40. (A)
41. (B) 42. (A)
43. (i) False (ii) True (iii) False
(iv) False (v) True (vi) False
44. (i) diagonals (ii) parallel sides, them (iii) 1 : 2
(iv) 1 : 1 (v) 40 cm.

480 Mathematics Secondary Course

Surface Areas and Volumes of Solid Figures MODULE - 4
Mensuration

21 Notes

SURFACE AREAS AND VOLUMES OF

SOLID FIGURES

In the previous lesson, you have studied about perimeters and areas of plane figures like
rectangles, squares, triangles, trapeziums, circles, sectors of circles, etc. These are called
plane figures because each of them lies wholly in a plane. However, most of the objects
that we come across in daily life do not wholly lie in a plane. Some of these objects are
bricks, balls, ice cream cones, drums, and so on. These are called solid objects or three
dimensional objects. The figures representing these solids are called three dimensional or
solid figures. Some common solid figures are cuboids, cubes, cylinders, cones and spheres.
In this lesson, we shall study about the surface areas and volumes of all these solids.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to
• explain the meanings of surface area and volume of a solid figure,
• identify situations where there is a need of finding surface area and where there
is a need of finding volume of a solid figure;
• find the surface areas of cuboids, cubes, cylinders, cones spheres and hemispheres,
using their respective formulae;
• find the volumes of cuboids, cubes, cylinders, cones, spheres and hemispheres
using their respective formulae;
• solve some problems related to daily life situations involving surface areas and
volumes of above solid figures.

EXPECTED BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE

• Perimeters and Areas of Plane rectilinear figures.
• Circumference and area of a circle.

Mathematics Secondary Course 481

MODULE - 4 Surface Areas and Volumes of Solid Figures
Mensuration
• Four fundamental operations on numbers
• Solving equations in one or two variables.

Notes
21.1 MEANINGS OF SURFACE AREA AND VOLUME
Look at the following objects given in Fig. 21.1.

Fig. 21.1
Geometrically, these objects are represented by three dimensional or solid figures as fol-
lows:
Objects Solid Figure
Bricks, Almirah Cuboid
Die, Tea packet Cube
Drum, powder tin Cylinder
Jocker’s cap, Icecream cone, Cone
Football, ball Sphere
Bowl. Hemisphere
You may recall that a rectangle is a figure made up of only its sides. You may also recall that
the sum of the lengths of all the sides of the rectangle is called its permeter and the measure
of the region enclosed by it is called its area. Similarly, the sum of the lengths of the three
sides of a triangle is called its permeters, while the measure of the region enclosed by the
triangle is called its area. In other words, the measure of the plane figure, i.e., the boundary
triangle or rectangle is called its perimeter, while the measure of the plane region enclosed
by the figure is called its area.

482 Mathematics Secondary Course

Surface Areas and Volumes of Solid Figures MODULE - 4
Mensuration
Following the same analogy, a solid figure is made up of only its boundary (or outer
surface). For example, cuboid is a solid figure made up of only its six rectangular regions
(called its faces). Similarly, a sphere is made up only of its outer surface or boundary. Like
plane figures, solid figures can also be measured in two ways as follows:
Notes
(1) Measuring the surface (or boundary) constituting the solid. It is called the surface
area of the solid figure.
(2) Measuring the space region enclosed by the solid figure. It is called the volume of the
solid figure.
Thus, it can be said that the surface area is the measure of the solid figure itself, while
volume is the measure of the space region enclosed by the solid figure. Just as area is
measured in square units, volume is measured in cubic units. If the unit is chosen as a unit
cube of side 1 cm, then the unit for volume is cm3, if the unit is chosen as a unit cube of
side 1m, then the unit for volume is m3 and so on.
In daily life, there are many situations, where we have to find the surface area and there are
many situations where we have to find the volume. For example, if we are interested in
white washing the walls and ceiling of a room, we shall have to find the surface areas of the
walls and ceiling. On the other hand, if we are interested in storing some milk or water in a
container or some food grains in a godown, we shall have to find the volume.

21.2 CUBOIDS AND CUBES

As already stated, a brick, chalk box, geometry box, H G
match box, a book, etc are all examples of a cuboid.
Fig. 21.2 represents a cuboid. It can be easily seen
from the figure that a cuboid has six rectangular regions D C
as its faces. These are ABCD, ABFE, BCGF, EFGH,
ADHE and CDHG.. Out of these, opposite faces
ABFE and CDHG; ABCD and EFGH and ADHE
E F
and BCGH are respectively congruent and parallel to
each other. The two adjacent faces meet in a line
segment called an edge of the cuboid. For example, A B
faces ABCD and ABFE meet in the edge AB. There Fig. 21.2
are in all 12 edges of a cuboid. Points A,B,C,D,E,F,G
and H are called the corners or vertices of the cuboid.
So, there are 8 corners or vertices of a cuboid.
It can also be seen that at each vertex, three edges meet. One of these three edges is taken
as the length, the second as the breadth and third is taken as the height (or thickness or
depth) of the cuboid. These are usually denoted by l, b and h respectively. Thus, we may
say that A B (= EF = CD = GH) is the length, AE (=BF = CG = DH) is the breadth and
AD (= EH = BC = FG) is the height of the cuboid.

Mathematics Secondary Course 483

MODULE - 4 Surface Areas and Volumes of Solid Figures
Mensuration
Note that three faces ABFE, AEHD and EFGH meet at the vertex E and their opposite
faces DCGH, BFGC and ABCD meet at the point C. Therefore, E and C are called the
opposite corners or vertices of the cuboid. The line segment joing E and C. i.e., EC is
called a diagonal of the cuboid. Similarly, the diagonals of the cuboid are AG, BH and
Notes
FD. In all there are four diagonals of cuboid.
Surface Area
l
h H G
h
D C C
D
b b
h
h A B E F
h h A b
l B
l
(i) (ii)
Fig. 21.3
Look at Fig. 21.3 (i). If it is folded along the dotted lines, it will take the shape as shown in
Fig. 21.3 (ii), which is a cuboid. Clearly, the length, breadth and height of the cuboid
obtained in Fig. 21.3 (ii) are l, b and h respectively. What can you say about its surface
area. Obviously, surface area of the cuboid is equal to the sum of the areas of all the six
rectangles shown in Fig. 21.3 (i).
Thus, surface area of the cuboid
= l×b + b×h + h×l +l×b +b×h +h×l
= 2(lb + bh + hl)
In Fig. 21.3 (ii), let us join BE and EC (See Fig. 21.4)
We have : H G
BE = AB +AE (As ∠EAB = 90 )
2 2 2 o

D C
or BE2 = l2 + b2 -(1)
h
Also, EC2 = BC2 + BE2 (As ∠CBE = 90o)
E F
or 2 2 2 2
EC = h + l + b [From (i)] b
A l B
So, EC = l 2 + b2 + h2. Fig. 21.4

Hence, diagonal of a cuboid = l 2 + b2 + h2.

We know that cube is a special type of cuboid in which length = breadth = height, i.e.,
l = b = h.

484 Mathematics Secondary Course

Surface Areas and Volumes of Solid Figures MODULE - 4
Mensuration
Hence,
surface area of a cube of side or edge a
= 2 (a×a + a×a + a×a)
Notes
= 6a2

and its diagonal = a 2 + a 2 + a 2 . = a 3.

Note: Fig. 21.3 (i) is usually referred to as a net of the cuboid given in Fig. 21.3 (ii).
Volume:
Take some unit cubes of side 1 cm each and join them to form a cuboid as shown in
Fig. 21.5 given below:

3 cm

4 cm

5 cm
Fig. 21.5
By actually counting the unit cubes, you can see that this cuboid is made up of 60 unit
cubes.
So, its volume = 60 cubic cm or 60cm3 (Because volume of 1 unit cube, in this case, is
1 cm3)
Also, you can observe that length × breadth × height = 5×4×3 cm3
= 60 cm3
You can form some more cuboids by joining different number of unit cubes and find their
volumes by counting the unit cubes and then by the product of length, breadth and height.
Everytime, you wll find that
Volume of a cuboid = length × breadth × height
or volume of a cuboid = lbh
Further, as cube is a special case of cuboid in which l = b = h, we have;
volume of a cube of side a = a×a×a× =a3.

Mathematics Secondary Course 485

MODULE - 4 Surface Areas and Volumes of Solid Figures
Mensuration
We now take some examples to explain the use of these formulae.
Example 21.1: Length, breadth and height of cuboid are 4 cm, 3 cm and 12 cm respec-
tively. Find
Notes
(i) surface area (ii) volume and (iii) diagonal of the cuboid.
Solution: (i) Surface area of the cuboid
= 2 (lb + bh +hl)
= 2 (4×3+3×12+12×4)cm2
= 2 (12 + 36 + 48)cm2 = 192 cm2
(ii) Volume of cuboid = lbh
= 4 × 3 × 12 cm3 = 144 cm2
(iii) Diagonal of the cuboid = l 2 + b2 + h2 .
= 42 + 32 + 122 cm.
= 16 + 9 + 144 cm.
= 169 cm = 13 cm

Example 21.2: Find the volume of a cuboidal stone slab of length 3m, breadth 2m and
thickness 25cm.
Solution : Here, l = 3m, b = 2m and
25 1
h = 25cm = = m
100 4
(Note that here we have thickness as the third dimension in place of height)
So, required volume = lbh
1 3
= 3×2× m = 1.5m3
4
Example 21.3 : Volume of a cube is 2197 cm3. Find its surface area and the diagonal.
Solution: Let the edge of the cube be a cm.
So, its volume = a3 cm3
Therefore, from the question, we have :
a3 = 2197
or a3 = 13×13×13
So, a = 13
i.e., edge of the cube = 13 cm

486 Mathematics Secondary Course

Surface Areas and Volumes of Solid Figures MODULE - 4
Mensuration
2
Now, surface area of the cube = 6a
= 6 ×13×13 cm2
= 1014 cm2
Notes
Its diagonal = a 3 cm = 13 3 cm

Thus, surface area of the cube is 1014 cm2 and its diagonal is 13 3 cm .

Example 21.4 : The length and breadth of a cuboidal tank are 5m and 4m respectively. If
it is full of water and contains 60 m3 of water, find the depth of the water in the tank.
Solution: let the depth be d metres
So, volume of water in the tank
= l×b×h
= 5×4×d m3
Thus, according to the question,
5×4 ×d = 60

60
or d= m = 3m
5× 4

So, depth of the water in the tank is 3m.

Note: Volume of a container is usually called its capacity. Thus, here it can be said that
capacity of the tank is 60m3. Capacity is also expressed in terms of litres, where 1 litre =
1
m3 , i.e.,1m3 = 1000 litres.
1000

So, it can be said that capacity of the tank is 60 × 1000 litre = 60 kilolitres.
Example 21.5 : A wooden box 1.5m long, 1.25 m broad, 65 cm deep and open at the
top is to be made. Assuming the thickness of the wood negligible, find the cost of the wood
required for making the box at the rate of ` 200 per m2.
Solution : Surface area of the wood required
= lb + 2bh + 2hl (Because the box is open at the top)

65 65
= (1.5×1.25 + 2×1.25 × +2× ×1.5)m2
100 100

Mathematics Secondary Course 487

MODULE - 4 Surface Areas and Volumes of Solid Figures
Mensuration

162.5 195
= (1.875 + + ) m2
100 100

Notes = (1.875 + 1.625 + 1.95)m2 = 5.450 m2

So, cost of the wood at the rate of ` 200 per m2
= ` 200 × 5.450
= ` 1090
Example 21.6 : A river 10m deep and 100m wide is flowing at the rate of 4.5 km per
hour. Find the volume of the water running into the sea per second from this river.
Solution : Rate of flow of water = 4.5 km/h

4.5 × 1000
= metres per second
60 × 60

4500
= metres per second
3600

5
= metres per second
4
Threfore, volume of the water running into the sea per second = volume of the cuboid
= l × b× h

5
= × 100 × 10 m3
4
= 1250 m3
Example 21.7: A tank 30m long, 20m wide and 12 m deep is dug in a rectangular field of
length 588 m and breadth 50m. The earth so dug out is spread evenly on the remaining
part of the field. Find the height of the field raised by it.
Solution: Volume of the earth dug out = volume of a cuboid of
dimensions 30 m × 20 m × 12 m
= 30 × 20 × 12 m3 = 7200 m3
Area of the remaining part of the field
= Area of the field - Area of the top surface of the tank
= 588 × 50 m2 – 30 × 20 m2
= 29400 m2 – 600 m2
= 28800 m2

488 Mathematics Secondary Course

Surface Areas and Volumes of Solid Figures MODULE - 4
Mensuration
Therefore, height of the field raised
Volumeof earth dug out
=
Area of the remainingpart of the field
7200 1 Notes
= m = m = 25 cm
28800 4

Example 21.8: Length, breadth and height of a room are 7m, 4m and 3m respectively. It
1 1
has a door and a window of dimensions 2 m ×1 m and 1 m × 1 m respectively. Find
2 2
the cost of white washing the walls and ceiling of the room at the rate of ` 4 per m2.
Solution: Shape of the room is that of a cuboid.
Area to be white washed = Area of four walls
+ Area of the ceiling
– Area of the door – Area of the window.
Area of the four walls = l×h+b×h+l×h+b×h
= 2(l+b)×h
= 2(7+4)×3 m2 = 66m2
Area of the ceiling = l×b
= 7×4 m2 = 28m2
1 2 1
So, area to be white washed = 66 m2 + 28 m2 – 2 × 1 m – 1 × 1m2
2 2
3 2
= 94 m2 – 3 m2 – m
2
(188 – 6 – 3) 2
= m
2
179 2
= m
2
Therefore, cost of white-washing at the rate of ` 4 per m2

179
=`4× = ` 358
2
Note: You can directly use the relation area of four walls = 2 (l + b) × h as a formula]

Mathematics Secondary Course 489

MODULE - 4 Surface Areas and Volumes of Solid Figures
Mensuration

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 21.1

1. Find the surface area and volume of a cuboid of length 6m, breadth 3m and height
Notes
2.5m.
2. Find the surface area and volume of a cube of edge 3.6 cm
3. Find the edge of a cube whose volume is 3375 cm3. Also, find its surface area.
4. The external dimensions of a closed wooden box are 42 cm × 32 cm × 27 cm. Find
the internal volume of the box, if the thickness of the wood is 1cm.
5. The length, breadth and height of a godown are 12m, 8m and 6 metres respectively.
How many boxes it can hold if each box occupies 1.5 m3 space?
6. Find the length and surface area of a wooden plank of width 3m, thickness 75 cm and
volume 33.75m3.
7. Three cubes of edge 8 cm each are joined end to end to form a cuboid. Find the
surface area and volume of the cuboid so formed.
8. A room is 6m long, 5m wide and 4m high. The doors and windows in the room
occupy 4 square metres of space. Find the cost of papering the remaining portion of
the walls with paper 75cm wide at the rate of ` 2.40 per metre.
9. Find the length of the longest rod that can be put in a room of dimensions
6m × 4m ×3m.

21.3 RIGHT CIRCULAR CYLINDER

Let us rotate a rectangle ABCD about one of its edges say AB. C B
The solid generated as a result of this rotation is called a right
circular cylinder (See Fig. 21.6). In daily life, we come across
many solids of this shape such as water pipes, tin cans, drumes,
powder boxes, etc.
It can be seen that the two ends (or bases) of a right circular D A
cylinder are congruent circles. In Fig. 21.6, A and B are the
centres of these two circles of radii AD (= BC). Further, AB is Fig. 21.6
perpendicular to each of these circles.
Here, AD (or BC) is called the base radius and AB is called the height of the cylinder.
It can also be seen that the surface formed by two circular ends are flat and the remaining
surface is curved.

490 Mathematics Secondary Course

Surface Areas and Volumes of Solid Figures MODULE - 4
Mensuration
Surface Area
Let us take a hollow cylinder of radius r and height h and cut it along any line on its curved
surface parallel to the line segment joining the centres of the two circular ends (see Fig.
21.7(i)].We obtain a rectangle of length 2 π r and breadth h as shown in Fig. 21.7 (ii). Notes
Clearly, area of this rectangle is equal to the area of the curved surface of the cylinder.
2πr
r

h h
h

(i) (ii)
Fig. 21.7
So, curved surface area of the cylinder
= area of the rectangle
= 2 π r × h = 2 π rh.
In case, the cylinder is closed at both the ends, then the total surface area of the cylinder
= 2 π rh + 2 π r2
= 2 π r (r + h)
Volume
In the case of a cuboid, we have seen that its volume = l × b × h
= area of the base × height
Extending this rule for a right circular cylinder (assuming it to be the sum of the infininte
number of small cuboids), we get : Volume of a right circular cylinder
= Area of the base × height
= π r2 × h
= π r2h
We now take some examples to illustrate the use of these formulae; (In all the problems in
this lesson, we shall take the value of π = 22/7, unless stated otherwise)
Example 21.9: The radius and height of a right circular cylinder are 7cm and 10cm
respectively. Find its
(i) curved surface area

Mathematics Secondary Course 491

MODULE - 4 Surface Areas and Volumes of Solid Figures
Mensuration
(ii) total surface area, and the
(iii) volume

Notes Solution : (i) curved surface area = 2 π rh

22
= 2× × 7 × 10 cm 2 = 440 cm 2
7
(ii) total surface area = 2 π rh + 2 π r2

22 22
= (2 × × 7 × 10 + 2 × × 7 × 7) cm 2
7 7
= 440 cm2 + 308 cm2 = 748 cm2
(iii) volume = π r2h

22
= × 7 × 7 × 10cm 3
7
= 1540 cm3
Example 21.10: A hollow cylindrical metallic pipe is open at both the ends and its exter-
nal diameter is 12 cm. If the length of the pipe is 70 cm and the thickness of the metal used
is 1 cm, find the volume of the metal used for making the pipe.
Solution: Here, external radius of the pipe

12
= cm = 6cm
2
Therefore, internal radius = (6–1) = 5 cm (As thickness of metal = 1 cm)
Note that here virtually two cylinders have been formed and the volume of the metal used
in making the pipe.
= Volume of the external cylinder – Volume of the internal cylinder
= π r12h – π r22h (where r1 and r2 are the external and internal radii and h is the
length of each cylinder .

⎛ 22 22 ⎞
= ⎜ × 6 × 6 × 70 – × 5 × 5 × 70 ⎟cm 3
⎝ 7 7 ⎠

= 22 ×10 × (36 – 25)cm 3

= 2420 cm3

492 Mathematics Secondary Course

Surface Areas and Volumes of Solid Figures MODULE - 4
Mensuration
Example 21.11: Radius of a road roller is 35 cm and it is 1 metre long. If it takes 200
revolutions to level a playground, find the cost of levelling the ground at the rate of ` 3 per
m2.
Solution: Area of the playground levelled by the road roller in one revolution Notes
= curved surface area of the roller

22
= 2πrh = 2 × × 35 × 100 cm2 (r = 35 cm, h = 1 m = 100 cm)
7
= 22000 cm2

22000
= m2
100 × 100
(since 100 cm = 1 m, so 100 cm × 100 cm = 1 m × 1 m)
= 2.2 m2
Therefore, area of the playground levelled in 200 revolutions = 2.2 × 200 m2 = 440 m2
Hence, cost of levelling at the rate of ` 3 per m2 = ` 3 × 440 = ` 1320.
Example 21.12: A metallic solid of volume 1 m3 is melted and drawn into the form of a
wire of diameter 3.5 mm. Find the length of the wire so drawn.
Solution: Let the length of the wire be x mm
You can observe that wire is of the shape of a right circular cylinder.
Its diameter = 3.5 mm

3.5 35 7
So, its radius = mm = = mm
2 20 4
Also, length of wire will be treated as the height of the cylinder.
So, volume of the cylinder = πr2h

22 7 7
= × × × x mm3
7 4 4
But the wire has been drawn from the metal of volume 1 m3

22 7 7 x
Therefore, × × × = 1 (since 1 m = 1000 mm)
7 4 4 1000000000

1 × 7 × 4 × 4 × 1000000000
or x = mm.
22 × 7 × 7

Mathematics Secondary Course 493

MODULE - 4 Surface Areas and Volumes of Solid Figures
Mensuration

16000000000
=
154

Notes 16000000000
Thus, length of the wire = mm
154

16000000000
= m
154000

16000000
= m = 103896 m (approx)
154

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 21.2

1. Find the curved surface area, total surface area and volume of a right circular cylinder
of radius 5 m and height 1.4 m.
2. Volume of a right circular cylinder is 3080 cm3 and radius of its base is 7 cm. Find the
curved surface area of the cylinder.
3. A cylindrical water tank is of base diameter 7 m and height 2.1 m. Find the capacity of
the tank in litres.
4. Length and breadth of a paper is 33 cm and 16 cm respectively. It is folded about its
breadth to form a cylinder. Find the volume of the cylinder.
5. A cylindrical bucket of base diameter 28 cm and height 12 cm is full of water. This
water is poured in to a rectangular tub of length 66 cm and breadth 28 cm. Find the
height to which water will rise in the tub.
6. A hollow metallic cylinder is open at both the ends and is of length 8 cm. If the thick-
ness of the metal is 2 cm and external diameter of the cylinder is 10 cm, find the whole
curved surface area of the cylinder (use π = 3.14).
[Hint: whole curved surface = Internal curved surface + External curved surface]

A
21.4 RIGHT CIRCULAR CONE
Let us rotate a right triangle ABC right angled at B about one
of its side AB containing the right angle. The solid generated as
a result of this rotation is called a right circular cone (see
Fig. 21.8). In daily life, we come across many objects of this C D
shape, such as Joker’s cap, tent, ice cream cones, etc. B
Fig. 21.8

494 Mathematics Secondary Course

Surface Areas and Volumes of Solid Figures MODULE - 4
Mensuration
It can be seen that end (or base) of a right circular cone is a circle. In Fig. 21.8, BC is the
radius of the base with centre B and AB is the height of the cone and it is perpendicular
to the base. Further, A is called the vertex of the cone and AC is called its slant height.
from the Pythagoras Theorem, we have
Notes
slant height = radius + height
2 2

or l = r 2 + h 2 , where r, h and l are respectively the base radius, height and slant
height of the cone.
You can also observe that surface formed by the base of the cone is flat and the remaining
surface of the cone is curved.
A
Surface Area
Let us take a hollow right circular cone of radius r and height h l l
and cut it along its slant height. Now spread it on a piece of
paper. You obtain a sector of a circle of radius l and its arc
length is equal to 2πr (Fig. 21.9). B C

Area of this sector = 2πr

Fig. 21.9
Arc length of the sector
× Area of circle with radius l
Circumference of the circle with radius l

2πr
= × πl 2 = πrl
2πl
Clearly, curved surface of the cone = Area of the sector
= πrl
If the area of the base is added to the above, then it becomes the total surface area.
So, total surface area of the cone = πrl + πr2
= πr(l + r)
Volume
Take a right circular cylinder and a right circular cone of the same base radius and same
height. Now, fill the cone with sand (or water) and pour it in to the cylinder. Repeat the
process three times. You will observe that the cylinder is completely filled with the sand (or
water). It shows that volume of a cone with radius r and height h is one third the volume of
the cylinder with radius r and height h.

1
So, volume of a cone = volume of the cylinder
3

Mathematics Secondary Course 495

MODULE - 4 Surface Areas and Volumes of Solid Figures
Mensuration

1
= πr2h
3

Notes Now, let us consider some examples to illustrate the use of these formulae.
Example 21.13: The base radius and height of a right circular cone is 7 cm and 24 cm.
Find its curved surface area, total surface area and volume.
Solution: Here, r = 7 cm and h = 24 cm.

So, slant height l = r 2 + h 2

= 7 × 7 + 24 × 24 cm

= 49 + 576 cm = 25 cm
Thus, curved surface area = πrl

22
= × 7 × 25 cm2 = 550 cm2
7
Total surface area = πrl + πr2

22
= (550 + × 49) cm2
7
= (550 + 154) cm2 = 704 cm2

1 2 1 22
Volume = πr h = × × 49 × 24 cm3
3 3 7
= 1232 cm3
Example 21.14: A conical tent is 6 m high and its base radius is 8 m. Find the cost of the
canvas required to make the tent at the rate of ` 120 per m2 (Use π = 3.14)
Solution: Let the slant height of the tent be x metres.

So, from l = r 2 + h 2 we have,

l = 36 + 64 = 100
or l = 10
Thus, slant height of the tent is 10 m.
So, its curved surface area = πrl
= 3.14 × 8 × 10 cm2 = 251.2 cm2

496 Mathematics Secondary Course

Surface Areas and Volumes of Solid Figures MODULE - 4
Mensuration
2
Thus, canvas required for making the tent = 251.2 m
Therefore, cost of the canvas at ` 120 per m2
= ` 120 × 251.2
Notes
= ` 30144

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 21.3

1. Find the curved surface area, total surface area and volume of a right circular cone
whose base radius and height are respectively 5 cm and 12 cm.
2. Find the volume of a right circular cone of base area 616 cm2 and height 9 cm.
3. Volume of a right circular cone of height 10.5 cm is 176 cm3. Find the radius of the
cone.
4. Find the length of the 3 m wide canvas required to make a conical tent of base radius
9 m and height 12 m (use π = 3.14).
5. Find the curved surface area of a right circular cone of volume 12936 cm3 and base
diameter 42 cm.

21.5 SPHERE
Let us rotate a semicircle about its diameter. The solid so P
generated with this rotation is called a sphere. It can also be r
defined as follows:
O
The locus of a point which moves in space in such a way that
its distance from a fixed point remains the same is called a
sphere. The fixed point is called the centre of the sphere and
the same distance is called the radius of the sphere (Fig. Fig. 21.10
21.10). A football, cricket ball, a marble etc. are examples
of spheres that we come across in daily life.
Hemisphere
If a sphere is cut into two equal parts by a plane passing
through its centre, then each part is called a hemisphere
(Fig. 21.11).
Fig. 21.11
Surface Areas of sphere and hemisphere
Let us take a spherical rubber (or wooden) ball and cut it into equal parts (hemisphere)
[See Fig. 21.12(i), Let the radius of the ball be r. Now, put a pin (or a nail) at the top of
the ball. starting from this point, wrap a string in a spiral form till the upper hemisphere is

Mathematics Secondary Course 497

MODULE - 4 Surface Areas and Volumes of Solid Figures
Mensuration
completely covered with string as shown in Fig. 21.12(ii). Measure the length of the string
used in covering the hemisphere.

Notes

(i) (ii)

(iii)
Fig. 21.12
Now draw a circle of radius r (i.e. the same radius as that of the ball and cover it with a
similar string starting from the centre of the circle [See Fig. 21.12 (iii)]. Measure the length
of the string used to cover the circle. What do you observe? You will observe that length
of the string used to cover the hemisphere is twice the length of the string used to
cover the circle.
Since the width of the two strings is the same, therefore
surface area of the hemisphere = 2 × area of the circle
= 2 πr2 (Area of the circle is πr2)
So, surface area of the sphere = 2 × 2πr2 = 4πr2
Thus, we have:
Surface area of a sphere = 4πr2
Curved surface area of a solid hemisphere = 2πr2 + πr2 = 3πr2
Where r is the radius of the sphere (hemisphere)
Volumes of Sphere and Hemisphere
Take a hollow hemisphere and a hollow right circular cone of the same base radius and
same height (say r). Now fill the cone with sand (or water) and pour it into the hemisphere.
Repeat the process two times. You will observe that hemisphere is completely filled with
the sand (or water). It shows that volume of a hemisphere of radius r is twice the volume

498 Mathematics Secondary Course

Surface Areas and Volumes of Solid Figures MODULE - 4
Mensuration
of the cone with same base radius and same height.

1 2
So, volume of the hemisphere = 2 × πr h
3
Notes
2
= × πr2 × r (Because h = r)
3

2
= × πr3
3
Therefore, volume of the sphere of radius r

2 3 4 3
=2× πr = πr
3 3
Thus, we have:

4 3
Volume of a sphere = πr
3

2 3
and volume of a hemisphere = πr ,
3
where r is the radius of the sphere (or hemisphere)
Let us illustrate the use of these formulae through some examples:
Example 21.15: Find the surface area and volume of a sphere of diameter 21 cm.

21
Solution: Radius of the sphere = cm
2
So, its surface area = 4πr2

22 21 21
=4× × × cm2
7 2 2
= 1386 cm2

4 3
Its volume = πr
3

4 22 21 21 21
= × × × × cm3 = 4851 cm3
3 7 2 2 2

Mathematics Secondary Course 499

MODULE - 4 Surface Areas and Volumes of Solid Figures
Mensuration
Example 21.16: The volume of a hemispherical bowl is 2425.5 cm3. Find its radius and
surface area.
Solution: Let the radius be r cm.
Notes
2 3
So, πr = 2425.5
3

2 22 3
or × r = 2425.5
3 7

3 × 2425.5 × 7 21× 21× 21

or r3 = =
2 × 22 8

21
So, r = , i.e. radius = 10.5 cm.
2

22 21 21
Now surface area of bowl = curved surface area = 2πr2 = 2 × × × cm2
7 2 2
= 693 cm2
Note: As the bowl (hemisphere) is open at the top, therefore area of the top, i.e., πr2 will
not be included in its surface area.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 21.4

1. Find the surface area and volume of a sphere of radius 14 cm.
2. Volume of a sphere is 38808 cm3. Find its radius and hence its surface area.
3. Diameter of a hemispherical toy is 56 cm. Find its
(i) curved surface area
(ii) total surface area
(iii) volume
4. A metallic solid ball of radius 28 cm is melted and converted into small solid balls of
radius 7 cm each. Find the number of small balls so formed.

LET US SUM UP
• The objects or figures that do not wholly lie in a plane are called solid (or three
dimensional) objects or figures.

500 Mathematics Secondary Course

Surface Areas and Volumes of Solid Figures MODULE - 4
Mensuration
• The measure of the boundary constituting the solid figure itself is called its surface.
• The measure of the space region enclosed by a solid figure is called its volume.
• some solid figures have only flat surfaces, some have only curved surfaces and some
have both flat as well as curved surfaces. Notes

• Surface area of a cuboid = 2(lb + bh + hl) and volume of cuboid = lbh, where l, b
and h are respectively length, breadth and height of the cuboid.

• Diagonal of the above cuboid is l 2 + b 2 + h 2

• Cube is a special cuboid whose each edge is of same length.

• Surface area of a cube of edge a is 6a2 and its volume is a3.

• Diagonal of the above cube is a 3 .

• Area of the four walls of a room of dimensions l, b and h = 2(l + b) h

• Curved surface area of a right circular cylinder = 2πrh; its total surface area =
2πrh+2πr2 and its volume = πr2h, where r and h are respectively the base radius and
height of the cylinder.
• Curved surface area of a right circular cone is πrl, its total surface area = πrl + πr2
1 2
and its volume = πr h, where r, h and l are respectively the base radius, height and
3
slant height of the cone.

4 3
• Surface area of sphere = 4πr2 and its volume = πr , where r is the radius of the
3
sphere.
• Curved surface area of a hemisphere of radius r = 2πr2 ; its total surface area = 3πr2
2 3
and its volume = πr
3

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Fill in the blanks:
(i) Surface area of a cuboid of length l, breadth b and height h = _________
(ii) Diagonal of the cuboid of length l, breadth b and height h = ___________
(iii) Volume of the cube of side a = __________

Mathematics Secondary Course 501

MODULE - 4 Surface Areas and Volumes of Solid Figures
Mensuration
(iv) Surface area of cylinder open at one end = ______, where r and h are the radius
and height of the cylinder.
(v) Volume of the cylinder of radius r and height h = __________
Notes (vi) Curved surface area of cone = ____________, where r and l are respectively
the ______ and _________ of the cone.
(vii) Surface area of a sphere of radius r = __________
(viii) Volume of a hemisphere of radius r = ___________
2. Choose the correct answer from the given four options:
(i) The edge of a cube whose volume is equal to the volume of a cuboid of dimensions
63 cm × 56 cm × 21 cm is
(A) 21 cm (B) 28 cm (C) 36 cm (D) 42 cm
(ii) If radius of a sphere is doubled, then its volume will become how many times of
the original volume?
(A) 2 times (B) 3 times (C) 4 times (D) 8 times
(iii) Volume of a cylinder of the same base radius and the same height as that of a cone
is
(A) the same as that of the cone (B) 2 times the volume of the cone

1
(C) times the volume of the cone (D) 3 times the volume of the cone.
3
3. If the surface area of a cube is 96 cm2, then find its volume.
4. Find the surface area and volume of a cuboid of length 3m, breadth 2.5 m and height
1.5 m.
5. Find the surface area and volume of a cube of edge 1.6 cm.
6. Find the length of the diagonal of a cuboid of dimensions 6 cm × 8 cm × 10 cm.
7. Find the length of the diagonal of a cube of edge 8 cm.
8. Areas of the three adjecent faces of cuboid are A, B and C square units respectively
and its volume is V cubic units. Prove that V2 = ABC.
9. Find the total surface area of a hollow cylindrical pipe open at the ends if its height is
10 cm, external diameter 10 cm and thickness 12 cm (use π = 3.14).
10. Find the slant height of a cone whose volume is 12936 cm3 and radius of the base is
21 cm. Also, find its total surface area.
11. A well of radius 5.6 m and depth 20 m is dug in a rectangular field of dimensions
150 m × 70 m and the earth dug out from it is evenly spread on the remaining part of
the field. Find the height by which the field is raised.
12. Find the radius and surface area of a sphere whose volume is 606.375 m3.

502 Mathematics Secondary Course

Surface Areas and Volumes of Solid Figures MODULE - 4
Mensuration
13. In a room of length 12 m, breadth 4 m and height 3 m, there are two windows of
dimensions 2m × 1 m and a door of dimensions 2.5 m × 2 m. Find the cost of
papering the walls at the rate of ` 30 per m2.
14. A cubic centimetre gold is drawn into a wire of diameter 0.2 mm. Find the length of Notes
the wire. (use π = 3.14).
15. If the radius of a sphere is tripled, find the ratio of the
(i) Volume of the original sphere to that of the new sphere.
(ii) surface area of the original sphere to that of the new sphere.
16. A cone, a cylinder and a hemisphere are of the same base and same height. Find the
ratio of their volumes.
17. Slant height and radius of the base of a right circular cone are 25 cm and 7 cm
respectively. Find its
(i) curved surface area
(ii) total surface area, and
(iii) volume
18. Four cubes each of side 5 cm are joined end to end in a row. Find the surface and the
volume of the resulting cuboid.
19. The radii of two cylinders are in the ratio 3 : 2 and their heights are in the ratio 7 : 4.
Find the ratio of their
(i) volumes.
(ii) curved surface areas.
20. State which of the following statements are true and which are false:
(i) Surface area of a cube of side a is 6a2.
(ii) Total surface area of a cone is πrl, where r and l are resepctively the base radius
and slant height of the cone.
(iii) If the base radius and height of cone and hemisphere are the same, then volume of
the hemisphere is thrice the volume of the cone.
(iv) Length of the longest rod that can be put in a room of length l, breadth b and
height h is l 2 + b 2 + h 2

(v) Surface area of a hemisphere of radius r is 2πr2.

Mathematics Secondary Course 503

MODULE - 4 Surface Areas and Volumes of Solid Figures
Mensuration

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

21.1
Notes
1. 81 m2; 45 m3 2. 77.76 cm2; 46.656 cm3
3. 15 cm, 1350 cm2 4. 30000 cm3
5. 384 6. 15 m, 117 m2
7. 896 cm2, 1536 cm3 8. ` 460.80

9. 61 m
21.2

1 2
1. 44 m2; 201 m ; 110 m3 2. 880 cm2
7
3. 80850 litres 4. 1386 cm3
5. 4 cm 6. 401.92 cm2
21.3

1430 1980 2200

1. cm2; cm2; cm3
7 7 7
2. 1848 cm3 3. 2 cm 4. 141.3 m
5. 2310 cm2
21.4

2
1. 2464 cm2; 11498 cm3 2. 21 cm, 5544 cm2
3
1
3. (i) 9928 cm2 (ii) 14892 cm2 (iii) 92661 cm3
3
4. 64

ANSWERS TO TERMINAL EXERCISE

1. (i) 2 (lb + bh + hl) (ii) l 2 + b 2 + h 2 (iii) a3

(iv) 2πrh + πr2 (v) πr2h

504 Mathematics Secondary Course

Surface Areas and Volumes of Solid Figures MODULE - 4
Mensuration
2 3
(vi) πrl, radius, slant height (vii) 4πr2 (vii) πr
3
2. (i) D (ii) D (iii) D
3. 64 cm3 4. 31.5 m2; 11.25 m3 5. 11.76 cm2; 3.136 cm3 Notes

6. 10 2 cm 7. 8 3 cm 8. [Hint: A = l × h; B = b × h; and C = h × l]

9. 621.72 cm2 10. 35 cm, 3696 cm2 11. 18.95 cm

12. 21 m, 5544 m2 13. ` 2610 14. 31.84 m
15. (i) 1 : 27 (ii) 1 : 9
16. 1: 3: 2
17. (i) 550 cm2 (ii) 704 cm2 (iii) 1232 cm3
18. 350 cm2; 375 cm3
19. (i) 63 : 16 (ii) 21 : 8
20. (i) True (ii) False (iii) False
(iv) True (v) False

Mathematics Secondary Course 505

MODULE - 4 Surface Areas and Volumes of Solid Figures
Mensuration

Secondary Course
Mathematics
Notes
Practice Work-Mensuration

Maximum Marks: 25 Time : 45 Minutes

Instructions:

1. Answer all the questions on a separate sheet of paper.

2. Give the following informations on your answer sheet
Name
Enrolment number
Subject
Topic of practice work
Address
3. Get your practice work checked by the subject teacher at your study centre so that
you get positive feedback about your performance.
Do not send practice work to National Institute of Open Schooling

1. The measure of each side of an equilateral triangle whose area is 3 cm2 is 1

(A) 8 cm

(B) 4 cm

(C) 2 cm

(D) 16 cm

2. The sides of a triangle are in the ratio 3 : 5 : 7. If the perimeter of the triangle is 60 cm,
then the area of the triangle is 1

(A) 60 3 cm2

(B) 30 3 cm3

506 Mathematics Secondary Course

Surface Areas and Volumes of Solid Figures MODULE - 4
Mensuration
(C) 15 3 cm2

(D) 120 3 cm2

Notes
3. The area of a rhombus is 96 sq cm. If one of its diagonals is 16 cm, then length of its
side is 1

(A)5 cm

(B) 6 cm

(C) 8 cm

(D) 10 cm

4. A cuboid having surface areas of three adjacent faces as a, b, c has the volume 1

(A) 3
abc

(B) abc

(C) abc

(D) a3b3c3

5. The surface area of a hemispherical bowl of radius 3.5 m is 1

(A) 38.5 m2

(B) 77 m2

(C) 115.5 m2

(D) 154 m2

6. The parallel sides of a trapezium are 20 metres and 16 metres and the distance between
them is 11m. Find its area. 2

7. A path 3 metres wide runs around a circular park whose radius is 9 metres. Find the
area of the path. 2

8. The radii of two right circular cylinders are in the ratio 4 : 5 and their heights are in the
ratio 5 : 3. Find the ratio of their volumes. 2

9. The circumference of the base of a 9 metre high wooden solid cone is 44 m. Find the
volume of the cone. 2

Mathematics Secondary Course 507

MODULE - 4 Surface Areas and Volumes of Solid Figures
Mensuration
10. Find the surface area and volume of a sphere of diameter 41 cm. 2

11. The radius and height of a right circular cone are in the ratio 5 : 12. If its volume is
314 m3, find its slant height. (Use π = 3.14) 4
Notes
12. A field is 200 m long and 75 m broad. A tank 40 m long, 20 m broad and 10 m deep
is dug in the field and the earth taken out of it, is spread evenly over the field. How
much is the level of field raised? 6

508 Mathematics Secondary Course

 MODULE 5
Trigonometry
Imagine a man standing near the base of a hill, looking at the temple on the top of
the hill. Before deciding to start climbing the hill, he wants to have an approximation
of the distance between him and the temple. We know that problems of this and
related problems can be solved only with the help of a science called trigonometry.
The first introduction to this topic was done by Hipparcus in 140 B.C., when he
hinted at the possibility of finding distances and heights of inaccessible objects. In
150 A.D. Tolemy again raised the same possibility and suggested the use of a right
triangle for the same. But it was Aryabhatta (476 A.D.) whose introduction to the
name “Jaya” lead to the name “sine” of an acute angle of a right triangle. The
subject was completed by Bhaskaracharya (1114 A.D.) while writing his work on
Goladhayay. In that, he used the words Jaya, Kotijya and “sparshjya” which are
presently used for sine, cosine and tangent (of an angle). But it goes to the credit of
Neelkanth Somstuvan (1500 A.D.) who developed the science and used terms like
elevation, depression and gave examples of some problems on heights and distance.
In this chapter, we shall define an angle-positive or negative, in terms of rotation of
a ray from its initial position to its final position, define trigonometric ratios of an
acute angle of a right triangle, in terms of its sides develop some trigonometric
identities, trigonometric ratios of complementary angles and solve simple problems
on height and distances, using at the most two right triangles, using angles of 30°,
45° and 60°.
 Introduction to Trigonometry MODULE - 5
Trigonometry

22 Notes

INTRODUCTION TO TRIGONOMETRY

Study of triangles occupies important place in Mathematics. Triangle being the bounded
figure with minimum number of sides serve the purpose of building blocks for study of any
figure bounded by straight lines. Right angled triangles get easy link with study of circles as
well.
In Geometry, we have studied triangles where most of the results about triangles are given
in the form of statements. Here in trigonometry, the approach is quite different, easy and
crisp. Most of the results, here, are the form of formulas. In Trigonometry, the main focus
is study of right angled triangle. Let us consider some situations, where we can observe the
formation of right triangles.
Have you seen a tall coconut tree? On seeing the tree, a question about its height comes to
the mind. Can you find out the height of the coconut tree without actually measuring it? If
you look up at the top of the tree, a right triangle can be imagined between your eye, the
top of the tree, a horizontal line passing through the point of your eye and a vertical line
from the top of the tree to the horizontal line.
Let us take another example.
Suppose you are flying a kite. When the kite is in the sky, can you find its height? Again a
right triangle can be imagined to form between the kite, your eye, a horizontal line passing
through the point of your eye, and a vertical line from the point on the kite to the horizontal
line.
(aeroplane) A (aeroplane) B
Let us consider another situation where a person
is standing on the bank of a river and observing a
temple on the other bank of the river. Can you
find the width of the river if the height of the temple
is given? In this case also you can imagine a right
triangle.
Finally suppose you are standing on the roof of
your house and suddenly you find an aeroplane in P Q
the sky. When you look at it, again a right triangle O (observer)
can be imagined. You find the aeroplane moving Fig. 22.1

Mathematics Secondary Course 511

MODULE - 5 Introduction to Trigonometry
Trigonometry
away from you and after a few seconds, if you
look at it again, a right triangle can be imagined
between your eye, the aeroplane and a horizontal
line passing through the point (eye) and a vertical
Notes
line from the plane to the horizontal line as shown
in the figure.
Can you find the distance AB, the aeroplane has moved during this period?
In all the four situations discussed above and in many more such situations, heights or
distance can be found (without actually measuring them) by using some mathematical
techniques which come under branch of Mathematics called, “Trigonometry”.
Trigonometry is a word derived from three Greek words- ‘Tri’ meaning ‘Three’ ‘Gon’
meaning ‘Sides’ and ‘Metron’ meaning ‘to measure’. Thus Trigonometry literally means
measurement of sides and angles of a triangle. Originally it was considered as that branch
of mathematics which dealt with the sides and the angles of a triangle. It has its application
in astronomy, geography, surveying, engineering, navigation etc. In the past astronomers
used it to find out the distance of stars and planets from the earth. Now a day, the advanced
technology used in Engineering is based on trigonometrical concepts.
In this lesson, we shall define trigonometric ratios of angles in terms of ratios of sides of a
right triangle and establish relationship between different trigonometric ratios. We shall
also establish some standard trigonometric identities.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to
• write the trigonometric ratios of an acute angle of right triangle;
• find the sides and angles of a right triangle when some of its sides and
trigonometric ratios are known;
• write the relationships amongst trigonometric ratios;
• establish the trigonometric identities;
• solve problems based on trigonometric ratios and identities;
• find trigonometric ratios of complementary angles and solve problems based on
these.

EXPECTED BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE

• Concept of an angle
• Construction of right triangles
• Drawing parallel and perpendiculars lines

512 Mathematics Secondary Course

Introduction to Trigonometry MODULE - 5
Trigonometry
• Types of angles- acute, obtuse and right
• Types of triangles- acute, obtuse and right
• Types of triangles- isosceles and equilateral
• Complementary angles. Notes

22.1 TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS OF AN ACUTE ANGLE

OF A RIGHT ANGLED TRIANGLE
Let there be a right triangle ABC, right angled at B. Here ∠A (i.e. ∠CAB) is an acute
angle, AC is hypotenuse, side BC is opposite to ∠A and side AB is adjacent to ∠A.
C

Side opposite to ∠A
e
us
oten
p
Hy

A Side adjacent to ∠A B

Fig. 22.2
Again, if we consider acute ∠C, then side AB is side opposite to ∠C and side BC is
adjacent to ∠C.
C
Side adjacent to ∠C

e
us
oten
p
Hy

A Side opposite to ∠C B

Fig. 22.3
We now define certain ratios involving the sides of a right triangle, called trigonometric
ratios.
The trigonometric ratios of ∠A in right angled ΔABC are defined as:
side opposite to ∠A BC
(i) sine A = =
Hypotenuse AC

side adjacent to ∠A AB
(ii) cosine A = =
Hypotenuse AC

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MODULE - 5 Introduction to Trigonometry
Trigonometry

side opposite to ∠A BC
(iii) tangent A = =
side adjacent to ∠A AB

Notes Hypotenuse AC
(iv) cosecant A = =
side opposite to ∠A BC

Hypotenuse AC
(v) secant A = =
side adjacent to ∠A AB

side adjacent to ∠A AB
(vi) cotangent A = =
side opposite to ∠A BC
The above trigonometric ratios are abbreviated as sin A, cos A, tan A, cosec A, sec A and
cot A respectively. Trigonometric ratios are abbreviated as t-ratios.
If we write ∠A = θ, then the above results are

BC AB BC
sin θ = , cos θ = , tan θ =
AC AC AB

AC AC AB
cosec θ = , sec θ = and cot θ =
BC AB BC
Note: Observe here that sin θ and cosec θ are reciprocals of each other. Similarly cot θ
and sec θ are respectively reciprocals of tan θ and cos θ.
Remarks
C
Thus in right ΔABC,
α
AB = 4cm, BC = 3cm and cm
5 3 cm
AC = 5cm, then
θ
BC 3 A B
sin θ = = 4 cm
AC 5
Fig. 22.4
AB 4
cos θ = =
AC 5

BC 3
tan θ = =
AB 4

AC 5
cosec θ = =
BC 3

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AC 5
sec θ = =
AB 4

AB 4 Notes
and cot θ = =
BC 3
In the above figure, if we take angle C = α, then

side opposite to ∠α AB 4
sin α = = =
Hypotenuse AC 5

side adjacent to ∠α BC 3
cos α = = =
Hypotenuse AC 5

side opposite to ∠α AB 4
tan α = = =
side adjacent to ∠α BC 3

Hypotenuse AC 5
cosec α = = =
side opposite to ∠α AB 4

Hypotenuse AC 5
sec α = = =
side adjacent to ∠α BC 3

side adjacent to ∠α BC 3
and cot α = = =
side opposite to ∠α AB 4

Remarks :

1. Sin A or sin θ is one symbol and sin cannot be separated from A or θ. It is not equal to
sin × θ. The same applies to other trigonometric ratios.
2. Every t-ratio is a real number.
3. For convenience, we use notations sin2θ, cos2θ, tan2θ for (sinθ)2, (cosθ)2, and (tanθ)2
respectively. We apply the similar notation for higher powers of trigonometric ratios.
4. We have restricted ourselves to t-ratios when A or θ is an acute angle.
Now the question arises: “Does the value of a t-ratio remains the same for the same
angle of different right triangles?.” To get the answer, let us consider a right triangle ABC,
right angled at B. Let P be any point on the hypotenuse AC.

Let PQ ⊥ AB

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Now in right ΔABC,

BC
sin A = ----(i)
Notes AC
and in right ΔAQP,

PQ
sin A = ----(ii) R
AP
Now in ΔAQP and ΔABC,
C
∠Q = ∠B ----(Each = 90°)
and ∠A = ∠A ----(Common) P

∴ ΔAQP ~ ΔABC

AP QP AQ
∴ = = Q B S
AC BC AB A

Fig. 22.5
BC PQ
or = ----(iii)
AC AP
From (i), (ii), and (iii), we find that sin A has the same value in both the triangles.

AB AQ BC PQ
Similarly, we have cos A = = and tan A = =
AC AP AB AQ

Let R be any point on AC produced. Draw RS ⊥ AB produced meeing it at S. You can

verify that value of t-ratios remains the same in ΔASR also.
Thus, we conclude that the value of trigonometric ratios of an angle does not depend on
the size of right triangle. They only depend on the angle.
Example 22.1: In Fig. 22.6, ΔABC is right angled at B. If AB = 5 cm, BC = 12 cm and
AC = 13 cm, find the value of tan C, cosec C and sec C.
C
Solution: We know that
side opposite to ∠C AB 5
tan C = = =
side adjacent to ∠C BC 12
cm
13
12 cm

Hypotenuse AC 13
cosec C = = =
side opposite to ∠C AB 5

Hypotenuse AC 13 A B
and sec C = = = 5 cm
side adjacent to ∠C BC 12
Fig. 22.6
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Example 22.2 : Find the value of sin θ, cot θ and Sec θ from Fig. 22.7.
A

θ
Notes
21 cm 29
cm

C
B 20 cm

Fig. 22.7
Solution:

side opposite to ∠θ BC 20
sin θ = = =
Hypotenuse AC 29

side adjacent t o ∠θ AB 21
cot θ = = =
side opposite to ∠θ BC 20

Hypotenuse AC 29
and sec θ = = =
side adjacent t o ∠θ AB 21

Example 22.3 : In Fig. 22.8, ΔABC is right-angled at B. If AB = 9cm, BC = 40cm

and AC = 41cm, find the values cos C, cot C, tan A, and cosec A. C

Solution:
40 cm
cm

side adjacent to ∠C BC 40
cos C = = =
41

Now
Hypotenuse AC 41

side adjacent to ∠C BC 40 A B
and cot C = = = 9 cm
side opposite to ∠C AB 9
Fig. 22.8
With reference to ∠A, side adjacent to A is AB and side opposite to A is BC.

side opposite to ∠A BC 40
∴ tan A = = =
side adjacent to ∠A AB 9

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Hypotenuse AC 41
and cosec A = = =
side opposite to ∠A BC 40

Notes Example 22.4 : In Fig. 22.9, ΔABC is right angled at B, ∠A = ∠C, AC = 2 cm and
AB = 1 cm. Find the values of sin C, cos C and tan C.

Solution: In ΔABC, ∠A = ∠C A
∴ BC = AB = 1 cm (Given)

1 cm
side opposite to ∠C AB 1
∴ sin C = = =
Hypotenuse AC 2
C B
side adjacent to ∠C BC 1 Fig. 22.9
cos C = = =
Hypotenuse AC 2

side opposite to ∠C AB 1
and tan C = = = =1
side adjacent to ∠C BC 1
Remark: In the above example, we have ∠A = ∠C and ∠B = 90°
∴ ∠A = ∠C = 45°,
1
∴ We have sin 45° = cos 45° =
2
and tan 45o = 1

Example 22.5 : In Fig. 22.10. ΔABC is right-angled at C. If AB = c, AC = b and

BC = a, which of the following is true?
b B
(i) tan A =
c
c c
a

(ii) tan A =
b

b A C
(iii) cot A = b
a
Fig. 22.10
a
(iv) cot A =
b

side opposite to ∠A BC a
Solution: Here tan A = = =
side adjacent to ∠A AC b

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side adjacent to ∠A b
and cot A = =
side opposite to ∠A a

b Notes
Hence the result (iii) i.e. cot A = is true.
a

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 22.1

1. In each of the following figures, ΔABC is a right triangle, right angled at B. Find all
the trigonometric ratios of θ .
B 4 cm
A C
θ
13
cm
3 cm
5 cm

m
5c

(i) θ (ii)
B 12 cm C
A
A
A
25 θ 10 cm
cm
24 cm

(iii) (iv)
6 cm
C
8 cm
θ C B
B
7 cm
Fig. 22.11
2. In ΔABC, ∠ B = 90°, BC = 5cm, AB = 4cm, and AC = 41 cm, find the value of
sin A, cos A, and tan A.
3. In ΔABC right angled at B, if AB = 40 cm, BC = 9 cm and AC = 41 cm, find the
values of sin C, cot C, cos, A and cot A.
4. In ΔABC, ∠ B = 90°. If AB = BC = 2cm and AC = 2 2 cm, find the value of
sec C, cosec C, and cot C. B
5. In Fig. 22.12, ΔABC is right angled at A. Which
of the following is true? cm
5 cm

13
13 12
(i) cot C = (ii) cot C =
12 13 C A
12 cm
5 12
(iii) cot C = (iv) cot C = Fig. 22.12
12 5

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6. In Fig. 22.13, AC = b, BC = a and AB = c. A
Which of the following is true?
a c
(i) cosec A = (ii) cosec A = c
Notes b a

b
c b
(iii) cosec A = (iv) cosec A = .
b a B C
a
Fig. 22.13

22.2 GIVEN TWO SIDES OF A RIGHT-TRIANGLE, TO

FIND TRIGONOMETRIC RATIO
When two sides of a right-triangle are given, its third side can be found out by using the
Pythagoras theorem. Then we can find the trigonometric ratios of the given angle as learnt
in the last section. P

We take some examples to illustrate.

Example 22.6: In Fig. 22.14, ΔPQR is a right

5 cm
triangle, right angled at Q. If PQ = 5 cm and QR =
12 cm, find the values of sin R, cos R and tan R.
Solution: We shall find the third side by using R 12 cm Q
Pythagoras Theorem.
Fig. 22.14
Q ΔPQR is a right angled triangle at Q.

∴ PR = PQ 2 + QR 2 (Pythagoras Theorem)

= 52 + 12 2 cm

= 25 + 144 cm

= 169 or 13 cm

We now use definition to evaluate trigonometric ratios:

side opposite to ∠R PQ 5
sin R = = =
Hypotenuse PR 13

side adjacent to ∠R QR 12
cos R = = =
Hypotenuse PR 13

side opposite to ∠R 5
and tan R = =
side adjacent to ∠R 12

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From the above example, we have the following:
Steps to find Trigonometric ratios when two sides of a right triangle are given.
Step1: Use Pythagoras Theorem to find the unknown (third) side of the triangle.
Notes
Step 2: Use definition of t-ratios and substitute the values of the sides.
Example 22.7 : In Fig. 22.15, ΔPQR is right-angled at Q, PR = 25cm, PQ = 7cm and
∠ PRQ = θ. Find the value of tan θ, cosec θ and sec θ.
Solution :
Q ΔPQR is right-angled at Q P

∴ QR = PR 2 − PQ 2
cm
25

7 cm
= 252 − 7 2 cm
= 625 − 49 cm θ
R Q
= 576 cm Fig. 22.15
= 24 cm
PQ 7
∴ tan θ = =
QR 24

PR 25
cosec θ = =
PQ 7

PR 25
and sec θ = =
QR 24
Example 22.8 : In ΔABC, ∠ B = 90°. If AB = 4 cm and BC = 3 cm, find the values of
sin C, cos C, cot C, tan A, sec A and cosec A. Comment on the values of tan A and cot C.
Also find the value of tan A – cot C.
A
Solution: By Pythagoras Theorem, in ΔABC,
AC = AB2 + BC2
4 cm

= 4 2 + 32 cm
= 25 cm
= 5 cm C 3 cm B

AB 4 Fig. 22.16
Now sin C = =
AC 5

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BC 3
cos C = =
AC 5

Notes BC 3
cot C = =
AB 4

BC 3
tan A = =
AB 4

AC 5
sec A = =
AB 4
AC 5
and cosec A = =
BC 3
The value of tan A and cot C are equal P

∴ tan A – cot C = 0.
Example 22.9: In Fig. 22.17, PQR is right triangle at R. cm
If PQ = 13cm and QR = 5cm, which of the following is 13
true?
Q 5 cm R
17 17
(i) sin Q + cos Q = (ii) sin Q – cos Q =
13 13 Fig. 22.17

17 17
(iii) sin Q + sec Q = (iv) tan Q + cot Q =
13 13

Solution: Here PR = PQ 2 − QR 2 = 132 − 5 2 = 144 = 12 cm

PR 12 QR 5
∴ sin Q = = and cos Q = =
PQ 13 PQ 13

12 5 17
∴ sin Q + cos Q = + =
13 13 13
17
Hence statement (i) i.e. sin Q + cos Q = is true.
13

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 22.2

1. In right ΔABC, right angled at B, AC = 10 cm, and AB = 6 cm. Find the values of
sin C, cos C, and tan C.

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2. In ΔABC, ∠ C = 90°, BC = 24 cm and AC = 7 cm. Find the values of sin A,
cosec A and cot A.

3. In ΔPQR, ∠ Q = 90°, PR = 10 2 cm and QR = 10cm. Find the values of sec P,

cot P and cosec P. Notes

4. In ΔPQR, ∠ Q = 90°, PQ = 3 cm and QR = 1 cm. Find the values of tan R,

cosec R, sin P and sec P.
5. In ΔABC, ∠ B = 90°, AC = 25 cm, AB = 7 cm and ∠ ACB = θ. Find the values of
cot θ, sin θ, sec θ and tan θ.
6. In right ΔPQR, right-angled at Q, PQ = 5 cm and PR = 7 cm. Find the values of sin P,
cos P, sin R and cos R. Find the value of sin P – cos R.
7. ΔDEF is a right triangle at E in Fig. 22.18. If DE = 5 cm and EF = 12 cm, which of the
following is true? D

5
(i) sin F =
12

5m
12
(ii) sin F =
5
F 12 m E
5
(iii) sin F = Fig. 22.18
13

12
(iv) sin F =
13

22.3 GIVEN ONE TRIGONOMETRIC RATIO, TO FIND

THE OTHERS
Sometimes we know one trigonometric ratio and we have to find the vaues of other
t-ratios. This can be easily done by using the definition of t-ratios and the Pythagoras
12
Theorem. Let us take sin θ = . We now find the other t-ratios. A
13
We draw a right-triangle ABC

12
Now sin θ = implies that sides AB and AC are in
13
the ratio 12 : 13. C θ
B
Fig. 22.19

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Thus we suppose AB = 12 k and AC = 13 k.
∴ By Pythagoras Theorem,

Notes BC = AC2 − AB2

= (13k )2 − (12k )2
= 169k 2 − 144k 2

= 25k 2 = 5 k
Now we can find all othe t-ratios.

BC 5k 5
cos θ = = =
AC 13k 13

AB 12k 12
tan θ = = =
BC 5k 5
AC 13k 13
cosec θ = = =
AB 12k 12
AC 13k 13
sec θ = = =
BC 5k 5
BC 5k 5
and cot θ = = =
AB 12k 12
The method discussed above gives the following steps for the solution.
Steps to be followed for finding the t-ratios when one t-ratio is given.

1. Draw a right triangle ΔABC.

2. Write the given t-ratio in terms of the sides and let the constant of ratio be k.
3. Find the two sides in terms of k.
4. Use Pythagoras Theorem and find the third side.
5. Now find the remaining t-ratios by using the definition.
Let us consider some examples.

7
Example 22.10.: If cos θ = , find the values of sin θ and tan θ.
25
Solution : Draw a right-angled ΔABC in which ∠ B = 90° and ∠ C = θ.

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We know that

adjacent side BC 7
cos θ = = = A
hypotenuse AC 25
Notes
Let BC = 7 k and AC = 25 k
Then by Pythagoras Theorem,

24 k
k
25
AB = AC2 − BC2
θ
= (25k ) − (7k )
2 2 C 7k B

Fig. 22.20
= 625k − 49k
2 2

= 576k 2 or 24 k
∴ In ΔABC,

AB 24k 24
sin θ = = =
AC 25k 25

AB 24k 24
and tan θ = = =
BC 7k 7

40 cos θ. sin θ
Example 22.11.: If cot θ = , find the value of .
9 sec θ
Solution. Let ABC be a right triangle, in which ∠ B = 90° and ∠ C = θ.
We know that
BC 40
cot θ = =
AB 9 A

Let BC = 40k and AB = 9k

Then from right ΔABC, 41
k

9k

AC = BC2 + AB2
C θ
B
= (40k ) + (9k )
2 2 40 k
Fig. 22.21
= 1600k 2 + 81k 2

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= 1681k 2 or 41 k

AB 9k 9
Notes Now sin θ = = =
AC 41k 41

BC 40k 40
cos θ = = =
AC 41k 41

AC 41k 41
and sec θ = = =
BC 40k 40

9 40
×
cos θ. sin θ 41 41
∴ = 41
sec θ
40

9 40 40
= × ×
41 41 41

14400
=
68921

1
Example 22.12.: In PQR, ∠ Q = 90° and tan R = . Then show that
3
sin P cos R + cos P sin R = 1

1
Solution: Let there be a right-triangle PQR, in which ∠ Q = 90° and tan R = .
3
We know that
P
PQ 1
tan R = =
QR 3

Let PQ = k and QR = 3k 2k 1k

R Q
Then, PR = PQ 2 + QR 2 3 k

= k2 + ( 3k )
2 Fig. 22.22

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= k 2 + 3k 2

= 4k 2 or 2 k
Notes
side opposite to ∠P QR 3k 3
∴ sin P = = = =
Hypotenuse PR 2k 2

side adjacent t o ∠P 1k 1
cos P = = =
Hypotenuse 2k 2

side opposite to ∠R PQ 1k 1
sin R = = = =
Hypotenuse PR 2k 2

side adjacent to ∠R QR 3k 3
and cos R = = = =
Hypotenuse PR 2k 2

3 3 1 1
∴ sin P cos R + cos P sin R = . + .
2 2 2 2

3 1 4
= + =
4 4 4
=1
Example 22.13.: In ΔABC, ∠ B is right-angle. If AB = c, BC = a and AC = b, which of
the following is true?

2b
(i) cos C + sin A =
a A

b a
(ii) cos C + sin A = +
a b b
c

2a
(iii) cos C + sin A =
b C B
a
a c Fig. 22.23
(iv) cos C + sin A = +
b b

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BC a
Solution: Here cos C = =
AC b

Notes BC a
and sin A = =
AC b

a a 2a
∴ cos C + sin A = + =
b b b

2a
∴ Statement (iii), i.e., cos C + sin A = is true.
b

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 22.3

20
1. If sin θ = , find the values of cos θ and tan θ.
29

24
2. If tan θ = , find the values of sin θ and cos θ.
7

7
3. If cos A = , find the values of sin A and tan A.
25

m
4. If cos θ = , find the values of cot θ and cosec θ.
n

4 cos θ . cot θ
5. If cos θ = , evaluate .
5 1 − sec 2θ

2
6. If cosec θ = , find the value of sin2 θ cos θ + tan2 θ.
3

5
7. If cot B = , then show that cosec2 B = 1 + cot2 B.
4

3
8. ΔABC is a right triangle with ∠C = 90o. If tan A = , find the values of sin B and
2
tan B.

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1
9. If tan A = and tan B = 3 , then show that cos A cos B – sin A sin B = 0.
3

12 Notes
10. If cot A = , show that tan2A – sin2A = sin4A sec2A.
5
[Hint: Find the vlaues of tan A, sin A and sec A and substitute]
11. In Fig. 22.24, ΔABC is right-angled at vertex B. If AB = c, BC = a and CA = b,
which of the following is true?
A
b+c
(i) sin A + cos A =
a
b
a+c

c
(ii) sin A + cos A =
b
C B
a+b a
(iii) sin A + cos A =
c Fig. 22.24

a+b+c
(iv) sin A + cos A =
b

22.4 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN TRIGONOMETRIC

RATIOS
In a right triangle ABC, right angled at B, we have
A
AB
sin θ =
AC
BC
cos θ =
AC
AB
and tan θ = θ
BC C B

AB AB BC Fig. 22.25
Rewriting, tan θ = = ÷
BC AC AC

AB
AC sin θ
= BC =
cos θ
AC

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sin θ
Thus, we see that tan θ =
cos θ

Notes We can verify this result by taking AB = 3 cm, BC = 4 cm and therefore

AC = AB2 + BC2 = 32 + 52 or 5 cm

3 4 3
∴ sin θ = , cos θ = and tan θ =
5 5 4

3
sin θ 5 = 3
Now = 4 4 = tan θ.
cos θ
5

Thus, the result is verified.

AB
Again sin θ = gives us
AC

1 1 AC
= = = cosec θ
sin θ AB AB
AC

1
Thus cosec θ = or cosec θ . sin θ = 1
sin θ
We say cosec θ is the reciprocal of sin θ.

BC
Again, cos θ = gives us
AC

1 1 AC
= = = sec θ
cos θ BC BC
AC

1
Thus sec θ = or sec θ . cos θ = 1
cos θ
We say that sec θ is reciprocal of cos θ.

AB
Finally, tan θ = gives us
BC

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1 1 BC
= = = cot θ
tan θ AB AB
BC
Notes
1
Thus, cot θ = or tan θ . cot θ = 1
tan θ

1 cos θ
=
Also cot θ = sin θ sin θ
cos θ
We say that cot θ is reciprocal of tan θ.
Thus, we have cosec θ, sec θ and cot θ are reciprocal of sin θ, cos θ and tan θ respectively.
We have, therefore, established the following results:

sin θ
(i) tan θ =
cos θ

1
(ii) cosec θ =
sin θ

1
(iii) sec θ =
cos θ

1 cos θ
(iv) cot θ = =
tan θ sin θ
Now we can make use of the above results in finding the values of different trigonometric
ratios.

1 3
Example 22.14: If cos θ = and sin θ = , find the values of cosec θ, sec θ and
2 2
tan θ.
Solution: We know that

1 1 2
cosec θ = = 3 =
sin θ 3
2

1 1
sec θ = = =2
cos θ 1
2
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3
sin θ 3 2
and tan θ = = 2 = × = 3
cos θ 1 2 1
Notes 2

Example 22.15: For a right angled triangle ABC, right angled at C, tan A = 1. Find the
value of cos B.
Solution: Let us construct a right angled ΔABC in which ∠C = 90o.
We have tan A = 1 (Given)
We know that A

BC
tan A = =1
AC
∴ BC and AC are equal.
Let BC = AC = k
B C
Then AB = BC + AC
2 2

Fig. 22.26
= k2 + k2

= 2k

BC k
Now cos B = =
AB 2k

1
=
2

1
Hence cos B =
2

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 22.4

1 3
1. If sin θ = and cos θ = , find the values of cot θ and sec θ .
2 2

3
2. If sin θ = and tan θ = 3 , find the value of cos2 θ + sin θ cot θ.
2

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3. In a right angled ΔABC, right angled at C, cos A = . Find the value of

sin A sin B + cos A cos B.
4. If cosec A = 2, find the value of sin A and tan A. Notes

5. In a right angled ΔABC, right angled at B, tan A = , find the value of

tan2 B sec2 A – (tan2 A + cot2 B)

22.5 IDENTITY
We have studied about equations in algebra in our earlier classes. Recall that when two
expressions are connected by ‘=’ (equal to) sign, we get an equation. In this section, we
now introduce the concept of an identity. We get an identity when two expressions are
connected by the equality sign. When we say that two expressions when connected by ‘=’
give rise to an equation as well as identity, then what is the difference between the two.
The major difference between the two is that an equation involving a variable is true for
some values only whereas the equation involving a variable is true for all values of the
variable, is called an identity.
Thus x2 – 2x + 1 = 0 is an equation as it is true for x = 1.
x2 – 5x + 6 = 0 is an equation as it is true for x = 2 and x = 3.
If we consider x2 – 5x + 6 = (x – 2) (x – 3), it becomes an identity as it is true for x = 2,
x = 3 and say x = 0, x = 10 etc. i.e. it is true for all values of x. In the next section, we shall
consider some identities in trigonometry.

22.6 TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

We know that an angle is defined with Y
the help of the rotation of a ray from initial
to final position. You have learnt to define A′
P
all trigonometric ratios of an angle. Let us
recall them here.
Let XOX′ and YOY′ be the rectangular θ
axes. Let A be any point on OX. Let the X′ O M A X
ray OA start rotating in the plane in an
anti-clockwise direction about the point
O till it reaches the final position OA′ after
some interval of time. Let ∠A′OA = θ.
Take any point P on the ray OA′. Draw
PM ⊥ OX. Y′
Fig. 22.27

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In right angled ΔPMO,

PM
sin θ =
OP
Notes
OM
and cos θ =
OP
Squaring and adding, we get
2 2
⎛ PM ⎞ ⎛ OM ⎞
sin θ + cos θ = ⎜
2 2 ⎟ +⎜ ⎟
⎝ OP ⎠ ⎝ OP ⎠

PM 2 + OM 2 OP 2
= =
OP 2 OP 2
=1
Hence, sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 ...(1)
Also we know that

OP
sec θ =
OM

PM
and tan θ =
OM
Squaring and subtracting, we get
2 2
⎛ OP ⎞ ⎛ PM ⎞
sec θ – tan θ = ⎜
2 2 ⎟ −⎜ ⎟
⎝ OM ⎠ ⎝ OM ⎠

OP 2 − PM 2
=
OM 2

OM 2
= [By Pythagoras Theorm, OP2 – PM2 = OM2]
OM 2
=1
Hence, sec2 θ – tan2 θ = 1 ...(2)
OP
Again, cosec θ =
PM

OM
and cot θ =
PM

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Squaring and subtracting, we get
2 2
⎛ OP ⎞ ⎛ OM ⎞
cosec θ – cot θ = ⎜
2 2 ⎟ −⎜ ⎟
⎝ PM ⎠ ⎝ PM ⎠
Notes
OP 2 − OM 2 PM 2
= =
PM 2 PM 2
[By Pythagoras Theorm, OP2 – OM2 = PM2]
=1
Hence, cosec2 θ – cot2 θ = 1 ...(3)
Note: By using algebraic operations, we can write identities (1), (2) and (3) as
sin2 θ = 1– cos2 θ or cos2 θ = 1 – sin2 θ
sec2 θ = 1 + tan2 θ or tan2 θ = sec2 θ – 1
and cosec2 θ = 1 + cot2 θ or cot2 θ = cosec2 θ – 1
respectively.
We shall solve a few examples, using the above identities.
Example 22.16: Prove that
1
tan θ + cot θ =
sin θ cos θ
Solution: L.H.S. = tan θ + cot θ
sin θ cos θ
= +
cos θ sin θ

sin 2θ + cos 2θ 1
= = (Q sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1)
sin θ cos θ sin θ cos θ
= R.H.S.
1
Hence, tan θ + cot θ =
sin θ cos θ
Exampe 22.17: Prove that
sin A 1 + cos A
+ = 2 cosec A
1 + cos A sin A
sin A 1 + cos A
Solution: L.H.S = +
1 + cos A sin A

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sin 2 A + (1 + cos A )
2

=
sin A (1 + cos A )
Notes
sin 2 A + 1 + cos 2 A + 2 cos A
=
sin A (1 + cos A )

(sin A + cos A ) + 1 + 2 cos A

2 2

=
sin A (1 + cos A )

1 + 1 + 2 cos A
sin A (1 + cos A )
=

2 + 2 cos A
sin A (1 + cos A )
=

2 (1 + cos A )
sin A (1 + cos A )
=

2
=
sin A
= 2 cosec A
= R.H.S.

sin A 1 + cos A
Hence, + = 2 cosec A
1 + cos A sin A
Example 22.18: Prove that:

1 − sin A
= (sec A − tan A )
2

1 + sin A

Solution: R.H.S. = (sec A − tan A )2

2
⎛ 1 sin A ⎞
=⎜ − ⎟
⎝ cos A cos A ⎠
2
⎛ 1 − sin A ⎞
=⎜ ⎟
⎝ cos A ⎠

(1− sin A ) 2
=
cos 2 A

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(1 − sin A ) 2 (Q cos A = 1 − sin A )

2 2
=
1 – sin 2 A

(1 − sin A )2 Notes
=
(1 – sin A )(1 + sin A )
1 − sin A
=
1 + sin A
= L.H.S.

1 − sin A
= (sec A − tan A )
2
Hence,
1 + sin A
Alternative method
We can prove the identity by starting from L.H.S. in the following way:

1 − sin A
L.H.S. =
1 + sin A

1 − sin A 1− sin A
= ×
1 + sin A 1 – sin A

(1 − sin A )2
=
1 – sin 2 A

(1 − sin A )2
=
cos 2 A

2
⎛ 1 − sin A ⎞
=⎜ ⎟
⎝ cos A ⎠

2
⎛ 1 sin A ⎞
=⎜ − ⎟
⎝ cos A cos A ⎠

= (sec A − tan A )2

= R.H.S.
Remark: From the above examples, we get the following method for solving questions
on Trigonometric identities.

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Method to solve questions on Trigonometric identities
Step 1: Choose L.H.S. or R.H.S., whichever looks to be easy to simplify.
Step 2: Use different identities to simplify the L.H.S. (or R.H.S.) and arrive at the result on
Notes
the other hand side.
Step 3: If you don’t get the result on R.H.S. (or L.H.S.) arrive at an appropriate result and
then simplify the other side to get the result already obtained.
Step 4: As both sides of the identity have been proved to be equal the identity is established.
We shall now, solve some more questions on Trigonometric identities.
Example 22.19: Prove that:

1 − sinθ cosθ
=
1 + sinθ 1 + sinθ

1 − sinθ
Solution: L.H.S. =
1 + sinθ

1 − sinθ 1 + sinθ
= ×
1 + sinθ 1 + sinθ

1 − sin 2 θ
=
(1 + sinθ )

cos 2θ
=
1 + sinθ
(Q1 − sin θ = cos θ )
2 2

cosθ
= = R.H.S.
1 + sinθ

1 − sinθ cosθ
Hence, =
1 + sinθ 1 + sinθ
Example 22.20: Prove that
cos4 A – sin4A = cos2 A – sin2 A = 1 – 2 sin2A
Solution: L.H.S. = cos4 A – sin4A
= (cos2 A)2 – (sin2 A)2
= (cos2 A + sin2 A) (cos2 A – sin2 A)

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Introduction to Trigonometry MODULE - 5
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= cos2 A – sin2 A (Q cos2 A + sin2 A = 1)
= R.H.S.
Again cos2 A – sin2 A = (1 – sin2 A) – sin2A (Q cos2 A = 1 – sin2 A )
Notes
= 1 – 2 sin2 A
= R. H. S.
Hence cos4 A – sin4A = cos2 A – sin2 A = 1 – 2 sin2A
Example 22.21: Prove that
sec A (1 – sin A) (sec A + tan A) = 1
Solution: L.H.S. = sec A (1 – sin A) (sec A + tan A)

=
1
(1 − sin A)⎛⎜ 1 + sin A ⎞⎟
cos A ⎝ cos A cos A ⎠

(1 − sinA )(1 + sinA )

=
cos 2 A

1 − sin 2 A
=
cos 2 A

cos 2 A
=
cos 2 A
= 1 = R.H.S.
Hence, sec A (1 – sin A) (sec A + tan A) = 1
Example 22.22: Prove that

tanθ + secθ − 1 1 + sinθ

=
tanθ − secθ + 1 cosθ
cosθ
=
1 − sinθ

tan θ + sec θ − 1
Solution: L.H.S. =
tan θ − sec θ + 1

(tanθ + secθ ) − (sec 2θ − tan 2θ ) (Q1 = sec θ − tan θ )

2 2
=
tanθ − secθ + 1

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MODULE - 5 Introduction to Trigonometry
Trigonometry

(tan θ + sec θ ) − (sec θ + tan θ )(sec θ − tan θ )

=
tan θ − sec θ + 1

Notes (tan θ + sec θ )[1 − (sec θ − tan θ )]

=
tan θ − sec θ + 1

(tanθ + secθ )(1 − secθ + tanθ )

=
tanθ − secθ + 1
= tan θ + sec θ

1 + sinθ
=
cosθ
= R.H.S.

1 + sinθ (1 + sinθ )(1 − sinθ )

cosθ (1 − sinθ )
Again =
cos θ

1 − sin 2 θ
=
cosθ (1 − sinθ )

cos 2 θ
=
cosθ (1 − sinθ )

cosθ
=
1 − sinθ
= R.H.S.

tanθ + secθ − 1 1 + sinθ

Hence, =
tanθ − secθ + 1 cosθ
cosθ
=
1 − sinθ

Example 22.23: If cos θ – sin θ = 2 sin θ, then show that cos θ + sin θ = 2 cos θ.

Solution: We are given cos θ – sin θ = 2 sin θ

or cos θ = 2 sin θ + sin θ

or cos θ = ( 2 + 1) sin θ

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cosθ
or = sinθ
2 +1

sinθ =
cosθ
×
( )
2 −1 Notes
or
2 +1 ( )
2 −1

2 cos θ − cos θ
or sin θ =
2 −1

or sin θ + cos θ = 2 cos θ

Hence, cos θ + sin θ = 2 cos θ.

Example 22.24: If tan4 θ + tan2 θ = 1, then show that
cos4 θ + cos2 θ = 1
Solution: We have tan4 θ + tan2 θ = 1
or tan2 θ ( tan2 θ + 1) = 1

1
or 1 + tan 2 θ = = cot 2 θ
tan θ
2

or sec2 θ = cot2 θ (1 + tan2 θ = sec2θ )

1 cos 2 θ
or =
cos 2 θ sin 2 θ
or sin2 θ = cos4 θ
or 1 – cos2 θ = cos4 θ (sin2 θ = 1 – cos2 θ)
or cos4 θ + cos2 θ = 1

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 22.5

Prove each of the following identities:
1. (cosec2 θ – 1) sin2 θ = cos2 θ
2. sin4A + sin2A cos2A = sin2A
3. cos2 θ (1 + tan2 θ) = 1
4. (1 + tan2 θ) sin2 θ = tan2 θ

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MODULE - 5 Introduction to Trigonometry
Trigonometry

sinA sinA
5. + = 2cosecA
1 + cosA 1 − cosA

Notes 1 + cosA 1 + cosA

6. =
1 − cosA sinA

secA − tanA cosA

7. =
secA + tanA 1 + sinA

8. (sin A – cos A)2 + 2 sin A cos A = 1

9. cos4 θ + sin4 θ – 2 sin2 θ cos2 θ = (2 cos2 θ – 1)2

sinA − sinB cosA − cosB

10. + =0
cosA + cosB sinA + sinB

11. (cosec θ – sin θ) (sec θ – cos θ) (tan θ + cos θ) = 1

12. sin A(1 + tan A) + cos A (1 + cot A) = sec A + cosec A

1 − cosA
= (cosecA − cotA )
2
13.
1 + cosA

tanA cotA
14. + = 1 + secAcosecA
1 − cotA 1 − tanA

cotA + cosecA − 1 1 + cosA

15. cotA − cosecA + 1 = sinA
sinA
=
1 − cosA

16. If sin2 θ + sin θ = 1, then show that

cos2 θ + cos4 θ = 1
Select the correct alternative from the four given in each of the following questions (17 - 20):
17. (sin A + cos A)2 – 2 sin A cos A is equal to
(i) 0 (ii) 2 (iii) 1 (iv) sin2A – cos2A
18. sin4A – cos4A is equal to:
(i) 1 (ii) sin2A – cos2A (iii) 0 (iv) tan2A

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19. sin2A – sec2A + cos2A + tan2A is equal to
(i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) sin2A (iv) cos2A
20. (sec A – tan A) (sec A + tan A) – (cosec A – cot A) (cosec A + cot A) is equal to
Notes
1
(i) 2 (ii) 1 (iii) 0 (iv)
2

22.7 TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS FOR COMPLEMENTARY

ANGLES
In geometry, we have studied about
complementary and supplementary Y
angles. Recall that two angles are A′
complementary if their sum is 90o. If the
sum of two angles A and B is 90o, then P 9 0 o–
∠A and ∠B are complementary angles θ
and each of them is complement of the
other. Thus, angles of 20o and 70o are θ
complementary and 20o is complement X′ O M A X
of 70o and vice versa.
Let XOX′ and YOY′ be a rectangular
system of coordinates. Let A be any point
on OX. Let ray OA be rotated in an anti
clockwise direction and trace an angle θ Y′
from its initial position. Let ∠ POM = θ. Fig. 22.28
Draw PM ⊥ OX. Then ΔPMO is a right
angled triangle.
Also, ∠POM + ∠OPM + ∠PMO = 180o
or ∠POM + ∠OPM + 90o = 180o
or ∠POM + ∠OPM = 90o
∴ ∠OPM = 90o – ∠POM = 90o – θ
Thus ∠OPM and ∠POM are complementary angles. Now in right angled triangle PMO,

PM OM PM
sin θ = , cos θ = and tan θ =
OP OP OM

OP OP OM
cosec θ = , sec θ = and cot θ =
PM OM PM
For reference angle (90o –θ), we have in right ∠d ΔOPM,

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Trigonometry

(
sin 90 o − θ =) OM
OP
= cos θ

Notes
(
cos 90 o − θ = ) PM
OP
= sin θ

(
tan 90 o − θ =) OM
PM
= cot θ

(
cot 90 o − θ =) PM
OM
= tan θ

(
cosec 90 o − θ = ) OP
OM
= sec θ

and (
sec 90 o − θ =) OP
PM
= cosec θ

The above six results are known as trigonometric ratios of complementary angles. For
example,
sin (90o – 20o) = cos 20o i.e. sin 70o = cos 20o
tan (90o – 40o) = cot 40o i.e. tan 50o = cot 40o and so on.
Let us take some examples to illustrate the use of above results.
Example 22.25: Prove that tan 13o = cot 77o
Solution: R.H.S. = cot 77o
= cot (90o – 13o)
= tan 13o ....[Q cot (90o – θ) = tan θ]
= L.H.S.
Thus, tan 13o = cot 77o
Example 22.26: Evaluate sin2 40o – cos2 50o
Solution: cos 50o = cos (90o – 40o)
= sin 40o ....[Q cos (90o – θ) = tan θ]
∴ sin2 40o – cos2 50o = sin2 40o – sin2 40o = 0

cos 41o sec 37 o

Example 22.27: Evaluate : +
sin 49 o cosec 53o

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Solution: sin 49o = sin (90o – 41o) = cos 41o ...[Q sin (90o – θ) = cos θ]
and cosec 53o = cosec (90o – 37o) = sec 37o ...[Q cosec (90o – θ) = sec θ]

cos 41o sec 37 o cos 41 o sec 37 o Notes

∴ + = +
sin 49 o cosec 53o cos 41 o sec 37 o
= 1+1 = 2
Example 22.28: Show that
3 sin 17o sec 73o + 2 tan 20o tan 70o = 5
Solution: 3 sin 17o sec 73o + 2 tan 20o tan 70o
= 3 sin 17o sec (90o – 17o) + 2 tan 20o tan (90o – 20o)
= 3 sin 17o cosec 17o + 2 tan 20o cot 20o
...[Q sec (90o – θ) = cosec θ and tan (90o – θ) = cot θ]

1 1
o
= 3 sin 17 . o
+ 2 tan 20 o.
sin 17 tan 20 o
=3+2=5
Example 22.29: Show that tan 7o tan 23o tan 67o tan 83o = 1
Solution: tan 67o = tan (90o – 23o) = cot 23o
and tan 83o = tan (90o – 7o) = cot 7o
Now. L.H.S. = tan 7o tan 23o tan 67o tan 83o
= tan 7o tan 23o cot 23o cot 7o
= (tan 7o cot 7o) (tan 23o cot 23o)
= 1 .1 = 1
= R.H.S.
Hence, tan 7o tan 23o tan 67o tan 83o = 1
Example 22.30: If tan A = cot B, prove that A + B = 90o.
Solution: We are given
tan A = cot B
or tan A = tan (90o – B) ... [Q cot θ = tan (90o – θ)]
∴ A = 90o – B
or A + B = 90o

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⎛ B+C⎞ ⎛A⎞
Example 22.31: For a ΔABC, show that sin ⎜ ⎟ = cos⎜ ⎟ , where A, B and C are
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝2⎠
interior angles of ΔABC.
Notes
Solution: We know that sum of angles of triangle is 180o.
∴ A + B + C = 180o
or B + C = 180o – A

B+C A
or = 90 o −
2 2

⎛ B+C⎞ ⎛ o A⎞
∴ sin ⎜ ⎟ = sin ⎜ 90 − ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠

⎛ B+C⎞ ⎛A⎞
or sin ⎜ ⎟ = cos⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝2⎠

cosθ sinθ
+ = 2.
Example 22.32: Prove that
(
sin 90 − θ cos 90 o − θ
o
) ( )
cosθ sinθ
+
Solution: L.H.S. =
( )
sin 90 − θ cos 90 o − θ
o
( )
cos θ sin θ
= + ... [Q sin (90o – θ) = cos θ and cos (90o – θ) = sin θ]
cos θ sin θ
=1+1=2
= R.H.S.

cosθ sinθ
+ =2
Hence,
( ) (
sin 90 − θ cos 90 o − θ
o
)
sin 90o − θ
+
((
cos 90 o − θ
=1
) )
Example 22.33: Show that
( ) (
cosec 90o − θ sec 90o − θ )
sin (90 − θ ) cos (90 − θ )
o o
+
cosec (90 − θ ) sec(90 − θ )
Solution: L.H.S. = o o

cos θ sin θ
= + ...[Q sin (90o – θ) = cos θ, cos (90o – θ) = sin θ,
secθ cosec θ
cosec (90o – θ) = sec θ and sec (90o – θ) = cosec θ]

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cos θ sin θ
= + = cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1
cos θ sin θ
= R.H.S.
Notes
(
sin 90 − θ
+
)
cos 90 − θ
o
=1
( o
)
Hence,
(
cosec 90 − θ sec 90o − θ
o
) ( )
Example 22.34: Simplify:

( ) (
cos 90 o − θ sec 90 o − θ tanθ ) +
tan 90 o − θ( )
( ) ( ) (
cosec 90 o − θ sin 90 o − θ cot 90 o − θ )
cotθ

Solution: The given expression

( ) (
cos 90 o − θ sec 90 o − θ tanθ
+
)
tan 90 o − θ ( )
=
( ) (
cosec 90 o − θ sin 90 o − θ cot 90 o − θ ) ( cotθ )
sin θinθ.co θ.tanθ cot θ
= + ...[Q sin θ . cos θ = 1 and sec θ . cos θ = 1]
sec θecθ.cotan θ cot θ
=1+1
=2

Example 22.35: Express tan 68o + sec 68o in terms of angles between 0o and 45o.

Solution: We know that

tan (90o – θ) = cot θ

and sec (90o – θ) = cosec θ

∴ tan 68o = tan (90o – 22o) = cot 22o

and sec 68o = sec (90o – 22o) = cosec 22o

Hence tan 68o + sec 68o = cot 22o + cosec 22o.

Remark: While using notion of complementary angles, usually we change that angle which
is > 45o to its complement.

Example 22.36: If tan 2A = cot (A – 18o) where 2A is an acute angle, find the value of A.

Solution: We are given tan 2A = cot (A – 18o)

or cot (90o – 2A) = cot (A – 18o) ...[Q cot (90o – 2A = tan 2A]

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∴ 90o – 2A = A – 18o

or 3A = 90o + 18o
Notes or 3A = 108o

or A = 36o

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 22.6

1. Show that:
(i) cos 55o = sin 35o
(ii) sin2 11o – cos2 79o = 0
(iii) cos2 51o – sin2 39o = 0
2. Evaluate each of the following:

3sin19 o tan65 o cos 89o

(i) (ii) (iii)
cos71o 2cot25 o 3 sin 1o

3 sin 5o 2 tan 33o

o
(iv) cos 48 – sin 42 o
(v) +
cos 85o cot 57 o

cot 54o tan 20o

(vi) + −2
tan 36o cot 70o
(vii) sec 41o sin 49o + cos 49o cosec 41o

cos 75o sin 12o cos18o

(viii) + −
sin 15o cos 78o sin 72o
3. Evaluate each of the following:
2 2
⎛ sin 47 o ⎞ ⎛ cos 43o ⎞
(i) ⎜⎜ ⎟ + ⎜⎜
o ⎟
⎟
o ⎟
⎝ cos 43 ⎠ ⎝ sin 47 ⎠

cos 2 20o + cos 2 70o

(ii)
(
3 sin 2 59o + sin 2 31o )
4. Prove that:
(i) sin θ cos (90o – θ) + cos θ sin (90o – θ) = 1

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(ii) cos θ cos (90o – θ) – sin θ sin (90o – θ) = 0

(
cos 90 o − θ
+
)
1 + sin 90 o − θ (
= 2cosecθ
)
(iii)
(
1 + sin 90 o − θ )
cos 90 o − θ ( )
Notes

( ) ( ) (
tan 90 − θ o
)
(iv) sin 90 − θ .cos 90 − θ =
o o

(
1 + tan 2 90 o − θ )
(v) tan 45o tan 13o tan 77o tan 85o = 1
(vi) 2 tan 15o tan 25o tan 65o tan 75o = 2
(vii) sin 20o sin 70o – cos 20o cos 70o = 0
5. Show that sin (50o + θ) – cos (40o – θ) = 0
6. If sin A = cos B where A and B are acute angles, prove that A + B = 90o.
7. In a ΔABC, prove that

⎛ B+C⎞ ⎛A⎞
(i) tan ⎜ ⎟ = cot ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝2⎠

⎛ A+B⎞ ⎛C⎞
(ii) cos⎜ ⎟ = sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝2⎠
8. Express tan 59o + cosec 85o in terms of trigonometric ratios of angles between 0o and
45o.
9. Express sec 46o – cos 87o in terms of trigonometric ratios of angles between 0o and
45o.
10. Express sec2 62o + sec2 69o in terms of trigonometric ratios of angles between 0o and
45o.
Select the correct alternative for each of the following questions (11-12):

sin 40o 2 sec 41o

11. The value of − is
2 cos 50o 3cosec49o

1 1
(i) – 1 (ii) (iii) − (iv) 1
6 6
12. If sin (θ + 36o) = cos θ, where θ + 36o is an acute angle, then θ is
(i) 54o (ii) 18o (iii) 21o (iv) 27o

Mathematics Secondary Course 549

MODULE - 5 Introduction to Trigonometry
Trigonometry

LET US SUM UP

Notes • In a right angled triangle, we define trignometric ratios as under:

side opposite to angle θ AB

sin θ = =
Hypotenuse AC A

side adjacent t o angle θ BC

cosθ = =
Hypotenuse AC

side opposite to angle θ AB

tan θ = =
side adjacent to angle θ BC

side adjacent t o angle θ BC

cotθ = = θ
side opposite to angle θ AB
C B
Hypotenuse AC
sec θ = =
side adjacent t o angle θ BC

Hypotenuse AC
cosec θ = =
side opposite to angle θ AB

• The following relationships exist between different trigonometric ratios:

sin θ cos θ
(i) tan θ = (ii) cot θ =
cos θ sin θ

1 1
(iii) sec θ = (iv) cosec θ =
cos θ sin θ

1
(v) cot θ =
tan θ
• The trigonometric identities are:
(i) sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
(ii) sec2 θ – tan2 θ = 1
(iii) cosec2 θ – cot2 θ = 1
• Two angles, whose sum is 90o, are called complementary angles.

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• sin (90o – A) = cos A, cos (90o – A) = sin A and tan (90o – A) = cot A.
• cosec (90o – A) = sec A, sec (90o – A) = cosec A and cot (90o – A) = tan A
Supportive website:
Notes
• http://www.wikipedia.org
• http://mathworld:wolfram.com

TERMINAL EXERCISE

4
1. If sin A = , find the values of cos A and tan A.
5

20
2. If tan A = , find the values of cosec A and sec A.
21

3
3. If cot θ = , find the value of sin θ + cos θ.
4

m
4. If sec θ = , find the values of sin θ and tan θ.
n

3
5. If cos θ = , find the value of
5

sin θ tan θ − 1
2 tan 2 θ

5 tan θ
6. If sec θ = , find the value of
4 1 + tan θ

7. If tan A = 1 and tan B = 3 , find the value of cos A cos B – sin A sin B.

Prove each of the following identities (8 –20):

8. (sec θ + tan θ) (1 – sin θ) = cos θ.
cot θ cosecθ
9. =
1 − tan θ secθ
1 − cos θ
= (cosecθ − cot θ )
2
10.
1 + cos θ

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MODULE - 5 Introduction to Trigonometry
Trigonometry

tan θ + sin θ sec θ + 1

11. =
tan θ − sin θ sec θ − 1

Notes tan A + cot B

12. = tan A cot B
cot A + tan B

1 + cos A
13. = cosec A + cot A
1 − cos A

cosec A + 1 cos A
14. =
cosec A −1 1 − sin A
15. sin3A – cos3A = (sin A – cos A) (1 + sin A cos A)

cos A sin A
16. + = cos A + sin A
1 − tan A 1 − cot A

sec A − 1 sec A + 1
17. + = 2cosecA
sec A + 1 sec A − 1

1
18. (cosecA − sin A )(sec A − cos A ) =
tan A + cot A
19. (1 + cot θ – cosec θ) (1 + tan θ + sec θ) = 2
20. 2(sin6 θ + cos6 θ ) – 3(sin4 θ + cos4 θ ) + 1 = 0

p2 −1
21. If sec θ + tan θ = p, show that sin θ =
p2 +1

(
cos 90o − A
+
) (
1 + sin 90o − A )
= 2sec 90o − A ( )
22. Prove that
1 + sin 90 − A
o
( ) (
cos 90 − A
o
)

23. Prove that

( ) (
sin 90o − A .cos 90o − A )
= sin 2 90o − A ( )
tanA

3
24. If tan θ = and θ + α = 90o, find the value of cot α.
4
25. If cos (2θ + 54o) = sin θ and (2θ + 54o) is an acute angle, find the value of θ.
26. If sec Q = cosec P and P and Q are acute angles, show that P + Q = 90o.

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ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

22.1
Notes
5 12 5
1. (i) sin θ = , cos θ = , tan θ =
13 13 12
13 13 12
cosec θ = , sec θ = and cot θ =
5 12 5

3 4 3
(ii) sin θ = , cos θ = , tan θ =
5 5 4

5 5 4
cosec θ = , sec θ = and cot θ =
3 4 3

24 7 24
(iii) sin θ = , cos θ = , tan θ =
25 25 7

25 25 7
cosec θ = , sec θ = and cot θ =
24 7 24

4 3 4
(iv) sin θ = , cos θ = , tan θ =
5 5 3

5 5 3
cosec θ = , sec θ = and cot θ =
4 3 4

5 4 5
2. sin A = , cos A = and tan A =
41 41 4

40 9 40 40
3. sin C = , cot C = , cos A = and cot A =
41 40 41 9

4. sec C = 2 , cosec C = 2 and cot C =1

5. (iv)
6. (ii)
22.2

3 4 3
1. sin C = , cos C = and tan C =
5 5 4

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24 25 7
2. sin A = , cosec A = and cot A =
25 24 24

Notes 3. sec P = 2 , cot P = 1, and cosec P = 2

2 1 2
4. tan R = 3 , cosec R = 3 , sin P = 2 and sec P = 3

24 7 25 7
5. cot θ = , sin θ = , sec θ = , and tan θ =
7 25 24 24

2 6 5 5 2 6
6. sin P = , cos P = , sin R = and cos R = , sin P – cos R = 0
7 7 7 7
7. (iii)
22.3

21 20
1. cos θ = and tan θ =
29 21

24 7
2. sin θ = and cos θ =
25 25
24 24
3. sin A = and tan A =
25 7

m n
4. cot θ = and cosec θ =
n 2 − m2 n 2 − m2

256
5. −
135

27
6.
8

2 2
7. sin B = and tan B =
13 3
11. (ii)
22.4

2
1. cot θ = 3 and sec θ = 3

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3
2.
4

3 Notes
3.
2

1 1
4. sin A = and tan A =
2 3

14
5. −
3
22.5
17. (iii)
18. (ii)
19. (i)
20. (iii)
22.6

1 1
1. (i) 3 (ii) (iii) (iv) 0
2 3
(v) 5 (vi) 0 (vii) 2 (viii) 1

1
3. (i) 2 (ii)
3
8. cot 31o + sec 5o
9. cosec 44o – sin 3o
10. cosec2 28o + cosec2 21o
11. (ii)
12. (iv)

ANSWERS TO TERMINAL EXERCISE

3 4
1. cos A = and tan A =
5 3

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29 29
2. cosec A = and sec A =
20 21

Notes 7
3.
5

m2 − n 2 m2 − n 2
4. sin θ = and tan θ =
m n

3
5.
160

3
6.
7

1− 3
7.
2 2

3
24.
4
25. 12o

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23 Notes

TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS OF SOME

SPECIAL ANGLES

In the last lesson, we have defined trigonometric ratios for acute angles in a right triangle
and also developed some relationship between them. In this lesson we shall find the values
of trigonometric ratios of angles of 30o, 45o and 60o by using our knowledge of geometry.
We shall also write the values of trigonometric ratios of 0o and 90o and we shall observe
that some trigonometric ratios of 0o and 90o are not defined. We shall also use the knowledge
of trigonometry to solve simple problems on heights and distances from day to day life.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to
• find the values of trigonometric ratios of angles of 30o, 45o and 60o;
• write the values of trigonometric ratios of 0o and 90o;
• tell, which trigonometric ratios of 0o and 90oare not defined;
• solve daily life problems of heights and distances;

EXPECTED BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE

• Pythagoras Theorem i.e. in a right angled triangle ABC, right angled at B,
AC2 = AB2 + BC2.
• In a right triangle ABC, right angled at B,

side opposite to ∠C Hypotenuse

sin C = , cosec C =
Hypotenuse side opposite to ∠C

side adjacent to ∠C Hypotenuse

cos C = , sec C =
Hypotenuse side adjacent to ∠C

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side opposite to ∠C side adjacent to ∠C

tan C = and cot C =
side adjacent to ∠C side opposite to ∠C

Notes 1 1 1
cosec C = , sec C = and cot C =
sin C cos C tan C
• sin (90o – θ) = cos θ, cos (90o – θ) = sin θ
tan (90o – θ) = cot θ, cot (90o – θ) = tan θ
• sec (90o – θ) = cosec θ and cosec (90o – θ) = sec θ

23.1 TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS FOR AN ANGLE OF 45O

Let a ray OA start from OX and rotate in the anticlock wise direction and make an angle
of 45o with the x-axis as shown in Fig. 23.1.
Y
Take any point P on OA. Draw PM ⊥ OX.
A
Now in right ΔPMO, P

∠POM + ∠OPM + ∠PMO = 180o

or 45o + ∠OPM + 90o = 180o
45o
or ∠OPM = 180 – 90 – 45 = 45
o o o o
X’ O M X
∴ In ΔPMO, ∠OPM = ∠POM = 45 o

∴ OM = PM
Let OM = a units, then PM = a units.
In right triangle PMO, Y’

OP 2 = OM2 + PM2 (Pythagoras Theorem) Fig. 23.1

= a2 + a2
= 2 a2

∴ OP = 2 a units

PM a 1
Now sin 45o = = =
OP 2a 2

OM a 1
cos 45o = = =
OP 2a 2

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PM a
tan 45o = = =1
OM a

1 1 Notes
cosec 45o = o
= = 2
sin 45 1 / 2

1 1
sec 45o = o
= = 2
cos 45 1 / 2

1 1
and cot 45o = o
= =1
tan 45 1

23.2 TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS FOR AN ANGLE OF 30O

Let a ray OA start from OX and rotate in the anti clockwise direction and make an angle
of 30o with x-axis as shown in Fig. 23.2.
Y
Take any point P on OA. A
P
Draw PM ⊥ OX and produce
PM to P′ such that PM = P′M. Join OP′
Now in ΔPMO and ΔP′MO, 30o
M
OM = OM ...(Common) X’ O X
∠PMO = ∠P′MO ...(Each = 90 ) o

and PM = P′M ...(Construction)

P’
∴ ΔPMO ≅ ΔP′MO
∴ ∠OPM = ∠OP′M = 60o Y’
∴ OPP′ is an equilateral triangle Fig. 23.2
∴ OP = OP′
Let PM = a units
PP′ = PM + MP′
= (a + a) units ...(Q MP′ = MP)
= 2a units
∴ OP = OP′ = PP′ = 2a units
Now in right triangle PMO,
OP2 = PM2 + OM2 ...(Pythagoras Theorem)

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or (2a)2 = a2 + OM2
∴ OM2 = 3a2

Notes or OM = 3 a units

PM a 1
∴ sin 30o = = =
OP 2a 2

OM 3a 3
cos 30o = = =
OP 2a 2

PM a 1
tan 30o = = =
OM 3a 3

1 1
cosec 30o = o
= =2
sin 30 1/ 2

1 1 2
sec 30o = o
= =
cos 30 3/2 3

1 1
and cot 30o = o
= = 3
tan 30 1/ 3

23.3 TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS FOR AN ANGLE OF 60O

Let a ray OA start from OX and rotate in anticlock wise direction and make an angle of
60o with x-axis.
Y A
Take any point P on OA.
Draw PM ⊥ OX. P

Produce OM to M′ such that

OM = MM′. Join PM′.
60o
Let OM = a units
X’ O M M’ X
In ΔPMO and ΔPMM′,
PM = PM ...(Common)
∠PMO = ∠PMM′ ...(Each = 90o)
OM = MM′ ...(Construction)
Y’
∴ ΔPMO ≅ ΔPMM′
Fig. 23.3

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Trigonometric Ratios of Some Special Angles MODULE - 5
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∴ ∠POM = ∠PM′M = 60o
∴ ΔPOM′ is an equilateral triangle.
∴ OP = PM′ = OM′ = 2a units
Notes
In right ΔPMO,
OP2 = PM2 + OM2 ...(Pythagorus Theorem)
∴ (2a)2 = PM2 + a2
or PM2 = 3a2

∴ PM = 3 a units

PM 3a 3
∴ sin 60o = = =
OP 2a 2

OM a 1
cos 60o = = =
OP 2a 2

PM 3a
tan 60o = = = 3
OM a

1 1 2
cosec 60o = o
= =
sin 60 3 3
2

1 1
sec 60o = o
= =2
cos 60 1/ 2

1 1
and cot 60o = 0
=
tan 60 3

23.4 TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS FOR ANGLES OF

0O AND 90O
In Section 23.1, 23.2 and 23.3, we have defined trigonometric ratios for angles of 45o,
30o and 60o. For angles of 0o and 90o, we shall assume the following results and we shall
not be discussing the logical proofs of these.

(i) sin 0o = 0 and therefore cosec 0o is not defined

(ii) cos 0o = 1 and therefore sec 0o = 1

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(iii) tan 0o = 0 therefore cot 0o is not defined.
(iv) sin 90o = 1 and therefore cosec 90o = 1

Notes (v) cos 90o = 0 and therefore sec 90o is not defined.
(vi) cot 90o = 0 and therefore tan 90o is not defined.
The values of trignometric ratios for 0o, 30o, 45o, 60o and 90o can be put in a tabular form
which makes their use simple. The following table also works as an aid to memory.
θ 0o 30o 45o 60o 90o
Trig. ratio

0 1 1 2 1 3 3 4
sin θ =0 = = = =1
4 4 2 4 2 4 2 4

4 3 3 2 1 1 1 0
cos θ =1 = = = =0
4 4 2 4 2 4 2 4

0 1 1 2 3
tan θ =0 = =1 = 3 Not defined
4−0 4 −1 3 4−2 4−3

3 2 1 1 0
cot θ Not defined = 3 =1 = =0
4−3 4−2 4 −1 3 4−0

4 4 4 2 4
cosec θ Not defined =2 = 2 = =1
1 2 3 3 4

4 4 2 4 4
sec θ =1 = = 2 =2 Not defined
4 3 3 2 1
Let us, now take some examples to illustrate the use of these trigonometric ratios.
Example 23.1: Find the value of tan260o – sin230o.

1
Solution: We know that tan 60o = 3 and sin 30o =
2

tan 60 – sin 30 = ( 3 ) − ⎜ ⎟
2
⎛1⎞ 2
∴ 2 o 2 o
2 ⎝ ⎠
1 11
= 3− =
4 4

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Trigonometric Ratios of Some Special Angles MODULE - 5
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Example 23.2: Find the value of
cot230o sec245o + cosec245o cos 60o
Solution: We know that
Notes
1
cot 30o = o
3 , sec 45 =
o
2 , cosec 45 =
o
2 and cos 60 = 2

∴ cot230o sec245o + cosec245o cos 60o

= ( 3 ) ( 2 ) + ( 2 ) . 12
2 2 2

1
=3×2+2×
2
=6+1
=7
Example 23.3: Evaluate : 2(cos2 45o + tan260o) – 6(sin245o – tan230o)
Solution: 2(cos2 45o + tan260o) – 6(sin245o – tan230o)

⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ 2
( 3 ) ⎤⎥ − 6⎡⎢⎛⎜ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤
2 2
2
= ⎢⎜
2 ⎟ + ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦⎥ ⎢⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎥⎦

⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 1⎞
= 2⎜ + 3 ⎟ − 6⎜ − ⎟
⎝2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 3⎠
=1+6–3+2
=6
Example 23.4: Verify that

tan 45o sec 60o 5 sin 90o

+ − =0
cosec 30o cot 45o 2 cos 0o

tan 45o sec 60o 5 sin 90o

Solution: L.H.S. = + −
cosec 30o cot 45o 2 cos 0o

1 2 5 ×1
= + −
2 1 2 ×1
1 5
= + 2 − = 0 = R.H.S.
2 2

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tan 45o sec 60o 5 sin 90o

Hence, + − =0
cosec 30o cot 45o 2 cos 0o
Notes Example 23.5: Show that

4 3 10
cot 2 30 o + 3 sin 2 60 o − 2 cosec 2 60 o − tan 2 30 o =
3 4 3

4 3
Solution: L.H.S. = cot 2 30 o + 3 sin 2 60 o − 2 cosec 2 60 o − tan 2 30 o
3 4
2
⎛ 3⎞
( )
2 2
⎟ − 2⎛⎜
4 2 2 ⎞ 3⎛ 1 ⎞
= × 3 + 3⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟
3 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ 4 ⎝ 3 ⎠

4 3 4 3 1
= × 3 + 3× − 2 × − ×
3 4 3 4 3

9 8 1
= 4+ − −
4 3 4
48 + 27 − 32 − 3
=
12

40 10
= =
12 3
= R.H.S.

4 3 10
Hence, cot 2 30 o + 3 sin 2 60 o − 2 cosec 2 60 o − tan 2 30 o =
3 4 3
Example 23.6 : Verify that

4 cot 2 60o + sec 2 30o − 2 sin 2 45o 4

=
cos 2 30o + cos 2 45o 3

4 cot 2 60 o + sec 2 30o − 2 sin 2 45o

Solution: L.H.S. =
cos 2 30o + cos 2 45o
2 2 2
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
4.⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ − 2.⎜ ⎟
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
= 2
⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
2
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 2 ⎟ + ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
⎝ ⎠

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1 4 1
4× + − 2×
3 3 2
= 3 1
+
4 2 Notes

8 5
−1
3 = 3
= 5 5
4 4

5 4 4
= × =
3 5 3
= R.H.S.

4 cot 2 60o + sec 2 30o − 2 sin 2 45o 4

Hence, =
cos 2 30o + cos 2 45o 3
Example 23.7: If θ = 30o, verfity that

2 tan θ
tan 2θ =
1 − tan 2 θ
Solution: For θ = 30o
L.H.S. = tan 2θ
= tan (2 × 30o)
= tan 60o

= 3

2 tan θ
and R.H.S. =
1 − tan 2 θ

2 tan 30 o
=
1 − tan 2 30 o

⎛ 1 ⎞
2.⎜ ⎟
⎝ 3⎠
= 2
⎛ 1 ⎞
1− ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 3⎠

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2 2
3 = 3
=
1 2
Notes 1−
3 3

2 3
= × = 3
3 2
∴ L.H.S. = R.H.S.

2 tan θ
Hence, tan 2θ =
1 − tan 2 θ
Example 23.8: Let A = 30o. Verify that
sin 3A = 3 sin A – 4 sin3 A
Solution: For A = 30o,
L.H.S. = sin 3A
= sin (3 × 30o)
= sin 90o
=1
and R.H.S. = 3 sin A – 4 sin3 A
= 3 sin 30o – 4 sin3 30o
3
1 ⎛1⎞
= 3× − 4 × ⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝2⎠

3 4
= −
2 8

3 1
= −
2 2
=1
∴ L.H.S. = R.H.S.
Hence, sin 3A = 3 sin A – 4 sin3 A
Example 23.9: Using the formula sin (A – B) = sin A cos B – cos A sin B, find the value
of sin 15o.

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Solution: sin (A – B) = sin A cos B – cos A sin B ...(i)
Let A = 45o and B = 30o
∴ From (i),
Notes
o o o o o o
sin (45 – 30 ) = sin 45 cos 30 – cos 45 sin 30

1 3 1 1
or sin 15o = × − ×
2 2 2 2

3 −1
=
2 2

3 −1
Hence, sin 15o = .
2 2

Remark: In the above examples we can also take A = 60o and B = 45o.
Example 23.10: If sin (A + B) = 1 and cos (A – B) = 1, 0o < A + B ≤ 90o, A ≥ B, find A
and B.
Solution: Q sin (A + B) = 1 = sin 90o
∴ A + B = 90o ...(i)
Again cos (A – B) = 1 = cos 0o
∴ A – B = 0o ...(ii)
Adding (i) and (ii), we get
2A = 90o or A = 45o
From (ii), we get
B = A = 45o
Hence, A = 45o and B = 45o
Example 23.11: If cos (20o + x) = sin 30o, find x.

⎛ 1⎞
Q cos 60 o = ⎟
Solution: cos (20o + x) = sin 30o = = cos 60o ... ⎜⎝ 2⎠

∴ 20o + x = 60o
or x = 60o – 20o = 40o
Hence, x = 40o

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Example 23.12: In ΔABC, right angled at B, if BC = 5 cm, ∠BAC = 30o, find the length
of the sides AB and AC.
Solution: We are given ∠BAC = 30o i.e., ∠A = 30o
Notes
and BC = 5 cm
A
BC
Now sin A =
AC
30o

5
or sin 30o =
AC

1 5
or =
2 AC
C 5 cm B
∴ AC = 2 × 5 or 10 cm
Fig. 23.4
By Pythagoras Theorem,

AB = AC2 − BC2

= (10)2 − 52 cm

= 75 cm

= 5 3 cm

Hence AC = 10 cm and AB = 5 3 cm.

Example 23.13: In ΔABC, right angled at C, AC = 4 cm and AB = 8 cm. Find ∠A and

∠B.
Solution: We are given, AC = 4 cm and AB = 8 cm A

AC 8 cm
Now sin B = 4 cm
AB

4 1 B C
= or Fig. 23.5
8 2

⎡ 1⎤
... ⎢Q sin 30 = ⎥
o
∴ B = 30o
⎣ 2⎦

Now ∠A = 90o – ∠B [
.... Q ∠A + ∠B = 90o ]

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 Trigonometric Ratios of Some Special Angles MODULE - 5
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= 90o – 30o
= 60o
Hence, ∠A = 60o and ∠B = 30o
Notes
Example 23.14: ΔABC is right angled at B. If ∠ A = ∠C, find the value of
(i) sin A cos C + cos A sin C
(ii) sin A sin B + cos A cos B
Solution: We are given that in ΔABC,
∠B = 90o
∴ ∠A + ∠C = 180o – 90o ...(Q ∠A + ∠B + ∠C = 180o)
= 90o
Also it is given that ∠A = ∠C
∴ ∠A = ∠C = 45o
(i) sin A cos C + cos A sin C
= sin 45o cos 45o + cos 45o sin 45o

1 1
= + =1
2 2
(ii) sin A sin B + cos A cos B
= sin 45o sin 90o + cos 45o cos 90o

1 1
= ×1 + ×0
2 2

1
=
2

Example 23.15: Find the value of x if tan 2x – 3 = 0.

Solution: We are given

tan 2x – 3 =0
o
or tan 2x = 3 = tan 60

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∴ 2x = 60o
or x = 30o

Notes Hence value of x is 30o.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 23.1

1. Evaluate each of the following:
(i) sin260o + cos245o
(ii) 2 sin230o – 2 cos2 45o + tan2 60o
(iii) 4 sin2 60o + 3 tan2 30o – 8 sin2 45o cos 45o
(iv) 4(sin4 30o + cos4 60o) – 3(cos2 45o – 2 sin2 45o)

tan 45o sec 60o 5 sin 90o

(v) + −
cosec 30o cot 45o 2 cos 0o

5 cos 2 60o + 4sec 2 30o − tan 2 45o

(vi)
sin 2 30o + cos 2 30o
2. Verify each of the following:

(i) cosec3 30o × cos 60o × tan3 45o × sin2 90o × sec2 45o × cot 30o = 8 3

1 2 o 1 7
(ii) tan 30 + sin 45 + cos 30 + cot 60 =
2 o 2 o 2 o

2 3 6
(iii) cos260o – sin260o = – cos 60o
(iv) 4(sin430o + cos460o) – 3(cos245o – sin290o) = 2

tan 60 o − tan 30 o
(v) = tan 30o
1 + tan 60 o tan 30o
3. If ∠A = 30o, verify each of the following:

2 tan A
(i) sin 2A =
1 + tan 2 A

1 − tan 2 A
(ii) cos 2A =
1 + tan 2 A
(iii) cos 3 A = 4 cos3A – 3 cos A

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Trigonometric Ratios of Some Special Angles MODULE - 5
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4. If A = 60o and B = 30o, verify each of the following:
(i) sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B

tan A − tan B
(ii) tan (A − B) = Notes
1 + tan A tan B
5. Taking 2A = 60o, find sin 30o and cos 30o, using cos 2A = 2 cos2A – 1.
6. Using the formula cos (A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B, evaluate cos 75o.

1 1
7. If sin (A – B) = , cos (A + B) = , 0o < A + B < 90o, A > B, find A and B.
2 2

3
8. If sin (A + 2B) = and cos (A + 4 B) = 0, find A and B.
2

9. In ΔPQR right angled at Q, PQ = 5 cm and ∠R = 30o, find QR and PR.

10. In ΔABC, ∠B = 90o, AB = 6 cm and AC = 12 cm. Find ∠A and ∠C.

11. In ΔABC, ∠B = 90o. If A = 30o, find the value of sin A cos B + cos A sin B.

12. If cos (40o + 2x) = sin 30o, find x.

Choose the correct alternative for each of the following (13-15):

13. The value of sec 30o is

3 2
(A) 2 (B) (C) (D) 2
2 3
14. If sin 2A = 2 sin A, then A is
(A) 30o (B) 0o (C) 60o (D) 90o

2 tan 60 o
15. is equal to
1 + tan 2 60 o
(A) sin 60o (B) sin 30o (C) cos 60o (D) tan 60o

23.5 APPLICATION OF TRIGONOMETRY

We have so far learnt to define trigonometric ratios of an angle. Also, we have learnt to
determine the values of trigonometric ratios for the angles of 30o, 45o and 60o. We also
know those trigonometric ratios for angles of 0o and 90o which are well defined. In this
section, we will learn how trigonometry can be used to determine the distance between the

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objects or the distance between the objects or the heights of objects by taking examples
from day to day life. We shall first define some terms which will be required in the study of
heights and distances.
Notes
23.5.1 Angle of Elevation

When the observer is looking at an object (P) which is at a greater height than the observer
(A), he has to lift his eyes to see the object and an angle of elevation is formed between the
line of sight joining the observer’s eye to the object and the borizontal line. In Fig. 23.6, A
is the observer, P is the object, AP is the line of sight and AB is the horizontal line, then ∠θ
is the angle of elevation.
. P Object

t
s igh
e of
Lin

A
Observer
. θ
Horizontal line
B

Fig. 23.6

23.5.2 Angle of Depression

When the observer (A) (at a greater

K Horizontal line
α
. A
Observer
height), is looking at an object (at a lesser t
height), the angle formed between the line s igh
e of
of sight and the horizontal line is called an Lin
angle of depression. In Fig. 23.7, AP is
the line of sight and AK is the horizontal P
line. Here α is the angle of depression. (Object)
. B
Fig. 23.7
Example 23.16: A ladder leaning against a window of a house makes an angle of 60o with
the ground. If the length of the ladder is 6 m, find the distance of the foot of the ladder from
the wall.
Solution: Let AC be a ladder leaning against the wall, AB making an angle of 60o with the
level ground BC.
A
Here AC = 6 m ...(Given)
Now in right angled ΔABC,

BC
= cos 60 o
AC
60o
C B

Fig. 23.8

572 Mathematics Secondary Course

Trigonometric Ratios of Some Special Angles MODULE - 5
Trigonometry

BC 1
or =
6 2

1 Notes
or BC = × 6 or 3 m
2
Hence, the foot of the ladder is 3 m away from the wall.

1
Example 23.17: The shadow of a vertical pole is of its height. Show that the sun’s
3
elevation is 60o.
Solution: Let AB be vertical pole of height h units and BC be its shadow.

1 A
Then BC = h × units
3
Let θ be the sun’s elevation.
Then in right ΔABC, h units

AB h
tan θ = = = 3
BC h/ 3
θ B
C
or tan θ = tan 60o h
units
∴ θ = 60o 3

Hence, the sun’s elevation is 60o. Fig. 23.9

Example 23.18: A tower stands vertically on the ground. The angle of elevation from a
point on the ground, which is 30 m away from the foot of the tower is 30o. Find the height
of the tower. (Take 3 = 1.73)
Solution: Let AB be the tower h metres high.
Let C be a point on the ground, 30 m away A
from B, the foot of the tower
∴ BC = 30 m hm
Then by question, ∠ACB = 30o
30o
Now in right ΔABC, C 30 m B

Fig. 23.10
AB
= tan 30o
BC

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MODULE - 5 Trigonometric Ratios of Some Special Angles
Trigonometry

h 1
or =
30 3

Notes 30
∴ h= m
3

30 3
= × m
3 3

= 10 3 m

= 10 × 1.73 m
= 17.3 m
Hence, height of the tower is 17.3 m.
Example 23.19: A balloon is connected to a meterological ground station by a cable of
length 100 m inclined at 60o to the horizontal. Find the height of the balloon from the
ground assuming that there is no slack in the cable.
Solution: Let A be the position of the balloon, attached to the cable AC of length 100 m.
AC makes an angle of 60o with the level ground BC.
Let AB, the height of the balloon be h metres
A
Now in right ΔABC,

AB
= sin 60o
AC
100 m
hm
h 3
or =
100 2
60o
or h = 50 3 B
C
= 50 × 1.732 Fig. 23.11
= 86.6
Hence, the balloon is at a height of 86.6 metres.
Example 23.20: The upper part of a tree is broken by the strong wind. The top of the tree
makes an angle of 30o with the horizontal ground. The distance between the base of the
tree and the point where it touches the ground is 10 m. Find the height of the tree.
Solution: Let AB be the tree, which was broken at C, by the wind and the top A of the

574 Mathematics Secondary Course

Trigonometric Ratios of Some Special Angles MODULE - 5
Trigonometry

tree touches the ground at D, making an angle of 30o with BD and BD= 10 m.
Let BC = x metres . A

Now in right ΔCBD,

Notes
BC
= tan 30o
BD

x 1
. C

or =
10 3 xm

or x=
10
3
m ...(i) D
30o
10 m
. B

Fig. 23.12
Again in right ΔCBD,

BC
= sin 30 o
DC

x 1
or =
DC 2
or DC = 2x

20
= m ...[By (i)]
3

20
∴ AC = DC = ...(ii)
3
Now height of the tree = BC + AC

⎛ 10 20 ⎞
=⎜ + ⎟
⎝ 3 3⎠

30
= or 10 3 m
3
= 17.32 m
Hence height of the tree = 17.32 m
Example 23.21: The shadown of a tower, when the angle of elevation of the sun is 45o is
found to be 10 metres longer than when it was 60o. Find the height of the tower.

Mathematics Secondary Course 575

MODULE - 5 Trigonometric Ratios of Some Special Angles
Trigonometry
Solution: Let AB be the tower h metres high and C and D be the two points where the
angles of elevation are 45o and 60o respectively.
Then CD = 10 m, ∠ACB = 45o and ∠ADB = 60o
Notes
Let BD be x metres.
A
Then BC = BD + CD = (x + 10) m
Now in rt. ∠d ΔABC,

AB
= tan 45o hm
BC

h
or =1
x + 10
∴ x = (h – 10) m ...(i) 45o 60o
C D B
10 m xm
Again in rt ∠d ΔABD,
Fig. 23.13
AB
= tan 60 o
BD

h
or = 3
x

or h= 3x ...(ii)

From (i) and (ii), we get

h= 3 (h – 10)

or h= 3 h – 10 3

or ( 3 –1)h = 10 3

10 3
∴ h=
3 −1

10 3 ( )
3 + 1 10 3 3 + 1
=
( )
=
3 −1
×
( )
3 +1 2

=5 3( 3 + 1) =15 + 5 × 1.732 = 15 + 8.66 = 23.66

Hence, height of the tower is 23.66 m.

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Trigonometric Ratios of Some Special Angles MODULE - 5
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Example 23.22: An aeroplane when 3000 m high passes vertically above another
aeroplane at an instant when the angles of elevation of the two aeroplanes from the same
point on the ground are 60o and 45o respectively. Find the vertical distance between the
two planes.
Notes
Solution: Let O be the point of observation. P

Let P and Q be the two planes

Then AP = 3000 m and ∠AOQ = 45o
and ∠AOP = 60o
3000 m Q
In rt. ∠d ΔQAO,

AQ
= tan 45o = 1
AO
60o 45o
or AQ = AO ...(i) A O

Again in rt. ∠d ΔPAO, Fig. 23.14

PA
= tan 60 o = 3
AO

3000 3000
∴ = 3 or AO = ...(ii)
AO 3
From (i) and (ii), we get

3000 3
AQ = × = 1000 3 = 1732 m
3 3

∴ PQ = AP – AQ = (3000 – 1732) m = 1268 m

Hence, the required distance is 1268 m.
Example 23.23: The angle of elevation of the top of a building from the foot of a tower is
30o and the angle of elevation of the top of the tower from the foot of the building is 60o. If
the tower is 50 m high, find the height of the building.
Solution: Let PQ be the tower 50 m high and AB be the building x m high.
Then ∠AQB = 30o and ∠PBQ = 60o
x
In rt. ∠d ΔABQ, = tan 30 o ...(i)
BQ
PQ
and in rt. ∠d ΔPQB, = tan 60 o
BQ

Mathematics Secondary Course 577

MODULE - 5 Trigonometric Ratios of Some Special Angles
Trigonometry

50 P
or = tan 60 o ...(ii)
BQ

Notes Dividing (i) by (ii), we get,

50 m
x tan 30o 1 A
= =
50 tan 60o 3
xm
50
or x= = 16.67
3 30o 60o
Q B
Hence, height of the building is 16.67 m. Fig. 23.15
Example 23.24: A person standing on the bank of a river observes that the angle of
elevation of the top of a tree standing on the opposite bank is 60o. When he moves
40 metres away from the bank, he finds the angle be 30o. Find the height of the tree and
the width of the river.
Solution: Let AB be a tree of height h metres.
Let BC = x metres represents the width of the
river.
A
Let C and D be the two points where the tree
subtends angles of 60o and 30o respectively
In right ΔABC,

AB hm
= tan 60 o
BC
h
or = 3
x
30o 60o
or h= 3x ...(i) D C B
40 m xm
Again in right ΔABD,
Fig. 23.16
AB
= tan 30 o
BD

h 1
or = ...(ii)
x + 40 3
From (i) and (ii), we get,

3x 1
=
x + 40 3

578 Mathematics Secondary Course

Trigonometric Ratios of Some Special Angles MODULE - 5
Trigonometry
or 3x = x + 40
or 2x = 40
∴ x = 20
Notes
∴ From (i), we get

h= 3 × 20 = 20 × 1.732
= 34.64
Hence, width of the river is 20 m and height of the tree is 34.64 metres.
Example 23.25: Standing on the top of a tower 100 m high, Swati observes two cars on
the opposite sides of the tower. If their angles of depression are 45o and 60o, find the
distance between the two cars.
Solution: Let PM be the tower 100 m high. Let A and B be the positions of the two cars.
Let the angle of depression of car at A be 60o and of the car at B be 45o as shown in
Fig. 23.17.
Now ∠QPA = 60o = ∠PAB
Q P R
and ∠RPB = 45o = ∠PBA o
60 45o

In right ΔPMB,

PM
= tan 45o 100 m
MB

100 60o 45o

or =1 A
MB M B

or MB = 100 m ...(i) Fig. 23.17

Also in right ΔPMA,

PM
= tan 60 o
MA

100
or = 3
MA

100
∴ MA =
3

100 3
=
3

Mathematics Secondary Course 579

MODULE - 5 Trigonometric Ratios of Some Special Angles
Trigonometry

100 × 1.732
=
3

Notes = 57.74
∴ MA = 57.74 m ...(ii)
Hence, the distance between the two cars
= MA + MB
= (57.74 + 100) m [By (i) and (ii)]
= 157.74 m
Example 23.26: Two pillars of equal heights are on either side of a road, which is 100 m
wide. At a point on the road between the pillars, the angles of elevation of the top of the
pillars are 60o and 30o respectively. Find the position of the point between the pillars and
the height of each pillar.
Solution: Let AB and CD be two pillars each of height h metres. Let O be a point on the
road. Let BO = x metres, then
OD = (100 – x) m
By question, ∠AOB = 60o and ∠COD = 30o
In right ΔABO,

AB A C
= tan 60 o
BO

h
or = 3
x hm
hm
or h= 3 x ...(i)
60o 30o
In right ΔCDO, D
B O
xm (100–x) m
CD
= tan 30 o
OD Fig. 23.18
h 1
or = ...(ii)
100 − x 3
From (i) and (ii), we get

3x 1
=
100 − x 3

580 Mathematics Secondary Course

Trigonometric Ratios of Some Special Angles MODULE - 5
Trigonometry
or 3x = 100 – x
or 4x = 100
∴ x = 25
Notes
∴ From (i), we get h = 3 × 25 = 1.732 × 25 or 43.3
∴ The required point from one pillar is 25 metres and 75 m from the other.
Height of each pillar = 43.3 m.
Example 23.27: The angle of elevation of an aeroplane from a point on the ground is 45o.
After a flight of 15 seconds, the elevation changes to 30o. If the aeroplane is flying at a
constant height of 3000 metres, find the speed of the plane.
Solution: Let A and B be two positions of the plane and let O be the point of observation.
Let OCD be the horizontal line.
Then ∠AOC = 45o and ∠BOD = 30o
By question, AC = BD = 3000 m
A B
In rt ∠d ΔACO,

AC
= tan 45o
OC 3000 m

3000
or =1 45o 30
o

OC O C D
or OC = 3000 m ...(i)
Fig. 23.19
In rt ∠d ΔBDO,

BD
= tan 30 o
OD

3000 1
or =
OC + CD 3

or 3000 3 = 3000 + CD ...[By (i)]

or CD = 3000 ( 3 – 1)

= 3000 × 0.732
= 2196
∴ Distance covered by the aeroplane in 15 seconds = AB = CD = 2196 m

Mathematics Secondary Course 581

MODULE - 5 Trigonometric Ratios of Some Special Angles
Trigonometry

⎛ 2196 60 × 60 ⎞
∴ Speed of the plane = ⎜ × ⎟ km/h
⎝ 15 1000 ⎠
Notes = 527.04 km/h
Example 23.28: The angles of elevation of the top of a tower from two points P and Q at
distanes of a and b respectively from the base and in the same straight line with it are
complementary. Prove that the height of the tower is ab .

Solution: Let AB be the tower of height h, P and Q be the given points such taht PB = a
and QB = b.
Let ∠APB = α and ∠AQB = 90o – α A
Now in rt ∠d ΔABQ,

AB
QB
(
= tan 90o − α )
h

h
or = cot α ...(i)
b
and in rt ∠d ΔABP, α 90o–α
P
Q B
AB b
= tan α
PB a

h Fig. 23.20
or = tan α ...(ii)
a
Multiplying (i) and (ii), we get
h h
× = cot α . tan α = 1
b a
or h2 = ab
or h= ab
Hence, height of the tower is ab .

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 23.2

1. A ladder leaning against a vertical wall makes an angle of 60o with the ground. The
foot of the ladder is at a distance of 3 m from the wall. Find the length of the ladder.

582 Mathematics Secondary Course

Trigonometric Ratios of Some Special Angles MODULE - 5
Trigonometry
2. At a point 50 m away from the base of a tower, an observer measures the angle of
elevation of the top of the tower to be 60o. Find the height of the tower.
3. The angle of elevation of the top of the tower is 30o, from a point 150 m away from its
foot. Find the height of the tower. Notes
4. The string of a kite is 100 m long. It makes an angle of 60o with the horizontal ground.
Find the height of the kite, assuming that there is no slack in the string.
5. A kite is flying at a height of 100 m from the level ground. If the string makes an angle
of 60o with a point on the ground, find the length of the string assuming that there is no
slack in the string.

6. Find the angle of elevation of the top of a tower which is 100 3 m high, from a point
at a distance of 100 m from the foot of the tower on a horizontal plane.
7. A tree 12 m high is broken by the wind in such a way that its tip touches the ground
and makes an angle of 60o with the ground. At what height from the ground, the tree is
broken by the wind?
8. A tree is broken by the storm in such way that its tip touches the ground at a horizontal
distance of 10 m from the tree and makes an angle of 45o with the ground. Find the
height of the tree.
9. The angle of elevation of a tower at a point is 45o. After going 40 m towards the foot
of the tower, the angle of elevation becomes 60o. Find the height of the tower.
10. Two men are on either side of a cliff which is 80 m high. They observe the angles of
elevation of the top of the cliff to be 30o and 60o respectively. Find the distance between
the two men.
11. From the top of a building 60 m high, the angles of depression of the top and bottom
of a tower are observed to be 45o and 60o respectively. Find the height of the tower
and its distance from the building.
12. A ladder of length 4 m makes an angle of 30o with the level ground while leaning
against a window of a room. The foot of the ladder is kept fixed on the same point of
the level ground. It is made to lean against a window of another room on its opposite
side, making an angle of 60o with the level ground. Find the distance between these
rooms.
13. At a point on the ground distant 15 m from its foot, the angle of elevation of the top of
the first storey is 30o. How high the second storey will be, if the angle of elevation of
the top of the second storey at the same point is 45o?
14. An aeroplane flying horizontal 1 km above the ground is observed at an elevation of
60o. After 10 seconds its elevation is observed to be 30o. Find the speed of the
aeroplane.

Mathematics Secondary Course 583

MODULE - 5 Trigonometric Ratios of Some Special Angles
Trigonometry
15. The angle of elevation of the top of a building from the foot of a tower is 30o and the
angle of elevation of the top of the tower from the foot of the building is 60o. If the
tower is 50 m high, find the height of the building.
Notes

LET US SUM UP
• Table of values of Trigonometric Ratios
θ 0o 30o 45o 60o 90o
Trig. ratio

1 1 3
sin θ 0 1
2 2 2

3 1 1
cos θ 1 0
2 2 2

1
tan θ 0 1 3 Not defined
3

1
cot θ Not defined 3 1 0
3

2
cosec θ Not defined 2 2 1
3

2
sec θ 1 2 2 Not defined
3

Supportive website:
• http://www.wikipedia.org
• http://mathworld:wolfram.com

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Find the value of each of the following:
(i) 4 cos2 60o + 4 sin2 45o – sin2 30o
(ii) sin245o – tan2 45o + 3(sin290o + tan2 30o)

584 Mathematics Secondary Course

Trigonometric Ratios of Some Special Angles MODULE - 5
Trigonometry

5 sin 2 30o + cos 2 45o − 4 tan 2 30o

(iii)
2 sin 2 30o cos 2 30o + tan 45o

cot 45o Notes

(iv)
sec 30o + cosec 30o
2. Prove each of the following:

3 5
(i) 2 cot230o – 2 cos260o – sin245o – 4 sec2 30o = −
4 24
(ii) 2 sin230o + 2 tan2 60o – 5 cos245o = 4
(iii) cos 60o cos 45o + sin 60o sin 45o = sin 45o cos 30o + cos 45o sin 30o

cot 30o cot 60 o − 1

(iv) = cot 90o
cot 30 + cot 60
o o

3. If θ = 30o, verify that

(i) sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ
(ii) cos 2θ = 1 – 2 sin2 θ

2 tan θ
(iii) tan 2θ =
1 − tan 2 θ
4. If A = 60o and B = 30o, verify that
(i) sin (A + B) ≠ sin A + sin B
(ii) sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
(iii) cos (A – B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
(iv) cos (A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B

1 − cos 2 A
(v) tan A =
cos A
5. Using the formula cos (A – B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B, find the value of cos 15o.

3 o
6. If sin (A + B) = 1 and cos (A – B) = , 0 < A + B ≤ 90o, A > B, find A and B.
2
7. An observer standing 40 m from a building observes that the angle of elevation of the
top and bottom of a flagstaff, which is surmounted on the building are 60o and 45o
respectively. Find the height of the tower and the length of the flagstaff.

Mathematics Secondary Course 585

MODULE - 5 Trigonometric Ratios of Some Special Angles
Trigonometry
8. From the top of a hill, the angles of depression of the consecutive kilometre stones due
east are found to be 60o and 30o. Find the height of the hill.
9. From the top of a 7 m high building, the angle of elevation of the top of a cable tower
Notes is 60o and the angle of depression of its foot is 45o. Find the height of the tower.
10. A man on the top of a tower on the sea shore finds that a boat coming towards him
takes 10 minutes for the angle of depression to change from 30o to 60o. How soon will
the boat reach the sea shore?
11. Two boats approach a light-house from opposite directions. The angle of elevation of
the top of the lighthouse from the boats are 30o and 45o. If the distance between these
boats be 100 m, find the height of the lighthouse.

12. The shadow of a tower standing on a level ground is found to be 45 3 m longer

when the sun’s altitude is 30o than when it was 60o. Find the height of the tower.
13. The horizontal distance between two towers is 80 m. The angle of depression of the
top of the first tower when seen from the top of the second tower is 30o. If the height
of the second tower is 160 m, find the height of the first tower.
14. From a window, 10 m high above the ground, of a house in a street, the angles of
elevation and depression of the top and the foot of another house on opposite side of
the street are 60o and 45o respectively. Find the height of the opposite house (Take
3 =1.73)
15. A statue 1.6 m tall stands on the top of a pedestal from a point on the gound, the angle
of elevation of the top of the statue is 60o and from the same point, the angle of
elevation of the top of the pedestal is 45o. Find the height of the pedestal.

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

23.1
5 5 67
1. (i) (ii) (iii) 0 (iv) 2 (v) 0 (vi)
4 2 12

1 3
5. sin 30o = , cos 30o =
2 2

3 −1
6.
2 2

7. A = 45o and B = 15o

586 Mathematics Secondary Course

Trigonometric Ratios of Some Special Angles MODULE - 5
Trigonometry
8. A = 30o and B = 15o

9. QR = 5 3 and PR = 10 cm
10. ∠A = 60o and ∠C = 30o Notes

3
11.
2
12. x = 10o
13. C
14. B
15. A
23.2
1. 6 m 2. 86.6 m 3. 86.6 m
4. 86.6 m 5. 115.46 m 6. 60o
7. 5.57 m 8. 24.14 m 9. 94.64 m
10. 184.75 m 11. 25.35 m 12. 5.46 m
13. 6.34 m 14. 415.66 km/h 15. 16.67 m

ANSWERS TO TERMINAL EXERCISE

11 7 40 3
1. (i)
4
(ii)
2
(iii)
121
(iv)
( )
2 3 +1

3 +1
5. 6. A = 60o and B = 30o 7. 40m , 29.28 m
2 2

8. 433 m 9. 19.124 m 10. 5 minutes

11. 36.6 m 12. 67.5 m 13. 113.8 m

14. 27.3 m 15. 2.18656 m

Mathematics Secondary Course 587

MODULE - 5 Trigonometric Ratios of Some Special Angles
Trigonometry

Secondary Course
Mathematics
Notes
Practice Work-Trignometry

Maximum Marks: 25 Time : 45 Minutes

Instructions:

1. Answer all the questions on a separate sheet of paper.

2. Give the following informations on your answer sheet
Name
Enrolment number
Subject
Topic of practice work
Address
3. Get your practice work checked by the subject teacher at your study centre so that
you get positive feedback about your performance.
Do not send practice work to National Institute of Open Schooling
1. In the adjoining figure, the value of sin A is 1
A

5
(A) cm
5 cm

13 13

12
(B) C B
13 12 cm

5
(C)
12

13
(D)
12

sinA − cosA
2. If 4 cot A = 3, then value of is 1
sinA + cosA

588 Mathematics Secondary Course

Trigonometric Ratios of Some Special Angles MODULE - 5
Trigonometry

1 6
(A) (B)
7 7

5 3 Notes
(C) (D)
6 4

3. The value of sec 30o is 1

3
(A) 2 (B)
2

2
(C) (D) 2
3

4. In ΔABC, right angled at B, if AB = 6 cm and AC = 12 cm, then ∠A is 1

(A) 60o
(B) 30o
(C) 45o
(D) 15o
5. The value of 1

sin 36o 2 sec 41o

− is
2 cos 54o 3 cosec49o
(A) – 1

1
(B)
6

1
(C) –
6
(D) 1

1
6. If sin A = , show that 2
2
3 cos A – 4 cos3 A = 0
7. Using the formula sin (A – B) = sin A cos B – cos A sin B, find the value of sin 15o. 2
8. Find the value of
tan 15o tan 25o tan 60o tan 65o tan 75o 2

Mathematics Secondary Course 589

MODULE - 5 Trigonometric Ratios of Some Special Angles
Trigonometry

1 + sinA
9. Show that = secA + tanA 2
1 − sinA
Notes
10. If sin2θ + sin θ = 1, then show that 2
cos θ + cos θ = 1
2 4

cotA + cosec A − 1 1 + cosA

11. Prove that = 4
cot A – cosec A + 1 sinA
12. An observer standing 40 m from a building notices that the angles of elevation of the
top and the bottom of a flagstaff surmounted on the building are 60o and 45o respectively.
Find the height of the building and the flag staff. 6

590 Mathematics Secondary Course

 MODULE 6
Statistics
The modern society is essentially data oriented. It is difficult to imagine any facet of
our life untouched in newspapers, advertisements, magazines, periodicals and other
forms of publicity over radio, television etc. These data may relate to cost of living,
moritality rate, literacy rate, cricket averages, rainfall of different cities, temperatures
of different towns, expenditures in varioius sectors of a five year plan and so on. It
is, therefore, essential to know how to extract ‘meaningful’ information from such
data. This extraction of useful or meaningful information is studied in the branch of
mathematics called statistics.
In the lesson on “Data and their Representations” the learner will be introduced to
different types of data, collection of data, presentation of data in the form of frequency
distributions, cumulative frequency tables, graphical representaitons of data in the
form of bar charts (graphs), histograms and frequency polygons.
Sometimes, we are required to describe the data arithmetically, like describing mean
age of a class of studens, mean height of a group of students, median score or model
shoe size of a group. Thus, we need to find certain measures which summarise the
main features of the data. In lesson on “measures of Central Tendency”, the learner
will be introduced to some measures of central tendency i.e., mean, median, mode of
ungrouped data and mean of grouped data.
In the lesson on “Introduction to Probablity”, the learner will get acquainted with
the concept of theoretical probability as a measure of uncertainity, through games of
chance like tossing a coin, throwing a die etc.
Data and their Representations MODULE - 6
Statistics

24 Notes

DATA AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

Statistics is a special and an important branch of mathematics which deals mainly with data
and their representations. In this lesson, we shall make a beginning of this study of this
branch of mathematics with collection, classification, presentation and analysis of data.
We shall study how to classify the given data into ungrouped as well as grouped frequency
distributions. We shall also learn about cumulative frequency of a class and cumulative
frequency table.
Further we shall learn graphical representation of data in the form of bar charts, histograms
and frequency polygons.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to
• know meaning of ‘statistics’ in singular and plural form;
• differentiate between primary and secondary data;
• understand the meaning of a class, class mark, class limits, discrete and
continuous data, frequency of a class, class size or class width through examples;
• condense and represent data into a frequency table;
• form a cumulative frequency table of a frequency distribution;
• draw a bar chart or bar graph of a frequency distribution;
• draw a bar chart or bar graph for the given data;
• draw a histogram and frequency polygon for a given continuous data;
• read and interpret given bar graphs, histograms.

EXPECTED BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE

• Writing of numbers in increasing/decreasing order.

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• Finding average of two numbers.
• Plotting of points in a plane with respect to two perpendicular axes

Notes • Idea of ratio and proportion.

24.1 STATISTICS AND STATISTICAL DATA

In our day to day life, we come across statements such as:

1. This year the results of the school will be better.

2. The price of petrol/diesel may go up next month.
3. There is likelihood of heavy rains in the evening.
4. The patient may recover soon from illness, etc.
Concentrate on the above statements:
• The first statement can be from a teacher or the head of an institution. It shows that he/
she has observed the performance of the present batch of students in comparison with
the earlier ones.
• The second statement may be from a person who has seen the trend of increasing of
oil prices from a newspaper.
• The third statement can be from a person who has been observing the weather reports
in meteorological department. If so, then one can expect that it is based on some
sound observations and analysis of the weather reports.
• The last statement can be from a doctor which is based on his/her observations and
analysis.
The reliability of the statements such as given above, depends upon the individual’s capacity
for observation and analysis based on some numerical data. Statistics is the science
which deals with the collection, organisation, analysis and interpretation of the
numerical data.
Collection and analysis of numerical data is essential in studying many problems such as
the problem of economic development of the country, educational development, the problem
of health and population, the problem of agricultural development etc.
The word ‘statistics’has different meanings in different contexts. Obseve the following
sentences:

1. May I have the latest copy of “Educational Statistics of India”.

2. I like to study statistics. It is an interesting subject.

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In the first sentence, statistics is used in a plural sense, meaning numerical data. These
may include a number of schools/colleges/institutions in India, literacy rates of states etc.
In the second sentence, the word ‘statistics’ is used as a singular noun, meaning the
subject which deals with classification, tabulation/organisation, analysis of data as well as Notes
drawing of meaningful conclusions from the data.

24.2 COLLECTION OF DATA

In any field of investigation, the first step is to collect the data. It is these data that will be
analysed by the investigator or the statistician to draw inferences. It is, therefore, of utmost
importance that these data be reliable and relevant and collected according to a plan or
design which must be laid out in advance.
Data are said to be primary if the investigator himself is responsible for the collection of
data. Some examples of primary data are: voters’lists, data collected in census-questionnaire
etc.
It is not always possible for an investigator to collect data due to lack of time and resources.
In that case, he/her may use data collected by other governmental or private agency in the
form of published reports. They are called secondary data. Data may be primary for one
individual or agency but it becomes secondary for other using the same data.
Since these data are collected for a purpose other than that of the original investigators, the
user may lose some details or the data may not be all that relevant to his/her study. Therefore,
such data must be used with great care.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 24.1

1. Fill in the blanks with suitable word(s) so that the following sentences give the proper
meaning:

(a) Statistics, in singular sense, means the subject which deals with _______, _____,
analysis of data as well as drawing of meaningful _______ from the data.

(b) Statistics is used, in a plural sense, meaning _______________.

(c) The data are said to be __________ if the investigator himself is responsible for
its collection.

(d) Data taken from governmental or private agencies in the form of published reports
are called __________ data.

(e) Statistics is the science which deals with collection, organisation, analysis and
interpretation of the ____________.

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2. Javed wanted to know the size of shoes worn by the maximum number of persons in
a locality. So, he goes to each and every house and notes down the information on a
sheet. The data so collected is an example of ___________ data.
Notes
3. To find the number of absentees in each day of each class from I to XII, you collect the
information from the school records. The data so collected is an example of _______
data.

24.3 PRESENTATION OF DATA

When the work of collection of data is over, the next step to the investigator is to find ways
to condense and organise them in order to study their salient features. Such an arrangement
of data is called presentation of data.
Suppose there are 20 students in a class. The marks obtained by the students in a
mathematics test (out of 100) are as follows:
45, 56, 61, 56, 31, 33, 70, 61, 76, 56,
36, 59, 64, 56, 88, 28, 56, 70, 64, 74
The data in this form is called raw data. Each entry such as 45, 56 etc. is called a value
or observation. By looking at it in this form, can you find the highest and the lowest
marks? What more information do you get?
Let us arrange these numbers in ascending order:
28, 31, 33, 36, 45, 56, 56, 56, 56, 56,
59, 61, 61, 64, 64, 70, 70, 74, 76, 88 ...(1)
Now you can get the following information:

(a) Highest marks obtained : 88

(b) Lowest marks obtained : 28

(c) Number of students who got 56 marks: 5

(d) Number of students who got marks more than 60 : 9

The data arranged in the form (1) above, are called arrayed data.
Presentation of data in this form is time cousuming, when the number of observations is
large. To make the data more informative we can present these in a tabular form as shown
below:

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Marks in Mathematics of 20 students
Marks Number of Students
28 1
31 1 Notes
33 1
36 1
45 1
56 5
59 1
61 2
64 2
70 2
74 1
76 1
88 1
Total 20
This presentation of the data in the form of a table is an improvement over the arrangement
of numbers (marks) in an array, as it presents a clear idea of the data. From the table, we
can easily see that 1 student has secured 28 marks, 5 students have secured 56 marks, 2
students have secured 70 marks, and so on. Number 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 5, 2, ....are called
respective frequencies of the observations (also called variate or variable) 28, 31, 33,
36, 45, 56, 70, ...
Such a table is claled a frequency distribution table for ungrouped data or simply
ungrouped frequency table.
Note: When the number of observations is large, it may not be convenient to find the
frequencies by simple counting. In such cases, we make use of bars (1), called tally
marks) which are quite helpful in finding the frequencies.
In order to get a further condensed form of the data (when the number of observation is
large), we classify the data into classes or groups or class intervals as below:
Step 1: We determine the range of the raw data i.e. the differenece between the maximum
and minimum observations (values) occurring in the data. In the above example
range is 88 – 28 = 60.
Step 2: We decide upon the number of classes or groups into which the raw data are to
be grouped. There is no hard and fast rule for determining the number of classes,
but generally there should not be less than 5 and not more than 15.
Step 3: We divide the range (it is 60 here) by the desired number of classes to determine
the approximate size (or width) of a class-interval.In the above example, suppose

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60
we decide to have 9 classes. Than the size of each class is ≈7.
9
Step 4: Next, we set up the class limits using the size of the interval determined in
Notes Step 3. We make sure that we have a class to include the minimum as well as a
class to include the maximum value occurring in the data. The classes should be
non-overlapping, no gaps between the classes, and classes should be of the
same size.
Step 5: We take each item (observation) from the data, one at a time, and put a tally
mark (|) against the class to which it belongs. For the sake of convenience, we
record the tally marks in bunches of five, the fifth one crossing the other four
diagonally as ||||.
Step 6: By counting tally marks in each class, we get the frequency of that class. (obviously,
the total of all frequencies should be equal to the total number of observations in
the data)
Step 7: The frequency table should be given a proper title so as to convey exactly what
the table is about.
Using the above steps, we obtain the following table for the marks obtained by 20 students.
Frequency Table of the marks obtained by 20 students in a mathematics test
Class Interval Tally Marks Frequency
(Marks out of 100)
28-34 ||| 3
35-41 | 1
42-48 | 1
49-55 – 0
56-62 |||| ||| 8
63-69 || 2
70-76 |||| 4
77-83 – 0
84-90 | 1
Total 20
The above table is called a frequency distribution table for grouped data or briefly, a
grouped frequency table. The data in the above form are called grouped data.
In the above table, the class 28-34 includes the observations 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33 and
34; class 35-41 includes 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40 and 41 and so on. So, there is no
overlapping.

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For the class 28-34, 28 is called the lower class limit and 34, the upper class limit, and
so on.
From this type of presentation, we can draw better conclusions about the data. Some of
these are. Notes

(i) The number of students getting marks from 28 to 34 is 3.

(ii) No students has got marks in the class 49-55, i.e., no students has got marks 49, 50,
51, 52, 53, 54 and 55.
(iii) Maximum number of students have got marks from 56 to 62 etc.
We can also group the same 20 observations into 9 groups 28-35, 35-42, 42-49, 49-56,
56-63, 63-70, 70-77, 77-84, 84-91 as shown in the following table.
It appears from classes 28-35 and 35-42, etc. that the observation 35 may belong to both
those classes. But as you know, no observation could belong simultaneously to two classes.
To avoid this, we adopt the convention that the common observation 35 belongs to the
higher class, i.e. 35-42 (and not to 28-35). Similarly 42 belogs to 42-49 and so on. Thus,
class 28-35 contains all observations which are greater than or equal to 28 but less than
35, etc.
Frequency Table of the marks obtained by 20 students in a mathematics test
Class Interval Tally Marks Frequency
(Marks out of 100)
28-35 ||| 3
35-42 | 1
42-49 | 1
49-56 – 0
56-63 |||| ||| 8
63-70 || 2
70-77 |||| 4
77-84 – 0
84-91 | 1
Total 20
Why do we prepare frequency distribution as given in the above table, it will be clear to
you from the next example.
Now let us consider the following frequency distribution table which gives the weight of 50
students of a class:

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Weight (in kg) Number of Students

31-35 10
Notes 36-40 7
41-45 15
45-50 4
51-55 2
56-60 3
61-65 4
66-70 3
71-75 2
Total 50

Suppose two students of weights 35.5 kg and 50.54 kg are admitted in this class. In which
class (interval) will we include them? Can we include 35.5 in class 31-35? In class 36-40?
No! The class 31-35 includes numbers upto 35 and the class 36-40, includes numbers
from 36 onwards. So, there are gaps in between the upper and lower limits of two
consecutive classes. To overcome this difficulty, we divide the intervals in such a way that
the upper and lower limits of consecutive classes are the same. For this, we find the
difference between the upper limit of a class and the lower limit of its succeeding class. We
than add half of this difference to each of the upper limits and subtract the same from each
of the lower limits. For example
Consider the classes 31-35 and 36-40
The lower limit of 36-40 is 36
The upper limit of 31-35 is 35
The difference = 36 – 35 = 1

1
So, half the difference = = 0.5
2
So, the new class interval formed from 31-35 is (31 – 0.5) – (35 + 0.5), i.e., 30.5 – 35.5.
Similarly, class 36-40 will be (36 – 0.5) – (40 + 0.5), i.e., 35.5 – 40.5 and so on.
This way, the new classes will be
30.5-35.5, 35.5-40.5, 40.5-45.5, 45.5-50.5, 50.5-55.5, 55.5-60.5, 60.5-65.5,
65.5-70.5 and 70.5-75.5. These are now continuous classes.
Note that the width of the class is again the same, i.e., 5. These changed limits are called

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true class limits. Thus, for the class 30.5-35.5, 30.5 is the true lower class limit and
35.5 is the true upper class limit.
Can we now include the weight of the new students? In which classes?
Obviously, 35.5 will be included in the class 35.5-40.5 and 50.54 in the class 50.5-55.5 Notes
(Can you explain why?).
So, the new frequency distribution will be as follows:
Weight (in kg) Number of Students

30.5-35.5 10

35.5-40.5 8 35.5 included in the class

40.5-45.5 15

45.5-50.5 4

50.5-55.5 3 50.54 included in the class

55.5-60.5 3

60.5-65.5 4

65.5-70.5 3

70.5-75.5 2

Total 52

Note: Here, in the above case, we could have also taken the classes as 30-35, 35-40,
40-45, ..., 65-70 and 70-75.
Example 24.1: Construct a frequency table for the following data which give the daily
wages (in rupees) of 32 persons. Use class intervals of size 10.

110 184 129 141 105 134 136 176 155

145 150 160 160 152 201 159 203 146

177 139 105 140 190 158 203 108 129

118 112 169 140 185

Solution: Range of data = 205 - 105 = 98

It is convenient, therefore, to have 10 classes each of size 10.

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Frequency distribution table of the above data is given below:
Frequency table showing the daily wages of 32 persons

Notes Daily wages Tally Marks Number of persons

(in Rs.) or frequency
105-115 |||| 5
115-125 | 1
125-135 ||| 3
135-145 |||| 5
145-155 |||| 4
155-165 |||| 5
165-175 | 1
175-185 ||| 3
185-195 || 2
195-205 ||| 3
Total 32
Example 24.2: The heights of 30 students, (in centimetres) have been found to be as follows:
161 151 153 165 167 154
162 163 170 165 157 156
153 160 160 170 161 167
154 151 152 156 157 160
161 160 163 167 168 158
(i) Represent the data by a grouped frequency distribution table, taking the classes as
161-165, 166-170, etc.
(ii) What can you conclude about their heights from the table?
Solution:
(i) Frequency distribution table showing heights of 30 students
Height (in cm) Tally Marks Frequency
151-155 |||| || 7
156-160 |||| |||| 9
161-165 |||| ||| 8
166-170 |||| | 6
Total 30
(ii) One conclusion that we can draw from the above table is that more than 50% of the
students (i.e., 16) are shorter than 160 cm.

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 24.2

1. Give an example of a raw data and an arrayed data.
Notes
2. Heights (in cm) of 30 girls in Class IX are given below:
140 140 160 139 153 146 151 150 150 154
148 158 151 160 150 149 148 140 148 153
140 139 150 152 149 142 152 140 146 148
Determine the range of the data.
3. Differentiate between a primary data and secondary data.
4. 30 students of Class IX appeared for mathematics olympiad. The marks obtained by
them are given as follows:
46 31 74 68 42 54 14 93 72 53
59 38 16 88 27 44 63 43 81 64
77 62 53 40 71 60 8 68 50 58
Construct a grouped frequency distribution of the data using the classes 0-9, 10-19
etc. Also, find the number of students who secured marks more than 49.
5. Construct a frequency table with class intervals of equal sizes using 250-270 (270 not
included) as one of the class interval for the following data:
268 230 368 248 242 310 272 342
310 300 300 320 315 304 402 316
406 292 355 248 210 240 330 316
406 215 262 238
6. Following is the frequency distribution of ages (in years) of 40 teachers in a school:
Age (in years) Number of teachers
25-31 12
31-37 15
37-43 7
43-49 5
49-55 1
Total 40
(i) What is the class size?
(ii) What is the upper class limit of class 37-43?
(iii) What is the lower class limit of class 49-55?

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24.4 CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY TABLE

Consider the frequency distribution table:
Notes
Weight (in kg) Number of Students
30-35 10
35-40 7
40-45 15
45-50 4
50-55 2
55-60 3
60-65 4
65-70 3
70-75 2
Total 50
Now try to answer the following questions:
(i) How many students have their weights less than 35 kg?
(ii) How many students have their weights less than 50 kg?
(iii) How many students have their weights less than 60 kg?
(iv) How many students have their weights less than 70 kg?
Let us put the answers in the following way:
Number of students with weight:
Less than 35 kg : 10
Less than 40 kg : (10) + 7 = 17
Less than 45 kg : (10 + 7 ) + 15 =32
Less than 50 kg : (10 + 7 + 15) + 4 = 36
Less than 55 kg : (10 + 7 + 15 + 4) + 2 = 38
Less than 60 kg : (10 + 7 + 15 + 4 + 2) + 3 = 41
Less than 65 kg : (10 + 7 + 15 + 4 + 2 + 3) + 4 = 45
Less than 70 kg : (10 + 7 + 15 + 4 + 2 + 3 + 4) + 3 = 48
Less than 75 kg : (10 + 7 + 15 + 4 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 3) + 2 = 50
From the above, it is easy to see that answers to questions (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) are 10, 36,
41 and 48 respectively.
The frequencies 10, 17, 32, 36, 38, 41, 48, 50 are called the cumulative frequencies of
the respective classes. Obviously, the cumulative frequency of the last class, i.e., 70-75 is
50 which is the total number of observations (Here it is total number of students).

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In the table under consideration, if we insert a column showing the cumulative frequency of
each class, we get what we call cumulative frequency distribution or simply cumulative
frequency table of the data.
Cumulative Frequency Distribution Table Notes
Weight (in kg) Number of students (frequency) Cumulative frequency
0-35 10 10
35-40 7 17
40-45 15 32
45-50 4 36
50-55 2 38
55-60 3 41
60-65 4 45
65-70 3 48
70-75 2 50
Total 50
Example 24.3: The following table gives the distribution of employees residig in a locality
into different income groups
Income (per week) (in `) Number of Employees
0-1000 12
1000-2000 35
2000-3000 75
3000-4000 225
4000-5000 295
5000-6000 163
6000-7000 140
7000-8000 55
Total 1000
Form a cumulative frequency table for the data above and answer the question
given below.
How many employees earn less than
(i) ` 2000? (ii) ` 5000? (iii) ` 8000 (per week)?
Solution: Cumulative frequency table of the given distribution is given below:

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Cumulative Frequency Table
Income (per week) Number of Employees Cumulative
(in `) (frequency) frequency
Notes
0-1000 12 12
1000-2000 35 47
2000-3000 75 122
3000-4000 225 347
4000-5000 295 642
5000-6000 163 805
6000-7000 140 945
7000-8000 55 1000
Total 1000
From the above table, we see that:

(i) Number of employees earning less than ` 2000 = 47

(ii) Number of employees earning less than ` 5000 = 642
(iii) Number of employees earning less than ` 8000 = 1000

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 24.3

1. Construct a cumulative frequency distribution for each of the following distributions:
(i) Classes Frequency (ii) Classes Frequency
1-5 4 0-10 3
6-10 6 10-20 10
11-15 10 20-30 24
16-20 13 30-40 32
21-25 6 40-50 9
26-30 2 50-60 7
2. Construct a cumulative frequency distribution from the following data:
Heights (in cm) 110-120 120-130 130-140 140-150 150-160 Total
Number of 14 30 60 42 14 160
students
How many students have their heights less than 150 cm?

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24.5 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF DATA

24.5.1 Bar Charts (Graphs)

Earlier, we have discussed presentation of data by tables. There is another way to present Notes
the data called graphical representation which is more convenient for the purpose of
comparison among the individual items. Bar chart (graph) is one of the graphical
representation of numerical data. For example Fig 24.1 represents the data given in the
table regarding blood groups.
Blood groups of 35 students in a class
Blood Group Number of students
A 13
B 9
AB 6
O 7
Total 35
We can represent this data by Fig. 24.1

14
13
12
11
10
Number of Students

9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
A B AB O
B l oo d G r ou p

Fig. 24.1
This is called a bar chart or bar graph.
Bars (rectangles) of unifoirm width are drawn with equal spaces in between them, on the
horizontal axis-called x-axis. The heights of the rectangles are shown along the vertical
axis-called y-axis and are proportional to their respective frequencies (number of students).

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The width of the rectangle has no special meaning except to make it pictorially more
attractive. If you are given the bar chart as Fig. 24.1 what can you conclude from it?
You can conclude that
Notes
(i) The number of students in the class having blood group A is the maximum.
(ii) The number of students in the class having blood group AB is the minimum.
Bar graphs are used by economists, businessmen, medical journals, government departments
for representing data.
Another form of the bar graph shown in Fig. 24.2, is the following where blood groups of
the students are represented along y-axis and their frequencies along x-axis.

O
Blood Group

AB

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Number of Students

Fig. 24.2
There is not much difference between the bar graphs in Fig. 24.1 and Fig. 24.2 except that
it depends upon the person’s liking to represent data with vertical bars or with horizontal
bars. Generally vertical bar graphs are preferred.
Example 24.4: Given below (Fig. 24.3) is the bar graph of the number of students in
Class IX during academic years 2001-02 to 2005-06. Read the bar graph and answer the
following questions:
(i) What is the information given by the bar graph?
(ii) In which year is the number of students in the class, 250?
(iii) State whether true or false:
The enrolment during 2002-03 is twice that of 2001-02.

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350

300
Notes
Number of Students

250

200

150

100

50

0
2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06
Academic Year

Fig. 24.3
Solution:
(i) The bar graph represents the number of students in class IX of a school during academic
year 2001-02 to 2005-06.
(ii) In 2003-04, the number of students in the class was 250.
(iii) Enrolment in 2002-03 = 200
Enrolment in 2001-02 = 150

200 4 1
= =1 < 2
150 3 3
Therefore, the given statement is false.
Example 24.5: The bar graph given in Fig. 24.4 represents the circulation of newspapers
in six languages in a town (the figures are in hundreds). Read the bar graph and answer the
following questions:
(i) Find the total number of newspapers read in Hindi, English and Punjabi.
(ii) Find the excess of the number of newspapers read in Hindi over those of Urdu, Marathi
and Tamil together.
(iii) In which language is the number of newspapers read the least?
(iv) Write, in increasing order, the number of newspapers read in different languages.

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800

700
Notes
600

Students
hundred’s)
500
(inof
400
Number
Newspapers

300

200

100

0
English Hindi Punjabi Urdu Marathi Tamil
Language

Fig. 24.4
Solution:
(i) Number of newspapers (in hundreds) read in Hindi, English and
Punjabi = 800 + 700 + 400 = 1900
(ii) Number of newspapers (in hundreds) read in Hindi = 800
Number of newspapers (in hundreds) in Urdu,
Marathi and Tamil = 200 + 300 +100 = 600
So, difference (in hundreds) = 800 – 600) = 200
(iii) In Tamil, the number of newspapers read is the least.
(iv) Tamil, Urdu, Marathi, Punjabi, English, Hindi
Construction of Bar Graphs

We now explain the construction of bar graphs through examples:

Example 24.6: The following data give the amount of loans (in crores of rupees) given by
a bank during the years 2000 to 2004:
Year Loan (in crores of rupees)
2000 25
2001 30
2002 40
2003 55
2004 60

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Construction a bar graph representing the above information.

Solution:

Step 1: Take a graph paper and draw two perpendicular lines and call them horizontal Notes
and vertical axes (Fig. 24.5)

Step 2: Along the horizontal axis, represent the information ‘years’ and along the vertical
axis, represent the corresponding ‘loans (in crores of rupees)’.

Step 3: Along the horizontal axis, choose a uniform (equal) width of bars and a uniform
gap between them, according to the space available.

Step 4: Choose a suitable scale along the vertical axis in view of the data given to us.

Let us choose the scale:

1 unit of graph paper = 10 crore of rupees for the present data.

Step 5: Calculate the heights of the bars for different years as given below:

1
2000 : × 25 = 2.5 units
10

1
2001 : × 30 = 3 units
10

1
2002 : × 40 = 4 units
10

1
2003 : × 55 = 5.5 units
10

1
2004 : × 60 = 6 units
10

Step 6: Draw five bars of equal width and heights obtained in Step 5 above, the
corresponding years marked on the horizontal axis, with equal spacing between
them as shown in Fig. 24.5.

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Bar graph of loans (in crores of rupees) given by a bank during the
years 2000 to 2004

70
Notes
60

Loan(in crores of rupees)

50

40

30

20

10

0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
Years

Fig. 24.5
Thus, Fig. 24.5 gives the required bar graph.
Example 24.7: The data below shows the number of students present in different classes
on a particular day.
Class VI VII VIII IX X
Number of students present 40 45 35 40 50
Represent the above data by a bar graph.
Solution: The bar graph for the above data is shown in Fig. 24.6.

60
Number of students present

50

40

30

20

10

0
VI VII VIII IX X
Classes

Fig. 24.6

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Example 24.8: A survey of 200 students of a school was done to find which activity they
prefer to do in their free time and the information thus collected is recorded in the following
table:
Preferred activity Number of students Notes
Playing 60
Reading story books 45
Watching TV 40
Listening to music 25
Painting 30
Draw a bar graph for this data.
Solution: The bar graph representing the above data is shown in Fig. 24.7 below:

60
55
50
45
Number of students

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Playing Reading story Watching T V List ening to Paint ing
books music
Pre ferred activity

Fig. 24.7

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 24.4

1. Fill in the blanks:
(i) A bar graph is a graphical representation of numerical data using _______ of
equal width.
(ii) In a bar graph, bars are drawn with _________ spaces in between them.
(iii) In a bar graph, heights of rectangles are _________ to their respective frequencies.
2. The following bar graph shows how the members of the staff of a school come to
school.
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MODULE - 6 Data and their Representations
Statistics
Mode of transport of school staff

6
Notes
5

Number of staff members

4

0
Bus Car Bicycle Foot
Mode of transport

Fig. 24.8
Study the bar graph and answer the following questions:
(i) How many members of staff come to school on bicycle?
(ii) How many member of staff come to school by bus?
(iii) What is the most common mode of transfport of the members of staff?
3. The bar graph given below shows the number of players in each team of 4 given
games:

Volleyball

T able T ennis
Games

Football

Basket ball

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Number of players

Fig. 24.9

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Data and their Representations MODULE - 6
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Read the bar graph and answer the following questions:
(i) How many players play in the volley ball team?
(ii) Which game is played by the maximum number of players?
Notes
(iii) Which game is played by only 3 players?
4. The following bar graph shows the number of trees planted by an agency in different
years:

1600

1400

1200
Number of trees planted

1000

800

600

400

200

0
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Years

Fig. 24. 10
Study the above bar graph and answer the following questions:
(i) What is the total number of trees planted by the agency from 2003 to 2008?
(ii) In which year is the number of trees planted the maximum?
(iii) In which year is the number of trees planted the minimum?
(iv) In which year, the number of trees planted is less than the number of trees planted in
the year preceding it?
5. The expenditure of a company under different heads (in lakh of rupees) for a year is
given below:
Head Expenditure (in lakhs of rupees)
Salary of employees 200
Travelling allowances 100
Electricity and water 50
Rent 125
Others 150
Construct a bar chart to represent this data.

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MODULE - 6 Data and their Representations
Statistics

24.5.2 Histograms and Frequency Polygons

Earlier, we have learnt to represent a given information by means of a bar graph. Now, we
will learn how to represent a continuous grouped frequency distribution graphically. A
Notes continuous grouped frequency distribution can be represented graphically by a histogram.
A histogram is a vertical bar graph with no space between the bars.
(i) The classes of the grouped data are taken along the horizontal axis and
(ii) the respective class frequencies on the vertical axis, using a suitable scale on each axis.
(iii) For each class a rectangle is constructed with base as the width of the class and height
determined from the class frequencies. The areas of rectangles are proportional to the
frequencies of their respective classes.
Let us illustrate this with the help of examples.
Example 24.9: The following is the frequency distribution of marks obtained by 20 students
in a class test.
Marks obtained 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80
Number of students 1 3 1 6 4 5
Draw a histogram for the above data.
Solution: We go through the following steps for drawing a histogram.
Step 1: On a graph paper, draw two perpendicular lines and call them as horizontal and
vertical axes.
Step 2: Along the horizontal axis, we take classes (marks) 20-30, 30-40, ... (Here each is
of equal width 10)
Step 3: Choose a suitable scale on the vertical axis to represent the frequencies (number
of students) of classes.
Step 4: Draw the rectangles as shown in Fig. 24.11.

20 30 40 50 80 70 80

Fig. 24.11

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Data and their Representations MODULE - 6
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Fig. 24.11 shows the histogram for the frequency distribution of marks obtained by 20
students in a class test.
Example 24.10: Draw a histogram for the following data:
Notes
Height 125-130 130-135 135-140 140-145 145-150 150-155 155-160
(in cm)
Number of 1 2 3 5 4 3 2
students
Solution: Following the steps as suggested in the above example, the histogram representing
the given data is given below:

125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160

Fig. 24.12
Frequency Polygon
There is yet another way of representing a grouped frequency distribution graphically. This
is called frequency polygen. To see what we mean, consider the histogram in Fig. 24.13.
E

B
A
20 30 40 50 80 70 80
H

Fig. 24.13

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MODULE - 6 Data and their Representations
Statistics
Let B, C, D, E, F and G be the mid points of the tops of the adjacent rectangles
(Fig. 24.13). Join B to C, C to D, D to E, E to F and F to G by means of line segments (dotted).
To complete the polygon, join B to A (the mid point of class 10-20) and join G to H (the
Notes mid point of the class 80-90).
Thus, A B C D E F G H is the frequency polygon representing the data given in Example 24.9
Note: Although, there exists no class preceding the lowest class and no class succeeding
the highest class, we add the two classes each with zero frequency so that we can make
the area of the frequency polygon the same as the area of the histogram.
Example 24.11: Draw a frequency polygon for the data in Example 24.12.
Solution: Histogram representing the given data is shown in Fig. 24.12. For frequency
polygon, we follow the procedure as given above. The frequency polygen ABCDEFGHI
representing the given data is given below:

D G

C H

A I

125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 165

Fig. 24.14
Example 24.12: Marks (out of 50) obtained by 30 students of Class IX in a mathematics
test are given in the following table:
Marks 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50
Number of students 5 8 6 7 4
Draw a frequency polygon for this data.
Solution: Let us first draw a histogram for this data (Fig. 24.15)
Mark the mid points B, C, D, E and F of the tops of the rectangles as shown in Fig. 24.15.
Here, the first class is 0-10. So, to find the class preceding 0-10, we extend the horizontal
axis in the negative direction and find the mid point of the imaginary class (–10)-0. Let us

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Data and their Representations MODULE - 6
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C
E

D
Notes
B F

A
I

H G
O 10 20 30 40 50 60

Fig. 24.15

join B to the mid point of the class (015010)-0. Let A be the mid point where this line
segment meets the vertial axis. Let G be the mid point of the class 50-60 (succeeding the
last class). Let the line segment FG intersects the length of the last rectangle at I (Fig.
24.15). Then OABCDEFIH is the required frequency polygen representing the given
data.
Note: Why have we not taken the points before O and G? This is so because marks
obtained by the students cannot go below 0 and beyond maximum marks 50. In the figure,
extreme line segments are only partly drawn and then brought down vertically to 0 and 50.
Frequency polygon can also be drawn independently without drawing histogram. We will
illustrate it through the following example.
Example 24.13: Draw a frequency polygon for the data given in Example 24.9, without
drawing a histogram for the data.
Solution: To draw a frequency polygon without drawing a histogram, we go through the
following steps.
Step 1: Draw two lines perpendicualar to each other.
Step 2: Find the class marks of the classes.
20 + 30 30 + 40 40 + 50 50 + 60 60 + 70 70 + 80
Here they are: , , , , and
2 2 2 2 2 2
i.e. the class marks are 25, 35, 45, 55, 65 and 75 respectively.
Step 3: Plot the points B (25, 1), C(35, 3), D(45, 1), E(55, 6), F(65, 4) and G(75, 5),
i.e., (class mark, frequency)
Step 4: Join the points B, C, D, E, F and G by line segments and complete the polygon
as explained earlier.

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MODULE - 6 Data and their Representations
Statistics
The frequency polygon (ABCDEFGH) is given below:

E (55, 6)
Notes
G (75, 5)

F (65, 4)
Frequency

C (35, 3)

B (25, 1) D (45, 1)
A
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
H

Fig. 24.16
Reading a Histogram
Consider the following example:
Example 24.14: Study the histogram given below and answer the following questions:

20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55

Fig. 24.17

(i) What is the number of teachers in the oldest and the youngest group in the school?
(ii) In which age group is the number of teachers maximum?

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Data and their Representations MODULE - 6
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(iii) In which age group is the number of teachers 4?

(iv) In which two age groups, the number of teachers is the same?
Solution:
Notes
(i) Number of teachers in oldest and youngest group = 3 + 2 = 5
(ii) Number of teachers is the maximum in the age group 35-40.
(iii) In the age group 30-35, the number of teachers is 4.
(iv) Number of teachers is the same in the age groups 25-35 and 40-45. It is 4 in each group.
In age groups 20-25 and 50-55, the number of teachers is same i.e., 2

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 24.5

1. Fill in the blanks:
(i) In a histogram, the class intervals are generally taken along ________.
(ii) In a histogram, the class frequencies are generally taken along _______.
(iii) In a histogram, the areas of rectangles are proportional to the _______ of the
respective classes.
(iv) A histogram is a graphical representation of a __________.
2. The daily earnings of 26 workers are given below:
Daily earnings 150-200 200-250 250-300 300-350 350-400
(in `)
Number of 4 8 5 6 3
workers
Draw a histogram to represent the data.
3. Draw a frequency polygon for the data in Question 2 above by
(i) drawing a histogram
(ii) without drawing a histogram
4. Observe the histogram given below and answer the following questions:
(i) What information is given by the histogram?
(ii) In which class (group) is the number of students maximum?
(iii) How many students have the height of 145 cm and above?
(iv) How many students have the height less than 140 cm?

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MODULE - 6 Data and their Representations
Statistics

(v) How many students have the height more than or equal to 140 but less than 155?

Notes

130 135 140 145 150 155 160 165 177

Fig. 24.18

LET US SUM UP
• Statistics is that branch of mathematics which deals with collection, organisation, analysis
and interpretation of data.
• Statistics is used in both plural and singular sense.
• The data collected from the respondents “as it is” is called raw data.
• Data are said to be primary if the investigator himself collects it through his/her own
designed tools.
• Data taken from other sources such as printed reports, and not collected by the
experimenter himself, is called secondary data.
• The raw data arranged in ascending or decending order is called “arrayed data”.
• When the arrayed data are arranged with frequencies, they are said to form a frequency
table for ungrouped data or a ungrouped frequency distribution table.
• When the data are divided into groups/classes, they are called grouped data.
• The difference between the maximum and minimum observations occuring in the data
is called the range of the raw data.
• The number of classes have to be decided according to the range of the data and size
of class.

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• In a class say 10-15, 10 is called the lower limit and 15 is called the upper limit of the
class.
• The number of observations in a particualr class is called its frequency and the table
showing classes with frequencies is called a frequency table. Notes
• Sometimes, the classes have to be changed to make them continuous. In such case,
the class limits are called true class limits.
• The total of frequency of a particular class and frequencies of all other classes preceding
that class is called the cumulative frequency of that class.
• The table showing cumulative frequencies is called cumulative frequency table.
• A bar graph is a graphical representation of the numerical data by a number of bars
(rectangles) of uniform width, erected horizontally or vertically with equal space between
them.
• A histogram is a graphical representation of a grouped frequency distribution with
continuous classes. In a histogram, the area of the rectangles are proportional to the
corresponding frequencies.
• A frequency polygon is obtianed by first joining the mid points of the tops of the
adjacent rectangles in the histogram and then joining the mid point of first rectangle to
the mid point of the class preceding the lowest class and the the last mid point to the
mid point of the class succeeding the highest class.
• A frequency polygon can also be drawn independently without drawing a histogram
by using the class marks of the classes and respective frequencies of the classes.

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Fill in the blanks by appropriate words/phrases to make each of the following statements
true:
(i) When the data are condensed in classes of equal size with frequencies, they are
called ________ data and the table is called _______ table.
(ii) When the class limits are adjusted to make them continuous, the class limits are
renamed as ________.
(iii) The number of observations falling in a particular class is called its _______.
(iv) The difference between the upper limit and lower limit of a class is called
_________.
(v) The sum of frequencies of a class and all classes prior to that class is called
________ frequency of that class.

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MODULE - 6 Data and their Representations
Statistics

(vi) Class size = Difference between ________ and _____ of the class.
(vii) The raw data arranged in ascending or descending order is called an _______
data.
Notes
(viii) The difference between the maximum and minimum observations occuring in the
data is called the _________ of the raw data.
2. The number of TV sets in each of 30 households are given below:
1, 2, 2, 4, 2, 1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 3, 1, 1, 1, 3
1, 2, 2, 1, 2, 0, 3, 3, 1, 2, 1, ,1 0, 1, 1
Construct a frequency table for the data.
3. The number of vehicles owned by each of 50 families are listed below:
2, 1, 2, 1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 1, 1, 1,
2, 2, 1, 1, 3, 1, 1, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 1, 4, 1
3, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 1, 1, 3, 2, 1, 2
Construct a frequency distribution table for the data.
4. The weight (in grams) of 40 New Year’s cards were found as:
10.4 6.3 8.7 7.3 8.8 9.1 6.7 11.1 14.0 12.2
11.3 9.4 8.6 7.1 8.4 10.0 9.1 8.8 10.3 10.2
7.3 8.6 9.7 10.9 13.6 9.8 8.9 9.2 10.8 9.4
6.2 8.8 9.4 9.9 10.1 11.4 11.8 11.2 10.1 8.3

Prepare a grouped frequency distribution using the class 5.5-7.5, 7.5-9.5 etc.
5. The lengths, in centimetres, to the nearest centimeter of 30 carrots are given below:
15 21 20 10 18 18 16 18 20 20
18 16 13 15 15 16 13 14 14 16
12 15 17 12 14 15 13 11 14 17

Construct a frequency table for the data using equal class sizes and taking one class as
10-12 (12 excluded).
6. The following is the distribution of weights (in kg) of 40 persons:

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Data and their Representations MODULE - 6
Statistics

Weight Number of persons

40-45 4
45-50 5 Notes
50-55 10
55-60 7
60-65 6
65-70 8
Total 40
(i) Determine the class marks of the classes 40-45, 45-50 etc.
(ii) Construct a cumulative frequency table.
7. The class marks of a distribution and the corresponding frequencies are given below:
Class marks 5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75
Frequency 2 6 10 15 12 8 5 2
Determine the frequency table and construct the cumulative frequency table.
8. For the following frequency table
Classes Frequency
15-20 2
20-25 3
25-30 5
30-35 7
35-40 4
40-45 3
45-50 1
Total 25
(i) Write the lower limit of the class 15-20.
(ii) Write the class limits of the class 25-30.
(iii) Find the class mark of the class 35-40.
(iv) Determine the class size.
(v) Form a cumulative frequency table.

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MODULE - 6 Data and their Representations
Statistics
9. Given below is a cumulative frequency distribution table showing marks obtained by
50 students of a class.
Marks Number of students
Notes
Below 20 15
Below 40 24
Below 60 29
Below 80 34
Below 100 50
Form a frequency table from the above data.
10. Draw a bar graph to represent the following data of sales of a shopkeeper:
Day Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
Sales (in `) 16000 18000 17500 9000 85000 16500
11. Study the following bar graph and answer the following questions:

Fig. 24.19
(i) What is the information given by the bar graph?
(ii) On which day is number of students born the maximum?
(iii) How many more students were born on Thursday than that on Tuesday.
(iv) What is the total number of students in the class?

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Data and their Representations MODULE - 6
Statistics
12. The times (in minutes) taken to complete a crossword at a competition were noted
for 50 competitors are recorded in the following table:
Time (in minutes) Number of competitors
Notes
20-25 8
25-30 10
30-35 9
35-40 12
40-45 6
45-50 5
(i) Construct a histogram for the data.
(ii) Construct a frequency polygon.
13. Construct a frequency polygon for tha data in question 12 without drawing a histogram.
14. The following histogram shows the number of literate females in the age group 10 to
40 (in years) in a town:

10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Fig. 24.20
Study the above histogram and answer the following questions:
(i) What was the total number of literate females in the town in the age group 10 to 40?
(ii) In which age group, the number of literate females was the highest?
(iii) In which two age groups was the number of literate females the same?

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MODULE - 6 Data and their Representations
Statistics
(iv) State true or false:
The number of literate females in the age group 25-30 is the sum of the numbers of
literate females in the age groups 20-25 and 35-40.
Notes
Write the correct option:
15. The sum of the class marks of the classes 90-120 and 120-150 is
(A) 210 (B) 220 (C) 240 (D) 270
16. The range of the data
28, 17, 20, 16, 19, 12, 30, 32, 10 is
(A) 22 (B) 28 (C) 30 (D) 32
17. In a frequency distribution, the mid-value of a class is 12 and its width is 6. The lower
limit of the class is:
(A) 6 (B) 9 (C) 12 (D) 18
18. The width of each of five continuous classes in a frequency distribution is 5 and the
lower limit of the lowest (first) class is 10. The upper limit of the highest (last) class is
(A) 15 (B) 20 (C) 30 (D) 35
19. The class marks (in order) of a frequency distribution are 10, 15, 20, .... The class
corresponding to the class mark 15 is
(A) 11.5-18.5 (B) 17.5-22.5
(C) 12.5-17.5 (D) 13.5-16.5
20. For drawing a frequency polygon of a continuous frequency distribution, we plot the
points whose ordinates are the frequencies of the respective classes and abcissae are
respectively:
(A) class marks of the classes (B) lower limits of the classes
(C) upper limits of the classes (D) upper limits of preceding classes

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ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

24.1 Notes
1. (a) Classification, organisation, inferences (b) numerical data
(c) primary (d) secondary
(e) numerical data
2. Primary 3. Secondary
24.2
2. 21 cm
4 Marks Number of students 5. Class interval Frequency
0-10 1 210-230 2
10-19 2 230-250 5
20-29 1 250-270 2
30-39 2 270-290 2
40-49 5 290-310 4
50-59 6 310-330 6
60-69 6 330-350 2
70-79 4 350-370 2
80-89 2 370-390 0
90-99 1 390-410 3
Total 30 Total 25
19 students secured more than 49 marks.
6. (a) 6 (b) 43 (c) 49
24.3
1. (i) Classes Frequency Cumulative frequency
1-5 4 4
6-10 6 10
11-15 10 20
16-20 13 33
21-25 6 39
26-30 2 41
Total 41

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MODULE - 6 Data and their Representations
Statistics

(ii) Classes Frequency Cumulative frequency

0-10 3 3
10-20 10 13
Notes
20-30 24 37
30-40 32 69
40-50 9 78
50-60 7 85
Total 85

2. Heights (in cm) Number of students Cumulative frequency

110-120 14 14
120-130 30 44
13-140 60 104
140-150 42 146
150-160 14 160
Total 160
140 students have heights less than 150.
24.4
1. (i) bars (ii) equal (iii) proportional
2. (i) 2 (ii) 6 (iii) Bus
3. (i) 6 (ii) Football (iii) Table tennis
4. (i) 5900 (ii) 2007 (iii) 2003 (iv) 2008
24.5
1. (i) Horizontal axis
(ii) Vertical axis
(iii) Frequency
(iv) Continuous grouped frequency distribution
2. (i) Heights (in cm) of students
(ii) 145-150
(iii) 15
(iv) 4
(v) 13

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ANSWERS TO TERMINAL EXERCISE

1. (i) group, frequency table (ii) true limits
(iii) frequency (iv) class size Notes

(v) cumulative frequency (vi) upper limt, lower limit

(vii) arrayed (vii) range
2. Number of Number of 3. Numbre of Number of
TV sets hours vehicles families
0 2 0 2
1 15 1 27
2 8 2 16
3 4 3 4
4 1 4 1
Total 30 Total 50

4. Weights Number of 5. Length Number of

(in grams) cards (in cm) carrots
5.5-7.5 6 10-12 2
7.5-9.5 15 12-14 5
9.5-11.5 15 14-16 9
11.5-13.5 2 16-18 6
13.5-15.5 2 18-20 4
Total 40 20-22 4
Total 30
6. (i) 42.5
(ii) Weight (in kg) Number of persons Cumulative frequency
40-45 4 4
45-50 5 9
50-55 10 19
55-60 7 26
60-65 6 32
65-70 8 40
Total 40

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MODULE - 6 Data and their Representations
Statistics

7. Class interval Frequency Cumulative frequency

0-10 2 2
Notes 10-20 6 8
20-30 10 18
30-40 15 33
40-50 12 45
50-60 8 53
60-70 5 58
70-80 2 60
Total 60

8. (i) 15 (ii) Lower limit : 25, Upper limit: 30

(iii) 37.5 (iv) 5
(iv) Classes Frequency Cumulative frequency
15-20 2 2
20-25 3 5
25-30 5 10
30-35 7 17
35-40 4 21
40-45 3 24
45-50 1 25
Total 25

9. Marks No. of students (frequency)

0-20 15
20-40 9
40-60 5
60-80 5
80-100 16

10. (i) Days of birth of the students in a class

(ii) Saturday

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Data and their Representations MODULE - 6
Statistics
(iii) 1
(iv) 31
11. (i) 2250 (ii) 25-30
Notes
(iii) 10-15 and 30-35 (iv) True
12. (C)
13. (A)
14. (B)
15. (D)
16. (C)
17. (A)

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MODULE - 6 Measures of Central Tendency
Statistics

Notes
25
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

In the previous lesson, we have learnt that the data could be summarised to some extent
by presenting it in the form of a frequency table. We have also seen how data were
represented graphically through bar graphs, histograms and frequency polygons to get
some broad idea about the nature of the data.
Some aspects of the data can be described quantitatively to represent certain features of
the data. An average is one of such representative measures. As average is a number of
indicating the representative or central value of the data, it lies somewhere in between the
two extremes. For this reason, average is called a measure of central tendency.
In this lesson, we will study some common measures of central tendency, viz.

(i) Arithmetical average, also called mean

(ii) Median
(iii) Mode

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to
• define mean of raw/ungrouped and grouped data;
• calculate mean of raw/ungrouped data and also of grouped data by ordinary
and short-cut-methods;
• define median and mode of raw/ungrouped data;
• calculate median and mode of raw/ungrouped data.

25.1 ARITHMETIC AVERAGE OR MEAN

You must have heard people talking about average speed, average rainfall, average height,
average score (marks) etc. If we are told that average height of students is 150 cm, it does
not mean that height of each student is 150 cm. In general, it gives a message that height of

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Measures of Central Tendency MODULE - 6
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students are spread around 150 cm. Some of the students may have a height less than it,
some may have a height greater than it and some may have a height of exactly 150 cm.

25.1.1 Mean (Arithmetic average) of Raw Data

Notes
To calculate the mean of raw data, all the observations of the data are added and their sum
is divided by the number of observations. Thus, the mean of n observations x1, x2, ....xn is

x1 + x 2 + ... + x n
n
It is generally denoted by x . so

x1 + x 2 + ... + x n
x =
n

∑x
i =1
i
= (I)
n

where the symbol “Σ” is the capital letter ‘SIGMA’ of the Greek alphabet and is used to
denote summation.
To economise the space required in writing such lengthy expression, we use the symbol Σ,
read as sigma.
n

In ∑x
i =1
i , i is called the index of summation.

Example 25.1: The weight of four bags of wheat (in kg) are 103, 105, 102, 104. Find the
mean weight.
103 + 105 + 102 + 104
Solution: Mean weight ( x ) = kg
4

414
= kg = 103.5 kg
4
Example 25.2: The enrolment in a school in last five years was 605, 710, 745, 835 and
910. What was the average enrolment per year?
Solution: Average enrolment (or mean enrolment)

605 + 710 + 745 + 835 + 910 3805

= = = 761
5 5

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MODULE - 6 Measures of Central Tendency
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Example 25.3:The following are the marks in a Mathematics Test of 30 students of
Class IX in a school:
40 73 49 83 40 49 27 91 37 31
Notes
91 40 31 73 17 49 73 62 40 62
49 50 80 35 40 62 73 49 31 28
Find the mean marks.
Solution: Here, the number of observation (n) = 30
x1 = 40, x2 = 73, ........., x10 = 31
x11 = 41, x12 = 40, ........., x20 = 62
x21 = 49, x22 = 50, ........., x30 = 28
From the Formula (I), the mean marks of students is given by

30

∑x i
40 + 73 + .... + 28 1455
Mean = ( x ) = i =1
= =
n 30 30

= 48.5
Example 25.4: Refer to Example 25.1. Show that the sum of x1– x , x2– x , x3– x and
x4– x is 0, where xi’s are the weights of the four bags and x is their mean.
Solution: x1– x = 103 – 103.5 = – 0.5, x2– x = 105 – 103.5 = 1.5
x3– x = 102 – 103.5 = – 1.5, x4– x = 104 – 103.5 = 0.5
So, (x1– x ) + (x2– x ) + (x3– x ) + (x4– x ) = – 0.5 + 1.5 + (–1.5) + 0.5 = 0
Example 25.5: The mean of marks obtained by 30 students of Section A of Class X is
48, that of 35 students of Section B is 50. Find the mean marks obtained by 65 students
in Class X.
Solution: Mean marks of 30 students of Section A = 48
So, total marks obtained by 30 students of Section A = 30 × 48 = 1440
Similarly, total marks obtained by 35 students of Section B = 35 × 50 = 1750
Total marks obtained by both sections = 1440 + 1750 = 3190
3190
Mean of marks obtained by 65 students = = 49.1 approx.
65
Example 25.6: The mean of 6 observations was found to be 40. Later on, it was detected
that one observation 82 was misread as 28. Find the correct mean.

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Solution: Mean of 6 observations = 40
So, the sum of all the observations = 6 × 40 = 240
Since one observation 82 was misread as 28,
Notes
therefore, correct sum of all the observations = 240 – 28 + 82 = 294

294
Hence, correct mean = = 49
6

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 25.1

1. Write formula for calculating mean of n observations x1 , x2 ..., xn.
2. Find the mean of first ten natural numbers.
3. The daily sale of sugar for 6 days in a certain grocery shop is given below. Calculate
the mean daily sale of sugar.
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
74 kg 121 kg 40 kg 82 kg 70.5 kg 130.5 kg
4. The heights of 10 girls were measured in cm and the results were as follows:
142, 149, 135, 150, 128, 140, 149, 152, 138, 145
Find the mean height.
5. The maximum daily temperature (in oC) of a city on 12 consecutive days are given
below:
32.4 29.5 26.6 25.7 23.5 24.6
24.2 22.4 24.2 23.0 23.2 28.8

Calcualte the mean daily temperature.

6. Refer to Example 25.2. Verify that the sum of deviations of xi from their mean ( x ) is
0.
7. Mean of 9 observatrions was found to be 35. Later on, it was detected that an
observation which was 81, was taken as 18 by mistake. Find the correct mean of the
observations.
8. The mean marks obtained by 25 students in a class is 35 and that of 35 students is 25.
Find the mean marks obtained by all the students.

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25.1.2 Mean of Ungrouped Data

We will explain to find mean of ungrouped data through an example.
Find the mean of the marks (out of 15) obtained by 20 students.
Notes
12 10 5 8 15 5 2 8 10 5
10 12 12 2 5 2 8 10 5 10
This data is in the form of raw data. We can find mean of the data by using the formula (I),

i.e.,
∑x i
. But this process will be time consuming.
n
We can also find the mean of this data by first making a frequency table of the data and
then applying the formula:
n

∑fx i i
mean = x = i =1
n
(II)
∑f
i =1
i

where fi is the frequency of the ith observation xi.

Frequency table of the data is :
Marks Number of students
(xi) (fi)
2 4
5 5
8 3
10 5
12 2
15 1
Σfi = 20
To find mean of this distribution, we first find fi xi, by multiplying each xi with its
corresponding frequency fi and append a column of fixi in the frequency table as given
below.
Marks Number of students f ix i
(xi) (fi)
2 4 2×4 = 8
5 5 5× 5 = 25
8 3 3× 8 = 24
10 5 5 × 10 = 50
12 2 2 × 12 = 24
15 1 1 × 15 = 15
Σfi = 20 Σfi xi = 146

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∑fx i i
=
146
= 7.3
Mean =
∑f i 20

Example 25.7: The following data represents the weekly wages (in rupees) of the Notes
employees:
Weekly wages 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
(in `)
Number of 12 13 14 13 14 11 5
employees
Find the mean weekly wages of the employees.
Solution: In the following table, entries in the first column are xi’s and entries in second
columen are fi’s, i.e., corresponding frequencies. Recall that to find mean, we require the
product of each xi with corresponding frequency fi. So, let us put them in a column as
shown in the following table:
Weekly wages (in `) Number of employees f ix i
(xi) (fi)
900 12 10800
1000 13 13000
1100 14 15400
1200 13 15600
1300 12 15600
1400 11 15400
1500 5 7500
Σfi = 80 Σfi xi = 93300

Using the Formula II,

∑fx i i 93300
Mean weekly wages = =`
∑f i 80

= ` 1166.25
Sometimes when the numerical values of xi and fi are large, finding the product fi and xi
becomes tedius and time consuming.
We wish to find a short-cut method. Here, we choose an arbitrary constant a, also called
the assumed mean and subtract it from each of the values xi. The reduced value,
di = xi – a is called the deviation of xi from a.
Thus, xi = – a + di

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and fixi = afi + fidi

n n n

Notes
∑ f x =∑ af + ∑ f d
i =1
i i
i =1
i
i =1
i i [Summing both sides over i from i to r]

1
Hence x = ∑ f i + ∑ fi di , where Σfi = N
N

1
x =a+
N
∑ f i di (III)

[since Σfi = N]
This meghod of calcualtion of mean is known as Assumed Mean Method.
In Example 25.7, the values xi were very large. So the product fixi became tedious and
time consuming. Let us find mean by Assumed Mean Method. Let us take assumed
mean a = 1200
Weekly wages Number of Deviations f id i
(in `) (xi) employees (fi) di = xi – 1200
900 12 – 300 – 3600
1000 13 – 200 – 2600
1100 14 – 100 – 1400
1200 13 0 0
1300 12 100 + 1200
1400 11 200 + 2200
1500 5 300 + 1500
Σfi = 80 Σfi di = – 2700

Using Formula III,

1
Mean = a +
N
∑ f i di
1
= 1200 + (– 2700)
80
= 1200 – 33.75 = 1166.25
So, the mean weekly wages = ` 1166.25
Observe that the mean is the same whether it is calculated by Direct Method or by Assumed
Mean Method.

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Example 25.8: If the mean of the following data is 20.2, find the value of k
xi 10 15 20 25 30
fi 6 8 20 k 6
Notes

∑fx i i
=
60 + 120 + 400 + 25k + 180
Solution: Mean =
∑f i 40 + k

760 + 25k
=
40 + k
760 + 25k
So, = 20.2 (Given)
40 + k
or 760 +25k = 20.2 (40 + k)
or 7600 + 250k = 8080 + 202k
or k = 10

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 25.2

1. Find the mean marks of the following distribution:
Marks 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Frequency 1 3 5 9 14 18 16 9 3 2
2. Calcualte the mean for each of the following distributions:
(i) x 6 10 15 18 22 27 30
f 12 36 54 72 62 42 22

(ii) x 5 5.4 6.2 7.2 7.6 8.4 9.4

f 3 14 28 23 8 3 1
3. The wieghts (in kg) of 70 workers in a factory are given below. Find the mean weight
of a worker.
Weight (in kg) Number of workers
60 10
61 8
62 14
63 16
64 15
65 7

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4. If the mean of following data is 17.45 determine the value of p:
x 15 16 17 18 19 20
f 3 8 10 p 5 4
Notes
25.1.3 Mean of Grouped Data
Consider the following grouped frequency distribution:

Daily wages (in `) Number of workers

150-160 5
160-170 8
170-180 15
180-190 10
190-200 2

What we can infer from this table is that there are 5 workers earning daily somewhere
from ` 150 to ` 160 (not included 160). We donot know what exactly the earnings of
each of these 5 workers are
Therefore, to find mean of the grasped frequency distribution, we make the following
assumptions:
Frequency in any class is centred at its class mark or mid point

150 + 160
Now, we can say that there are 5 workers earning a daily wage of ` =
2
160 + 170
` 155 each, 8 workers earning a daily wage of ` = ` 165, 15 workers aerning
2
170 + 160
a daily wage of ` = ` 175 and so on. Now we can calculate mean of the given
2
data as follows, using the Formula (II)

Daily wages (in `) Number of Class marks (xi) f ix i

workers (fi)
150-160 5 155 775
160-170 8 165 1320
170-180 15 175 2625
180-190 10 185 850
190-200 2 195 390
Σfi = 40 Σfixi = 6960

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∑fx i i
=
6960
= 174
Mean =
∑f i 40
So, the mean daily wage = ` 174 Notes
This method of calculate of the mean of grouped data is Direct Method.
We can also find the mean of grouped data by using Formula III, i.e., by Assumed Mean
Method as follows:
We take assumed mean a = 175
Daily wages Number of Class marks Deviations f id i
(in `) workers (fi) (xi) di = xi–175
150-160 5 155 – 20 – 100
160-170 8 165 – 10 – 80
170-180 15 175 0 0
180-190 10 185 + 10 100
190-200 2 195 + 20 40
Σfi = 40 Σfidi = – 40
So, using Formula III,
1
Mean = a +
N
∑ f i di
1
= 175 + (–40)
40
= 175 – 1 = 174
Thus, the mean daily wage = ` 174.
Example 25.9: Find the mean for the following frequency distribution by (i) Direct Method,
(ii) Assumed Mean Method.
Class Frequency
20-40 9
40-60 11
60-80 14
80-100 6
100-120 8
120-140 15
140-160 12
Total 75

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Solution: (i) Direct Method
Class Frequency (fi) Class marks (xi) f ix i

Notes 20-40 9 30 270

40-60 11 50 550
60-80 14 70 980
80-100 6 90 540
100-120 8 110 880
120-140 15 130 1950
140-160 12 150 1800
Σfi = 75 Σfixi = 6970

∑fx i i
=
6970
= 92.93
So, mean =
∑f i 75

(ii) Assumed mean method

Let us take assumed mean = a = 90
Class Frequency (fi) Class marks (xi) Deviation f id i
di = xi – 90
20-40 9 30 – 60 – 540
40-60 11 50 – 40 – 440
60-80 14 70 – 20 – 280
80-100 6 90 0 0
100-120 8 110 + 20 160
120-140 15 130 + 40 600
140-160 12 150 + 60 720
Ν = Σfi = 75 Σfidi = 220

1 220
Mean = a +
N
∑ f i di = 90 +
75
= 92.93

Note that mean comes out to be the same in both the methods.
In the table above, observe that the values in column 4 are all multiples of 20. So, if we
divide these value by 20, we would get smaller numbers to multiply with fi.
Note that, 20 is also the class size of each class.

xi − a
So, let ui = , where a is the assumed mean and h is the class size.
h

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Now we calculate ui in this way and then uifi and can find mean of the data by using the
formula

⎛ ∑ f iU i ⎞
Mean = x = a + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ × h (IV) Notes
⎝ ∑ f i ⎠

Let us find mean of the data given in Example 25.9

Take a = 90. Here h = 20

Class Frequency Class Deviation ui= f iu i

(fi) marks (xi) di = xi – 90
20-40 9 30 – 60 –3 – 27
40-60 11 50 – 40 –2 – 22
60-80 14 70 – 20 –1 – 14
80-100 6 90 0 0 0
100-120 8 110 + 20 1 8
120-140 15 130 + 40 2 30
140-160 12 150 + 60 3 36
Σfi = 75 Σfiui = 11

Using the Formula (IV),

⎛ ∑ f i ui ⎞
Mean = x = a + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ × h = 90 + 11 × 20
⎝ ∑ fi ⎠ 75

220
= 90 + = 92.93
75
Calculating mean by using Formula (IV) is known as Step-deviation Method.
Note that mean comes out to be the same by using Direct Method, Assumed Method or
Step Deviation Method.
Example 25.10: Calcualte the mean daily wage from the following distribution by using
Step deviation method.
Daily wages (in `) 150-160 160-70 170-180 180-190 190-200
Numbr of workers 5 8 15 10 2

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Solution: We have already calculated the mean by using Direct Method and Assumed
Method. Let us find mean by Step deviation Method.
Let us take a = 175. Here h = 10
Notes
xi − a
Daily wages Number of Class Deviation ui= f iu i
h
(in `) workers (fi) marks (xi) di = xi – 90
150-160 5 155 – 20 –2 – 10
160-170 8 165 – 10 –1 –8
170-180 15 175 0 0 0
180-190 10 185 10 1 10
190-200 2 195 20 2 4
Σfi = 40 Σfiui = – 4

Using Formula (IV),

⎛ ∑ f i ui ⎞
Mean daily wages = a + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ × h = 175 + − 4 × 10 = ` 174
⎝ ∑ fi ⎠ 40

Note: Here again note that the mean is the same whether it is calculated using the Direct
Method, Assumed mean Method or Step deviation Method.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 25.3

1. Following table shows marks obtained by 100 students in a mathematics test
Marks 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60
Number of 12 15 25 25 17 6
students
Calculate mean marks of the students by using Direct Method.
2. The following is the distribution of bulbs kept in boxes:
Number of 50-52 52-54 54-56 56-58 58-60
bulbs
Number of 15 100 126 105 30
boxes
Find the mean number of bulbs kept in a box. Which method of finding the mean did
you choose?
3. The weekly observations on cost of living index in a certain city for a particular year
are given below:

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Cost of living 140-150 150-160 160-170 170-180 180-190 190-200

index
Number of 5 8 20 9 6 4
weeks Notes

Calculate mean weekly cost of living index by using Step deviation Method.
4. Find the mean of the following data by using (i) Assumed Mean Method and (ii) Step
deviation Method.
Class 150-200 200-250 250-300 300-350 350-400
Frequency 48 32 35 20 10

25.2 MEDIAN
In an office there are 5 employees: a superviosor and 4 workers. The workers draw a
salary of ` 5000, ` 6500, ` 7500 and ` 8000 per month while the supervisor gets
` 20000 per month.
5000 + 6500 + 7500 + 8000 + 20000
In this case mean (salary) = `
5
47000
=` = ` 9400
5
Note that 4 out of 5 employees have their salaries much less than ` 9400. The mean salary
` 9400 does not given even an approximate estimate of any one of their salaries.
This is a weakness of the mean. It is affected by the extreme values of the observations in
the data.
This weekness of mean drives us to look for another average which is unaffected by a few
extreme values. Median is one such a measure of central tendency.
Median is a measure of central tendency which gives the value of the middle-
most observation in the data when the data is arranged in ascending (or descending)
order.

25.2.1 Median of Raw Data

Median of raw data is calculated as follows:

(i) Arrange the (numerical) data in an ascending (or descending) order

⎛ n +1⎞
(ii) When the number of observations (n) is odd, the median is the value of ⎜ ⎟ th
⎝ 2 ⎠
observation.

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⎛n⎞
(iii) When the number of observations (n) is even, the median is the mean of the ⎜ ⎟ th
⎝2⎠
Notes ⎛n ⎞
and ⎜ +1⎟ th observations.
⎝2 ⎠
Let us illustrate this with the help of some examples.
Example 25.11: The weights (in kg) of 15 dogs are as follows:
9, 26, 10 , 22, 36, 13, 20, 20, 10, 21, 25, 16, 12, 14, 19
Find the median weight.
Solution: Let us arrange the data in the ascending (or descending) order:
9, 10, 10, 12, 13, 14, 16, 19, 20, 20, 21, 22, 25, 36
Median
Here, number of observations = 15

⎛ n +1⎞ ⎛ 15 + 1 ⎞
So, the median will be ⎜ ⎟ th, i.e., ⎜ ⎟ th, i.e., 8th observation which is 19 kg.
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
Remark: The median weight 19 kg conveys the information that 50% dogs have weights
less than 19 kg and another 50% have weights more then 19 kg.
Example 25.12: The points scored by a basket ball team in a series of matches are as
follows:
16, 1, 6, 26, 14, 4, 13, 8, 9, 23, 47, 9, 7, 8, 17, 28
Find the median of the data.
Solution: Here number of observations = 16

⎛ 16 ⎞ ⎛ 16 ⎞
So, the median will be the mean of ⎜ ⎟ th and ⎜ +1⎟ th, i.e., mean of 6th and 9th
⎝2⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
observations, when the data is arranged in ascending (or descending) order as:
1, 4, 6, 7, 8, 8, 9, 9, 13, 14, 16, 17, 23, 26, 28, 47
8th term 9th term
9 + 13
So, the median = = 11
2
Remark: Here again the median 11 conveys the information that the values of 50% of the
observations are less than 11 and the values of 50% of the observations are more than 11.

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25.2.2 Median of Ungrouped Data

We illustrate caluculation of the median of ungrouped data through examples.

Example 25.13: Find the median of the following data, which gives the marks, out of 15, Notes
obtaine by 35 students in a mathematics test.
Marks obtained 3 5 6 11 15 14 13 7 12 10
Number of Students 4 6 5 7 1 3 2 3 3 1
Solution: First arrange marks in ascending order and prepare a frequency table as follows:
Marks obtained 3 5 6 7 10 11 12 13 14 15
Number of Students 4 6 5 3 1 7 3 2 3 1
(frequency)

⎛ n +1⎞ ⎛ 35 + 1 ⎞
Here n = 35, which is odd. So, the median will be ⎜ ⎟ th, i.e., ⎜ ⎟ th, i.e., 18th
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
observation.
To find value of 18th observation, we prepare cumulative frequency table as follows:
Marks obtained Number of students Cumulative frequency
3 4 4
5 6 10
6 5 15
7 3 18
10 1 19
11 7 26
12 3 29
13 2 31
14 3 34
15 1 35
From the table above, we see that 18th observation is 7
So, Median = 7
Example 25.14: Find the median of the following data:
Weight (in kg) 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 48
Number of 2 5 7 8 13 26 6 3
students

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Solution: Here n = 2 + 5 + 7 + 8 + 13 + 26 + 6 + 3 = 70, which is even, and weight are

already arranged in the ascending order. Let us prepare cumulative frequency table of the
data:
Notes Weight Number of students Cumulative
(in kg) (frequency) frequency
40 2 2
41 5 7
42 7 14
43 8 22
44 13 35 35th observation
45 26 61 36th observation
46 6 67
48 3 70

⎛n⎞ ⎛n ⎞
Since n is even, so the median will be the mean of ⎜ ⎟ th and ⎜ +1⎟ th observations,
⎝2⎠ ⎝2 ⎠
i.e., 35th and 36th observations. From the table, we see that
35 the observation is 44
and 36th observation is 45

44 + 45
So, Median = = 44.5
2

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 25.4

1. Following are the goals scored by a team in a series of 11 matches
1, 0 , 3, 2, 4, 5, 2, 4, 4, 2, 5
Determine the median score.
2. In a diagnostic test in mathematics given to 12 students, the following marks (out of
100) are recorded
46, 52, 48, 39, 41, 62, 55, 53, 96, 39, 45, 99
Calculate the median for this data.

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3. A fair die is thrown 100 times and its outcomes are recorded as shown below:
Outcome 1 2 3 4 5 6
Frequency 17 15 16 18 16 18
Notes
Find the median outcome of the distributions.
4. For each of the following frequency distributions, find the median:
(a) xi 2 3 4 5 6 7
fi 4 9 16 14 11 6

(b) xi 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
fi 3 7 12 20 28 31 28 26

(c) xi 2.3 3 5.1 5.8 7.4 6.7 4.3

fi 5 8 14 21 13 5 7

25.3 MODE
Look at the following example:
A company produces readymade shirts of different sizes. The company kept record of its
sale for one week which is given below:

size (in cm) 90 95 100 105 110 115

Number of shirts 50 125 190 385 270 28

From the table, we see that the sales of shirts of size 105 cm is maximum. So, the company
will go ahead producing this size in the largest number. Here, 105 is nothing but the mode
of the data. Mode is also one of the measures of central tendency.
The observation that occurs most frequently in the data is called mode of the
data.
In other words, the observation with maximum frequency is called mode of the data.
The readymade garments and shoe industries etc, make use of this measure of central
tendency. Based on mode of the demand data, these industries decide which size of the
product should be produced in large numbers to meet the market demand.

25.3.1 Mode of Raw Data

In case of raw data, it is easy to pick up mode by just looking at the data. Let us consider
the following example:

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Example 25.15: The number of goals scored by a football team in 12 matches are:
1, 2, 2, 3, 1, 2, 2, 4, 5, 3, 3, 4

Notes What is the modal score?

Solution: Just by looking at the data, we find the frequency of 2 is 4 and is more than the
frequency of all other scores.
So, mode of the data is 2, or modal score is 2.
Example 25.16: Find the mode of the data:
9, 6, 8, 9, 10, 7, 12, 15, 22, 15
Solution: Arranging the data in increasing order, we have
6, 7, 8, 9, 9, 10, 12, 15, 15, 22
We find that the both the observations 9 and 15 have the same maximum frequency 2. So,
both are the modes of the data.
Remarks: 1. In this lesson, we will take up the data having a single mode only.
2. In the data, if each observation has the same frequency, then we say that the data does
not have a mode.

25.3.2 Mode of Ungrouped Data

Let us illustrate finding of the mode of ungrouped data through an example

Example 25.17: Find the mode of the following data:
Weight (in kg) 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 48
Number of Students 2 6 8 9 10 22 13 5
Solution: From the table, we see that the weight 45 kg has maximum frequency 22 which
means that maximum number of students have their weight 45 kg. So, the mode is 45 kg or
the modal weight is 45 kg.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 25.5

1. Find the mode of the data:
5, 10, 3, 7, 2, 9, 6, 2, 11, 2
2. The number of TV sets in each of 15 households are found as given below:
2, 2, 4, 2, 1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 1, 3, 3, 1, 3, 0
What is the mode of this data?

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3. A die is thrown 100 times, giving the following results
Outcome 1 2 3 4 5 6
Frequency 15 16 16 15 17 20
Notes
Find the modal outcome from this distribution.
4. Following are the marks (out of 10) obtained by 80 students in a mathematics test:
Marks 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
obtained
Number of 5 2 3 5 9 11 15 16 9 3 2
students
Determine the modal marks.

LET US SUM UP
• Mean, median and mode are the measures of central tendency.

∑x
i =1
i
• Mean (Arithmetic average) of raw data is givne by x =
n

where x1, x2 ...., xn are n observations.

∑fx ∑fx i i
i i
• Mean of ungrouped data is given by x= i =1
=
n N
∑f
i =1
i

where fi is the frequency of the ith observation xi.

1
• Mean of ungrouped data can also be found by using the formula x = a + ∑ f i di
N
where di = xi – a, a being the assumed mean
Mean of grouped data
(i) To find mean of the grouped frequency distribution, we take the assumption:
Frequency in any class is centred at its class mark or mid point.

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(ii) Driect Method

n

∑fx i i
Notes x= i =1
n

∑f
i =1
i

where xi’s are the class marks and fi are the corresponding freqeucies of xi’s.
(iii) Assumed Mean Method

∑fd i i
x =a+ i =1
N

where a is the assumed mean, and di = xi – a.

(iv) Step deviation method

⎛ n ⎞
⎜ ∑ f i ui ⎟
x = a + ⎜ i =1n ⎟× h
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ∑ fi ⎟
⎝ i =1 ⎠

xi − a
where a is the assumed mean, ui = and h is the class size.
h
• Median is a measure of central tendency which gives the value of the middle most
obseration in the data, when the data is arranged in ascending (or descending) order.
• Median of raw data
⎛ n +1⎞
(i) When the number of observations (n) is odd, the median is the value of ⎜ ⎟ th
⎝ 2 ⎠
observation.
⎛n⎞
(ii) When the number of observations (n) is even, the median is the mean of the ⎜ ⎟ th
⎝2⎠
⎛n ⎞
and ⎜ +1⎟ th observations.
⎝2 ⎠
• Median of ungrouped data
Median of ungrouped data can be found from the cumulative frequency table (arranging
data in increasing or decreasing order) using (i) and (ii) above.
• The value of observation with maximum frequency is called the mode of the data.

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TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Find the mean of first five prime numbers. Notes
2. If the mean of 5, 7, 9, x, 11 and 12 is 9, find the value of x.
3. Following are the marks obtained by 9 students in a class
51, 36, 63, 46, 38, 43, 52, 42 and 43
(i) Find the mean marks of the students.
(ii) What will be the mean marks if a student scoring 75 marks is also included in the
class.
4. The mean marks of 10 students in a class is 70. The students are divided into two
groups of 6 and 4 respectively. If the mean marks of the first group is 60, what will be
the mean marks of the second group?
n

5. If the mean of the observations x1, x2....,xn is x , show that ∑ f(x –x ) = 0

i =1
1

6. There are 50 numbers. Each number is subtracted from 53 and the mean of the numbers
so obtained is found to be – 3.5. Determine the mean of the given numbers.
7. Find the mean of the following data:
(a) xi 5 9 13 17 22 25
fi 3 5 12 8 7 5
(b) xi 16 18 28 22 24 26
fi 1 3 5 7 5 4
8. Find the mean of the following data
(a) Classes 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70
Frequencies 2 3 5 7 5 3

(b) Classes 100-200 200-300 300-400 400-500 500-600 600-700

Frequencies 3 5 8 6 5 3
(c) The ages (in months) of a group of 50 students are as follows. Find the mean age.
Age 156-158 158-160 160-162 162-164 164-166 166-168
Number of 2 4 8 16 14 6
students

Mathematics Secondary Course 655

MODULE - 6 Measures of Central Tendency
Statistics

9. Find the median of the following data:

(a) 5, 12, 16, 18, 20, 25, 10
Notes (b) 6, 12, 9, 10, 16, 28, 25, 13, 15, 17
(c) 15, 13, 8, 22, 29, 12, 14, 17, 6
10. The following data are arranged in ascending order and the median of the data is 60.
Find the value of x.
26, 29, 42, 53, x, x + 2, 70, 75, 82, 93
11. Find the median of the following data:
(a) xi 25 30 35 45 50 55 65 70 85
fi 5 14 12 21 11 13 14 7 3

(b) xi 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42
fi 2 3 5 4 7 6 4 2
12. Find the mode of the following data:
(a) 8, 5, 2, 5, 3, 5, 3, 1
(b) 19, 18, 17, 16, 17, 15, 14, 15, 17, 9
13. Find the mode of the following data which gives life time (in hours) of 80 bulbs selected
at random from a lot.
Life time (in hours) 300 500 700 900 1100
Number of bulbs 10 12 20 27 11
14. In the mean of the following data is 7, find the value of p:
xi 4 p 6 7 9 11
fi 2 4 6 10 6 2
15. For a selected group of people, an insurance company recorded the following data:
Age (in years) 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80
Number of deaths 2 12 55 95 71 42 16 7
Determine the mean of the data.
16. If the mean of the observations: x + 1, x + 4, x + 5, x + 8, x + 11 is 10, the mean of
the last three observations is
(A) 12.5 (B) 12.2 (C) 13.5 (D) 14.2

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Measures of Central Tendency MODULE - 6
Statistics
17. If each observation in the data is increased by 2, than their mean
(A) remains the same (B) becomes 2 times the original mean
(C) is decreased by 2 (D) is increased by 2
Notes
18. Mode of the data: 15, 14, 19, 20, 14, 15, 14, 18, 14, 15, 17, 14, 18 is
(A) 20 (B) 18 (C) 15 (D) 14

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

25.1
n

1. ∑ x /n
i =1
i 2. 5.5 3. 86.33 kg

4. 142.8 cm 5. 25.68oC 7. 42
8. 29.17
25.2
1. 5.84 2. (i) 18.99 (ii) 6.57
3. 11.68 4. 10
25.3
1. 28.80 2. 55.19 3. 167.9 4. 244.66
25.4
1. 3 2. 50 3. 4
4. (a) 4 (b) 30 (c) 5.8
25.5
1. 2 2. 1 3. 6 4. 7

ANSWERS TO TERMINAL EXERCISE

1. 5.6 2. 10 3. (i) 46 (ii) 48.9
4. 85 6. 56.5 7. (a) 15.775 (b) 21.75
8. (a) 42.6 (b) 396.67 (c) 163 months (approx)
9. (a) 16 (b) 14 (c) 14
10. 59 11. (a) 45 (b) 24 12. (a) 5 (b) 17
13. 900 14. 5 15. 39.86 years 16. (A)
17. (D) 18. D

Mathematics Secondary Course 657

MODULE - 6 Introduction to Probability
Statistics

Notes
26
INTRODUCTION TO PROBABILITY

In our day to day life, we sometimes make the statements:

(i) It may rain today

(ii) Train is likely to be late
(iii) It is unlikely that bank made a mistake
(iv) Chances are high that the prices of pulses will go down in next september
(v) I doubt that he will win the race.
and so on.
The words may, likely, unlikely, chances, doubt etc. show that the event, we are talking
about , is not certain to occur. It may or may not occur. Theory of probability is a branch
of mathematics which has been developed to deal with situations involving uncertainty.
The theory had its beginning in the 16th century. It originated in the games of chance such
as throwing of dice and now probability is used extensively in biology, economics, genetics,
physics, sociology etc.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to
• understand the meaning of a random experiment;
• differentiate between outcomes and events of a random experiment;
• define probability P(E) of occurrence of an event E;
• determine P( E ) if P(E) is given;
• state that for the probability P(E), 0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1;
• apply the concept of probability in solving problems based on tossing a coin
throwing a die, drawing a card from a well shuffled deck of playing cards, etc.

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Introduction to Probability MODULE - 6
Statistics
EXPECTED BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE
We assume that the learner is already familiar with

• the term associated with a coin, i.e., head or tail Notes

• a die, face of a die, numbers on the faces of a die
• playing cards - number of cards in a deck, 4- suits of 13 cards-spades, hearts, diamonds
and clubs. The cards in each suit such as king, queen, jack etc, are face cards.
• Concept of a ratio/fraction/decimal and operations on them.

26.1 RANDOM EXPERIMENT AND ITS OUTCOMES

Observe the following situations:
When we speak of a coin,
(1) Suppose we toss a coin. We know in advance we assume it to be fair in the
that the coin can only land in one of two sense that it is symmetrical
possible ways that is either Head (H) up or so that there is no reason for
it to land more often on a
Tail (T) up.
particular side.
(2) Suppose we throw a die. We know in
advance that the die can only land in any one
of six different ways showing up either 1, 2, A die is a well balanced cube
3, 4, 5 or 6. with its six faces marked with
numbers (or dots) from 1 to
(3) Suppose we plant 4 seeds and observe the 6, one number on one face
number of seeds germinated after three days.
The number of germinated seeds could be
3
1 ..
. ...
either 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4. 5

In the above situations, tossing a coin, throwing a die, planting seeds and observing the
germinated seeds, each is an example of a random experiment
In (1), the possible outcomes of the random experiment of tossing a coin are: Head and
Tail.
In (2), the possible outcomes of the experiment are: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
In (3), the possible outcomes are: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
A random experiment always has more than one possible outcomes. When the experiment
is performed only one outcome out of all possible outcomes comes out. Moreover, we
can not predict any particular outcome before the experiment is performed. Repeating the
experiment may lead to different outcomes.
Some more examples of random experiments are:

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MODULE - 6 Introduction to Probability
Statistics
(i) drawing a ball from a bag
containing identical balls of
different colours A deck of playing cards consists of 52 cards
Notes without looking into the which are divided into four suits of 13 cards
bag. each-spades ( ) hearts ( ) diamonds ( )
(ii) drawing a card at and clubs ( ). Spades and clubs are of black
random from a well colour and others are of red colour. The cards
suffled deck of in each suit are ace, king, queen, jack, 10, 9,
playing cards 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, and 2. Cards of kings, queens
we will now use the word and jacks are called face cards.
experiment for random
experiment throughout
this lesson

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 26.1

1. Which of the following is a random experiment?
(i) Suppose you guess the answer to a multiple choice question having four options
A, B, C, and D, in which only one is correct.
(ii) The natural numbers 1 to 20 are written on separate slips (one number on one
slip) and put in a bag. You draw one slip without looking into the bag.
(iii) You drop a stone from a height
(iv) Each of Hari and John chooses one of the numbers 1, 2, 3, independently.
2. What are the possible outcomes of random experiments in Q. 1 above?

26.2 PROBABILITY OF AN EVENT

Suppose a coin is tossed at random. We have two possible
outcomes, Head (H) and Tail (T). We may assume that
each outcome H or T is as likely to occur as the other. In Tossed
other words, we say that the two outcomes H and T are at random
equally likely. means that the
coin is allowed
Similarly, when we throw a die, it seems reasonable to
to fall freely
assume that each of the six faces (or each of the outcomes
without any bias
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) is just as likely as any other to occur. In
or interference.
other words, we say that the six outcomes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and
6 are equally likely.

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Introduction to Probability MODULE - 6
Statistics
Before we come to define probability of an event, let us understand the meaning of word
Event. One or more outcomes constitute an event of an experiment. For example, in
throwing a die an event could be “the die shows an even number”. This event corresponds
to three different outcomes 2, 4 or 6. However, the term event also often used to describe
a single outcome. In case of tossing a coin, “the coin shows up a head” or “the coin shows Notes
up a tail” each is an event, the first one corresponds to the outcome H and the other to the
outcome T. If we write the event E: “the coin shows up a head” If F : “ the coin shows up
a tail” E and F are called elementary events. An event having only one outcome of the
experiment is called an elementary event.
The probability of an event E, written as P(E), is defined as

Number of outcomes favourable to E

P(E) =
Number of all possible outcomes of the experiment

assuming the outcomes to be equally likely.

In this lesson, we will take up only those experiments which have equally likely outcomes.
To find probability of some events, let us consider following examples:
Example 26.1: A coin is tossed once. Find the probability of getting (i) a head, (ii) a tail.
Solution: Let E be the event “getting a head”
Possible outcomes of the experiment are : Head (H), Tail (T)
Number of possible outcomes = 2
Number of outcomes favourable to E = 1 (i.e., Head only)
So, probability to E = P(E) = P (getting a head) = P(head)

Number of outcomes favourable to E

=
Number of all possible outcomes of the experiment

1
=
2
Similarly, if F is the event “getting a tail”, then

1
P(F) =
2
Example 26.2: A die is thrown once. What is the probability of getting a number 3?
Solution: Let E be the event “getting a number 3”.
Possible outcomes of the experiment are: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

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MODULE - 6 Introduction to Probability
Statistics
Number of possible outcomes = 6
Number of outcomes favourable to E = 1 (i.e., 3)

Notes 1 Number of outcomes favourable to E

So, P(E) = P(3) =
6 Number of all possible outcomes
Example 26.3: A die is thrown once. Determine the probability of getting a number other
than 3?
Solution: Let F be the event “getting a number other than 3” which means “getting a
number 1, 2, 4, 5, 6”.
Possible outcomes are : 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Number of possible outcomes = 6
Number of outcomes favourable to F = 5 (i.e., 1, 2, 4, 5, 6)

5
So, P(F) =
6
Note that event F in Example 26.3 is the same as event ‘not E’ in Example 26.2.
Example 26.4: A ball is drawn at random from a bag containing 2 red balls, 3 blue balls
and 4 black balls. What is the probability of this ball being of (i) red colour (ii) blue colour
(iii) black colour (iv) not blue colour?
Solution:

(i) Let E be the event that the drawn ball is of red colour
Number of possible outcomes of the experiment = 2 + 3 + 4=9
(Red) (Blue) (black)
Number of outcomes favourable to E = 2

2
So, P(Red ball) = P(E) =
9
(ii) Let F be the event that the ball drawn is of blue colour

3 1
So, P(Blue ball) = P(F) = =
9 3
(iii) Let G be the event that the ball drawn is of black colour

4
So P (Black ball) = P(G) =
9

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Introduction to Probability MODULE - 6
Statistics
(iv) Let H be the event that the ball drawn is not of blue colour.
Here “ball of not blue colour” means “ball of red or black colour)
Therefore, number of outcomes favourable to H = 2 + 4 = 6
Notes
6 2
So, P(H) = =
9 3
Example 26.5: A card is drawn from a well shuffled deck of 52 playing cards. Find the
probability that it is of (i) red colour (ii) black colour
Solution: (i) Let E be the event that the card drawn is of red colour.
Number of cards of red colour = 13 + 13 = 26 (diamonds and hearts)
So, the number of favourable outcomes to E = 26
Total number of cards = 52

26 1
Thus, P(E) = =
52 2
(ii) Let F be the event that the card drawn is of black colour. Number of cards of black
colour = 13 + 13 = 26

26 1
So P(F) = =
52 2
Example 26.6: A die is thrown once. What is the probability of getting a number (i) less
than 7? (ii) greater than 7?
Solution: (i) Let E be the event “number is less than 7”.
Number of favourable outcomes to E = 6 (since every face of a die is marked with
a number less than 7)

6
So, P(E) = =1
6
(ii) Let F be the event “number is more than 7”
Number of outcomes favourable to F = 0 (since no face of a die is marked with a
number more than 7)

0
So, P(F) = =0
6

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MODULE - 6 Introduction to Probability
Statistics

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 26.2

1. Find the probability of getting a number 5 in a single throw of a die.
Notes
2. A die is tossed once. What is the probability that it shows:
(i) a number 7?
(ii) a number less than 5?
3. From a pack of 52 cards, a card is drawn at random. What is the probability of this
card to be a king?
4. An integer is chosen between 0 and 20. What is the probability that this chosen integer
is a prime number?
5. A bag contains 3 red and 3 white balls. A ball is drawn from the bag without looking
into it. What is the probability of this ball to be of (i) red colour (ii) white colour?
6. 3 males and 4 females appear for an interview, of which one candidate is to be selected.
Find the probability of selection of a (i) male candidate (ii) female candidate.

26.3 MORE ABOUT PROBABILITY

Probability has many interesting properties. We shall explain these through some examples:
Observation 1: In Example 26.6 above,
(a) Event E is sure to occur, since every number on a die is always less than 7. Such an
event which is sure to occur is called a sure (or certain) event. Probability of a sure
event is taken as 1.
(b) Event F is impossible to occur, since no number on a die is greater than 7. Such an
event which is impossible to occur is called an impossible event. Probability of an
impossible event is taken as 0.
(c) From the definition of probability of an event E, P(E) cannot be greater than 1, since
numerator being the number of outcomes favourable to E cannot be greater than the
denominator (number of all possible outcomes).
(d) both the numerator and denominator are natural numbers, so P(E) cannot be negative.
In view of (a), (b), (c) and (d), P(E) takes any value from 0 to 1, i.e.,
0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1
Observation 2: In Example 26.1, both the events getting a head (H) and getting a tail (T)
are elementary events and
1 1
P(H) + P(T) = + =1
2 2

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Introduction to Probability MODULE - 6
Statistics
Similarly, in the experiment of throwing a die once, elementary events are getting the numbers
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 and also

1 1 1 1 1 1
P(1) + P (2) + P(3) + P(4) + P(5) + P(6) = + + + + + =1
6 6 6 6 6 6 Notes
Observe that the sum of the probabilities of all the elementary events of an
experiment is one.
Observation 3: From Examples 26.2 and 26.3,

1 5
Probability of getting 3 + Probability of getting a number other than 3 = + =1
6 6
i.e. P(3) + P(not 3) = 1
or P(E) + P(not E) = 1 ...(1)
Similarly, in Example 26.1

1
P(getting a head) = P(E) =
2

1
P(getting a tail) = P(F) =
2

1 1
So, P(E) + P(F) = + =1
2 2
So, P(E) + P(not E) = 1 [getting a tail means getting no head] ...(2)
From (1) and (2), we see that for any event E,
P(E) + P(not E) = 1

or P(E) + P( E ) = 1 [We denote ‘not E’ by E ]

Event E is called complement of the event E or E and E are called complementary

events.
In general, it is true that for an event E

P(E) + P( E ) = 1

2
Example 26.7: If P(E) = , what is the probability of ‘not E’?
7
Solution: P(E) + P(not E) = 1

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MODULE - 6 Introduction to Probability
Statistics

2 5
So, P(not E) = 1 – P(E) = 1 – =
7 7
Example 26.8: What is the probability that the number 5 will not come up in single throw
Notes
of a die?
Solution: Let E be the event “number 5 comes up on the die”

Then we have to find P(not E) i.e. P( E )

1
Now P(E) =
6

1 5
So, P( E ) == 1 – =
6 6
Example 26.9: A card is drawn at random from a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards. Find
the probability that this card is a face card.
Solution: Number of all possible outcomes = 52
Number of outcomes favourable to the Event E “a face card” = 3 × 4 = 12
[Kings, queens, and jacks are face cards]

12 3
So, P(a face card) = =
52 13
Example 26.10: A coin is tossed two times. What is the probability of getting a head each
time?
Solution: Let us write H for Head and T for Tail.
In this expreiment, the possible outcomes will be: HH, HT, TH, TT
HH means Head on both the tosses
HT means Head on 1st toss and Tail on 2nd toss.
TH means Tail on 1st toss and Head on 2nd toss.
TT means Tail on both the tosses.
So, the number of possible outcomes = 4
Let E be the event “getting head each time”. This means getting head in both the
tosses, i.e. HH.

1
Therefore, P(HH) =
4

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Introduction to Probability MODULE - 6
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Example 26.11: 10 defective rings are accidentally mixed with 100 good ones in a lot. It
is not possible to just look at a ring and tell whether or not it is defective. One ring is drawn
at random from this lot. What is the probability of this ring to be a good one?
Solution: Number of all possible outcomes = 10 + 100 = 110 Notes
Number of outcomes favourable to the event E “ ring is good one” = 100

100 10
So, P(E) = =
110 11
Example 26.12: Two dice, one of black colour and other of blue colour, are thrown at
the same time. Write down all the possible outcomes. What is the probability that same
number appear on both the dice?
Solution: All the possible outcomes are as given below, where the first number in the
bracket is the number appearing on black coloured die and the other number is on blue
die. 2
Blue coloured die 3
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 (1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 4) (1, 5) (1, 6)
Black
coloured 2 (2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 4) (2, 5) (2, 6)
die 3 (3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) (3, 4) (3, 5) (3, 6)
1 4 (4, 1) (4, 2) (4, 3) (4, 4) (4, 5) (4, 6)
2 3
5 (5, 1) (5, 2) (5, 3) (5, 4) (5, 5) (5, 6)
6 (6, 1) (6, 2) (6, 3) (6, 4) (6, 5) (6, 6)
So, the number of possible outcomes = 6 × 6 = 36
The outcomes favourable to the event E : “Same number appears on both dice”. are
(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5) and (6, 6).
So, the number of outcomes favourable to E = 6.
6 1
Hence, P(E) = =
36 6

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 26.3

1. Complete the following statements by filling in blank spaces:
(a) The probability of an event is always greater than or equal to _______ but less
than or equal to _______

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MODULE - 6 Introduction to Probability
Statistics
(b) The probability of an event that is certain to occur is ________. Such an event is
called ________
(c) The probability of an event which cannot occur is _________. Such an event is
Notes __________
(d) The sum of probabilities of two complementary events is _________
(e) The sum of probabilities of all the elementary events of an experiment is ______
2. A die is thrown once. What is the probability of getting
(a) an even number
(b) an odd number
(c) a prime number
3. In Question 2 above, verify:
P(an even number) + P(an odd number) = 1
4. A die is thrown once. Find the probability of getting
(i) a number less than 4
(ii) a number greater than or equal to 4
(iii) a composite number
(iv) a number which is not composite
5. If P(E) = 0.88, what is the probability of ‘not E’?

6. If P( E ) = 0, find P(E).
7. A card is drawn from a well shuffled deck of 52 playing cards. Find the probability
that this card will be
(i) a red card (ii) a black card
(iii) a red queen (iv) an ace of black colour
(v) a jack of spade (vi) a king of club
(vii) not a face card (viii) not a jack of diamonds
8. A bag contains 15 white balls and 10 blue balls. A ball is drawn at random from the
bag. What is the probability of drawing
(i) a ball of not blue colour (ii) a ball not of white colour
9. In a bag there are 3 red, 4 green and 2 blue marbles. If a marble is picked up at
random what is the probability that it is
(i) not green? (ii) not red? (iii) not blue?

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Introduction to Probability MODULE - 6
Statistics
10. Two different coins are tossed at the same time. Write down all possible outcomes.
What is the probability of getting head on one and tail on the other coin?
11. In Question 10 above, what is the probability that both the coins show tails?
12. Two dice are thrown simultaneously and the sum of the numbers appearing on them is Notes
noted. What is the probability that the sum is
(i) 7 (ii) 8 (iii) 9 (iv) 10 (v) 12
13. 8 defective toys are accidentally mixed with 92 good ones in a lot of identical toys.
One toy is drawn at random from this lot. What is the probability that this toy is
defective?

LET US SUM UP
• A random experiment is one which has more than one outcomes and whose outcome
is not exactly predictable in advance before performig the experiment.
• One or more outcomes of an experiment constitute an event.
• An event having only one outcome of the experiment is called an elementary event.
• Probability of an event E, P(E), is defined as

Number of outcomes favourable to E

P(E) = , When the outcomes
Number of all possible outcomes of the experiment
are equally likely
• 0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1
• If P(E) = 0, E is called an impossible event. If P(E) = 1, E is called a sure or certain
event.
• The sum of the probabilities of all the elementary events of an experiment is 1.

• P(E) + P( E ) = 1, where E and E are complementary events.

TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Which of the following statements are True (T) and which are False (F):
(i) Probability of an event can be 1.01

(ii) If P(E) = 0.08, then P( E )= 0.02

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MODULE - 6 Introduction to Probability
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(iii) Probability of an impossible event is 1
(iv) For an event E, 0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1
(v) P( E ) = 1 + P(E)
Notes
2. A card is drawn from a well shuffled deck of 52 cards. What is the probability that this
card is a face card of red colour?
3. Two coins are tossed at the same time. What is the probability of getting atleast one
head? [Hint: P(atleast one head) = 1 – P(no head)]
4. A die is tossed two times and the number appearing on the die is noted each time.
What is the probability that the sum of two numbers so obtained is
(i) greater than 12? (ii) less than 12?
(iii) greater than 11? (iv) greater than 2?
5. Refer to Question 4 above. What is the probability that the product of two number is
12?
6. Refer to Question 4 above. What is the probability that the difference of two numbers
is 2?
7. A bag contains 15 red balls and some green balls. If the probability of drawing a green
1
ball is , find the number of green balls.
6
8. Which of the following can not be the probability of an event?
2
(A) (B) – 1.01 (C) 12% (D) 0.3
3
9. In a single throw of two dice, the probability of getting the sum 2 is
1 1 1 35
(A) (B) (C) (D)
9 18 36 36
10. In a simultaneous toss of two coins, the probability of getting one head and one tail is
1 1 1 2
(A) (B) (C) (D)
3 4 2 3

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

26.1
1. (i), (ii) and (iii) 2. (i) A, B, C, D (ii) 1, 2, 3, ..., 20
(iii) (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1),
(3, 2), (3, 3)

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26.2
1 2 1 8
1. 2. (i) 0 (ii) 3. 4.
6 3 13 19
3 5 3 4 Notes
5. (i) (ii) 6. (i) (ii)
8 8 7 7
26.3
1. (a) 0, 1 (b) 1, sure or certain event (c) 0, impossible event
(d) 1 (e) 1
1 1 1
2. (i) (ii) (iii)
2 2 2
1 1 1 2
4. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
2 2 3 3
5. 0.12 6. 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
7. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi)
2 2 26 26 52 52
10 51
(vii) (viii)
13 52
3 2
8. (i) (ii)
5 5
5 2 7
9. (i) (ii) (iii)
9 3 9
1
10. HH, HT, TH, TT,
2
1 1 5 1 1 1
11. 12. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)
4 6 36 9 12 36
2
13.
25

ANSWERS TO TERMINAL EXERCISE

1. (i) F (ii) T (iii) F (iv) T (v) F
3 3 1
2. 3. 4. (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) (iv) 1
26 4 36
1 2
5. 6. 7. 3 8. (B) 9. (C) 10. (C)
9 9

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