COURSE GUIDE

COURSE TITLE: Algebra and Trigonometry

COURSE CODE: MTH 101

MODULE 1 The real number system

Introduction This chapter is on the real number system. We discuss the various number systems
and their characteristics starting from the natural numbers to the real numbers. The need for
extension of each smaller number system to a larger number system is discussed. We also
discuss ordering of the real number system.

Objectives: At the end of this lecture, the students should be able to explain each number system
and give examples.

Pre-test

1. Which of the following numbers can not be used for measurement: -5, 4, 9.4, 0?
4
2. Arrange the following numbers in increasing order: 3 , +√5, 𝜋, −7, 0, 3, +√25, 3. 14, 2. 1, 1.33.

1.1 Introduction: This chapter is on the real number system. The real numbers are the numbers
that can be located on the real line.

Natural Numbers (ℕ): This is the set of all counting numbers 1, 2, 3, ⋯The sum or product of
two natural numbers is a natural number. Subtracting a natural number from another natural
number may not give a natural number.

Integers (ℤ): This is the set of positive and negative counting numbers including zero. These are
⋯-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2,⋯. The sum, product or difference of two members is again an integer. If m
and n are integers, 𝑚 ÷ 𝑛 may not be an integer e.g 6⁄4.

Rational Numbers (ℚ): The set of rational numbers consists of all numbers of the form 𝑚⁄𝑛,
where m and 𝑛 ≠ 0 are integers. Examples are 7⁄3 , −1⁄4 , 3, etc. If a and b are rational numbers,
𝑎 + 𝑏, 𝑎 − 𝑏, 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 are rational numbers. Moreover, if a and b are not equal to zero, there exists a
rational number 𝑥, unique except for its representation, such that

𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏

1
When a rational number is written in its equivalent decimal form, the decimal will either be
1 3
terminating or repeating. Examples are = 0.5 𝑎nd = 0.4285714285714.
2 7

Irrational Numbers: Real numbers which cannot be expressed as ratio of two integers are called
3
irrational numbers. Examples are √2, √7, 𝜋, etc. Their equivalent decimal forms are non-
terminating and non-repeating.

Real Numbers (ℝ) : These are the numbers that can be found on the real line. The set of real
numbers consists of the rational and irrational numbers.

The Real Numbers

 Rationals + Irrationals
 All points on the number line
 Or all possible distances on the number line
 A number that represents an amount of something such as height, volume, speed, and so
on.

1.2 Ordering in the Real Number System

The real numbers have the property that they are ordered. This means that given any two
different numbers, we can always say that one is greater or less than the other. The real numbers
may be ordered by comparing their decimal representation. For example,√2 = 1.4142 …, then
7 3
= 1.4 < √2, 2 = 1.5 > √2 e.t.c. A more formal way of saying this is:
5

Trichotomy Law

Every real number is negative, 0, or positive. The law can also be stated as “For arbitrary real
numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏, exactly one of the relations 𝑎 = 𝑏, 𝑎 < 𝑏, 𝑏 < 𝑎 holds".
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The Number Line

The ordered nature of the real numbers lets us arrange them along a line (imagine that the line is
made up of an infinite number of points all packed so closely together that they form a solid
line). The points are ordered so that points to the right are greater than points to the left:

 Every real number corresponds to a distance on the number line, starting at the center
(zero).
 Negative numbers represent distances to the left of zero, and positive numbers are
distances to the right.
 The arrows on the end indicate that it keeps going forever in both directions.

1.3 Absolute Value

When we want to talk about how “large” a number is without regard as to whether it is positive
or negative, we use the absolute value function. The absolute value of a number is the distance
from that number to the origin (zero) on the number line. This is to say that

If a number is positive (or zero), the absolute value function does nothing to it: |4| = 4.
If a number is negative, the absolute value function makes it positive: |−4| = 4.
In another way we define the absolute value of a number 𝑥 by
|𝑥 | = { 𝑥 if 𝑥 ≥ 0
−𝑥 if 𝑥 < 0

Post - Test
3 2
1. {2, -7, 0, 5,1, 0.5656565656,5, 9, 3.27124528744, √68, 23 5 , 100, −0.3}
From the list above, give the list of
i. All natural numbers
ii. All integers
iii. All rational numbers
iv. All irrational numbers
2. Insert the appropriate order relation (<, =, >)between each of the following numbers.
i. −7______ 3
ii. 5______ √7
3 9
iii. ________
4 12
7
iv. _________ 3.4
2
v. |-7| _________ 6

Module 2 ELEMENTARY SET THEORY

3
Introduction: We deal with collection of objects at one time or the other. For examples we talk
of drove of cattle, flock of birds, gaggle of geese, herd of buffalo and so on. In the last chapter, we
discussed the real number system. The natural number system consists of all numbers used for
counting. For instance, the number -5 is not a natural number. The natural number system is a set
on its own. Set is defined as a collection of well-defined objects.

Objectives: At the end of this module, the students should be able to:

1. Identify the members of a given set.

2. Give examples of the different types of sets.

3. Solve problems on operations on sets.

4. Use Venn diagrams to solve problems on operations on sets.

5. Use set theory and Venn diagrams to solve real life problems involving sets.

Pre - test

1. Out of 15 students in a class, 8 of them offer Biology, while 10 offer Chemistry. Find
the number of students that offer both subjects, if each of them offers at least one of
the subjects.

2. List the members of the following sets:

(i) B = {all the days of the week whose letters begin with B}

(ii) U = {𝑥: 𝑥 is an integer, 𝑥 2 − x + 6 = 0}

(iii) 𝑌 = {factors of 12 greater than 3}

2.0 Introduction

Definition: A set is a collection of well-defined objects. An object in a set is called an element or

a member of the set.

Notation and Representation

Usually, capital letters A, B, C, X,⋯ are used to denote sets, and lower case letters, a, b, c, x,⋯
are used to denote the elements of the sets. The symbol ‘є’ is used to denote membership. For
example, if V is the set of vowel letters in the English alphabets, then 𝑎 є V.

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2.1 Ways of specifying a set

1. By describing the elements: A set can be described in words. For example, a set consisting of
1, 3, 5, 7, 9 can be described as a set of odd numbers from 1 to 10.

2. By listing the elements: A set can be described by listing the elements inside a pair of braces
or curly brackets, {. . .}. For example, a set consisting of 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 is described as

{1, 3, 5, 7, 9}

3. By stating the properties which characterized the elements. For example,

B = {𝑥: 𝑥 is a positive odd integer, 𝑥 < 10}

or

B = {2𝑥 + 1|𝑥 = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}

The symbols ‘:’ and ‘|’ are read as ‘such that’.

4. By using a diagram: A set can be described by drawing the objects in the set in a diagram.
E.g.
1 3

5 9 7

9999999999999999

2.2 Different types of sets

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1. Null or Empty Set: The set containing no element is called the null or empty set. It is denoted
by Ø or { }. Examples are:

(i) Y = {all prime numbers divisible by 4}

(ii) X = {𝑥 |𝑥 is a positive integer, 𝑥 2 = −1}

2. Singleton or Unit Set: A set containing only one member is called a singleton set. For
example, the set {0} is a singleton.

3. Countable and Uncountable Set: A set whose elements can be counted is called a countable
set. This means that the set has the same cardinality (size) as some subset of the set of natural
numbers. Examples are the set of 100 Level students in Mountain Top University and the sets of
all natural numbers or integers.

5
A set is uncountable if its elements are not countable. This means it contains so many elements
that they cannot be put in one-to-one correspondence with set of natural numbers. Example is the
set of all numbers between 0 and 1.

4. Finite and Infinite Sets: A set is finite if the elements can be counted and the counting has a
definite end.

A set consisting of an infinite number of elements is called an infinite set. For example, the set of
all natural numbers

Cardinality of a set: The cardinality of a set A, denoted as n(A), is the number of elements in A.
For example, if B = {𝑥: 𝑥 is a positive odd integers, 𝑥 < 10} then n(B) = 5.

5. Subsets: Suppose every element in a set A is also an element of a set B, then A is called a
subset of B. We can also say that A is contained in B or B contained A. This is denoted as A ⊆
B or B ⊇ A .

For example, if X = {a, d, c, d, e, f, g}, Y = {a, c, d}, and Z = {a, b, e, f }, then Y ⊆ X and Z ⊈ X.

If A is a subset of B, but there is at least one member B which is not in A, then A is called a
proper subset of B. This is denoted as A ⊂ B or A ⊊ B.

Every set is a subset of itself, i.e B ⊆ B for any set B. The empty set B is considered the subset of
every set, i.e Ø ⊆ B, for any set B.

6. Power Set: If X is a set, the set of all subsets of X is called the power set of X. It is denoted as
℘(X). For example, if X = {a, b, c}, then ℘(X) = {Ø, {𝑎}, {b} , {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, X }

2.3 Theorem If X is a finite set containing 𝑛 elements, then there are 2𝑛 subsets that can be
formed from set X.

7. Equal Sets: Two sets are equal (denoted X = Y), if they contain the same elements (not
necessarily in the same order). For example {2,4,6,8} and {8, 2, 2, 6, 4} are equal.

8. Equivalent Sets: Two sets A and B are equivalent if there is one-to-one correspondence
between members of A and B. This is denoted as A ≈ 𝐵. If A and B are equivalent, then n(A) =
n(B), and vice-versa.

9. Universal Set: The set containing all elements under discussion in a particular problem is
called the universal set for that problem. The universal set is denoted as U or E.

2.4 Operations on Sets

Intersection of Sets

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The intersection of sets A and B, denoted as A ∩ B, is the set which consists of elements that are
common to A and B.

Example 1 Find the intersection of A = {a, d, c, d, e, f, g} and B = {a, b, c, d, h}.

Solution

A ∩ B = {a, c, d}

If it happens that A ∩ B = Ø, then A and B are called disjoint sets.

Union of sets: If A and B are sets, the union of A and B, denoted as A ∪ B, is the set
A ∪ B = {𝑥: 𝑥 є A or 𝑥 є B}

Complement of a Set: If A is a subset of a universal set U , the complement of A , denoted as

A′ or A𝑐 , is the set of elements in the universal set which are not in A.

Example 2 If U = {1, 2, 4, 6, 9, 12}, A = {4, 6, 12} and B = {2, 4, 9}, find

(i) A𝑐

(ii) A𝑐 ∩ B

(iii) (A ∪ B)𝑐

Solution

(i) A𝑐 = {1, 2, 9}

(ii) A𝑐 ∩ B = {2, 9}

(iii) (A ∪ B)𝑐 = {1}

2.5 Venn Diagram

A Venn diagram is a pictorial representation of sets. This method of set representation was
developed by John Venn (1834 - 1923). It consists of a rectangle, which represents the universal
set in a particular problem, and circles inside the rectangle, representing subsets of the universal
set.

For example, suppose the universal set consists of the integers {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. Then the
diagram will be enclosed in a rectangle, and the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 will be
represented by points in the rectangle. If A is the set {1, 2, 3, 4}, then a circle will be drawn
inside the rectangle with 1, 2, 3 and 4 inside it and the other numbers outside:

7
If B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7} then A and B can be shown on the same diagram as follows, with the
common elements of A and B in the area common to the circles:

The operations of intersection, union and complementation can be demonstrated by Venn

diagrams as shown below.

Ac A ∩ B c or A − B

Two sets are equal if and only if they have the same Venn diagrams. An example is shown
below.

8
The operations of intersection, union and complementation can be demonstrated by Venn
diagram as shown below

𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝑐 ∩ 𝐶 𝑐 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 𝑐 𝐴𝑐 ∩ 𝐶 𝑐 ∩ 𝐵

𝐴∩𝐵∩𝐶

𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝑐 ∩ 𝐶 𝐴𝑐 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶

9
 𝐴𝑐 ∩ 𝐵𝑐 ∩ 𝐶

(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶)𝑐 or 𝐴𝑐 ∩ 𝐵𝑐 ∩ 𝐶 𝑐

Example 3 Let U = {all natural numbers less than or equal to 20}.

A = {factors of 12 }

B = {even numbers greater than 2 but less than or equal to 10 }

C = {factors of 16}

Represent the information in a Venn diagram. Hence, or otherwise, findA ∩ B c ∩ C c.

Solution

U= {1, 2, 3, . . . 20}

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12}, B = {4, 6, 8, 10}, C = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16}

13 5

14 A 7

15 12 10 B

3 6

1 2 4 8 9

17 11

16 C

18 20 19

From the diagram, A ∩ B c ∩ C c = {3, 12}.

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Alternatively,

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12} B 𝑐 = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20}

C 𝑐 = {3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20}

∴ A ∩ B c ∩ C c = {3, 12}

2.6 PROBLEM SOLVING USING VENN DIAGRAMS

2.6.1 Theorem: If A and B are finite sets, then n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B).

Proof

Let n(A ∩ B 𝑐 ) = a, n(A ∩ B) = x and n(A𝑐 ∩ B) = b.

Then,

n( A ∪ B ) = a + x + b

= (a + x) + (b + x) − x

= n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B)

Example 4 There are 40 students in Dr. Brown’s Finite Mathematics course and 50 in his
Calculus section. If these are his only classes, and if 20 of the students are taking both subjects,
how many students does he have altogether? Represent the data in a Venn diagram.

Solution

Let F = {students in Finite Mathematics class} and C = {students in Calculus class}

Since the number of students in both classes is 20, the set of students in Finite Mathematics only
has 20 members and the set of students in Calculus only has 30 members. The Venn diagram is
shown below.

The number of students he has = 20 + 20 + 30 = 70.

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Example 5 Out of 15 students in a class, 8 of them offer Biology, while 10 offer Chemistry. Find
the number of students that offer both subjects, if each of them offers at least one of the subjects.

Solution

B C

8–x x 10 - x

From the diagram,

8 − x + x + 10 − x = 15

x = 18 − 15

=3

3 of them offer Biology and Chemistry.

Example 6 500 people were asked about their morning vitamin intake. It was found that 150
take vitamin B, 200 take vitamin C, 165 take vitamin E, 57 take both B and C, 125 take both B
and E, 82 take both C and E, and 52 take all the three vitamins. How many take both B and E but
not C? How many take none of these vitamins?

Solution

We illustrate the data with this diagram.

From the data, 𝑣 = 52, 𝑣 + 𝑦 = 82, so 𝑦 = 30. 𝑣 + 𝑤 = 125, so 𝑤 = 73 and similarly 𝑢 =

5. Now 𝑡 + 𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑤 = 150, so 𝑡 = 20.

The other sides are calculated similarly, and we get the diagram

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The number of people who take B and E but not C is given by 𝑤 = 73.

The total number of people is 303, so the number of people who take none = 500 – 303=197.

Example 7 Each of 39 of my friends has a dog, a cat or a rabbit. Each of 24 of them has a dog,
each of 17 has a cat and each of 16 has a rabbit. The number having both a dog and a cat is 1
more than the number having both a cat and a rabbit. There are 9 who have both a dog and a
rabbit while 2 of them have all the three. How many of my friends have both a rabbit and a cat?

Solution

D = {my friends that have a dog}, C = {my friends that have a cat}, R = {my friends that have a
rabbit}

Let n(D ∩ C) = y. Then n(C ∩ R) = y − 1.

Also, n(D ∩ Rc ∩ C) = y − 2 and n(Dc ∩ R ∩ C) = y − 3.

n(D ∩ R ∩ C c ) = 9 − 2 = 7, n(D ∩ Rc ∩ C c ) = 24 − (y − 2 + 9) = 17 − y

n(Dc ∩ Rc ∩ C) = 17 − (2 + y − 2 + y − 3) = 20 − 2y,

n(Dc ∩ R ∩ C c ) = 16 − (y − 3 + 9) = 10 − y.

D U

17 – y C

y-2 20 – 2y

7 2 y-3

10 – y R

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From the Venn diagram above,

39 = 17 − y + 20 − 2y + 10 − y + 7 + y − 2 + y − 3 + 2

⇒ 39 = 51 − 2𝑦

2y = 12

y= 6

The number of my friends that have a rabbit and a cat = 2 + y – 3 = 5

Post - test

1. Which is a subset of {a, e, i, o, u}?

(a) {a, e, i, n} (b) {a, i, u} (c) {m, a, e, u} (d) {a, e, i, t} (e) {u, e, i, o, a}
(f) Ø

2. Write the set {𝑥: − 3 < 𝑥 ≤ 5 , 𝑥 is an integer} by listing the elements.

3. Write down all the subsets of

(a) {1, 2, 3, 4} (b) {𝑥, 𝑦}

4. Give n the universal set U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, M = {1, 2, 5} and N = {1, 3, 5}, find

(a) M ′ ∪ N ′ (b) M ′ ∩ N (c) n(M ∩ N 𝐶 )

5. Show, by giving example, that (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c .

6. Consider the Venn diagram in the figure below

A 7
8 1

2 4 B

5 6 9

10

14
List the elements of the set:

(a) Ac (b) Ac ∪ B c (c) (A ∪ B)c

7. In an examination involving 20 students, 12 passed Mathematics, 10 passed Physics and 3

failed both subjects. Find:

(i) the number of students that passed both subjects;

(ii) the number of students that passed Physics but failed Mathematics.

8. Let P and Q be two finite sets such that n(P ∪ Q) = 54, n(P ∩ Q) = 8 and n(Q) = 27. Find
n(P).

9. In a group of 20 students, 9 like bread but not beans while 14 like bread. How many like beans
but not bread?

10. In a class of 35 students, 19 take History and 12 take Economics. If 5 take both subjects, how
many take neither?

11. Of a group of 200 persons, 100 are interested in Music, 70 are interested in Photography and
40 like Skiing. Also 40 are interested in both Music and Photography, 30 in both Music and
Skiing, 20 in both Photography and Skiing, while 20 are interested in Photography but not in
Music or Skiing. How many persons are interested in all the three?

MODULE 3 THEORY OF QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

Introduction: In this module, we consider the theory of quadratic equations. We discuss the
various methods for solving quadratic equations, classification of the roots of quadratic
equations, symmetric functions of the roots.

Objectives: At the end of the module, the reader/ students should be able to:

1. Give examples of quadratic equations.

2. Solve quadratic equations.

3. Find discriminant and classify the roots of quadratic equations.

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 4. Find the sum and product of roots of a quadratic equation.

5. Evaluate symmetric functions of roots.

6. Form quadratic equations

Pre - test

1. Solve the following equations: (i) 2(3𝑥 − 2) − 4𝑥 = 5 (ii) 𝑥 2 − 16 = 0

2. Solve the following equations: (i) 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 1 = 0 (ii) 3𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 2 = 0

3.1 INTRODUCTION

A quadratic equation in 𝑥 is of the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, where 𝑎 ≠ 0. We shall consider

three methods for solving such an equation.

Examples of quadratic equations are 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 = 0, 4 + 𝑥 2 = 0, 5𝑦 2 + 8𝑦 = 0 and so on.

We shall consider three methods for solving quadratic equations.

3.2 METHODS FOR SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

1. Solution by factorization: If the value 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 is a perfect square, we can solve the equation
by factorizing and using the fact that if 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 = 0 then either 𝑎 = 0 or 𝑏 = 0.

Example 1 Solve the equation 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 4 = 0

Solution

3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 4 = 0

3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 4 = 0

3𝑥(𝑥 − 2) − 2(𝑥 − 2) = 0

(3𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 2) = 0

⇒ (3𝑥 − 2) = 0 or (𝑥 − 2) = 0

2
𝑥= or 𝑥 = 2
3
2. By completing the square

This method involves rearranging one side of the equation into a perfect square or expressing it
in complete form and then solve.

𝑎 𝑎2
Complete form of 𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 = (𝑥 + 2 )2 − 4

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 𝑎2 𝑎2 𝑎 2
To make 𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 a perfect square, add . We can then factorize 𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + = (𝑥 + 2 )
4 4

Example 2 Solve the equation 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 3 = 0

Solution

𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 3 = 0

𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 = −3

Complete the square on the L. H. S.

(𝑥 − 3)2 − 9 = −3

(𝑥 − 3)2 = 6

𝑥 − 3 = ±√6

𝑥 = 3 ± √6

3. Solution using the quadratic formula

The solutions to the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 are given by the formula

−𝑏 ± √𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
Proof

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0

𝑏 𝑐
𝑥2 + 𝑥 = −
𝑎 𝑎
Complete the square on the L. H. S.

𝑏 2 𝑐 𝑏2
(𝑥 + ) = − + 2
2𝑎 𝑎 4𝑎

𝑏 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥+ = ±√
2𝑎 4𝑎2

𝑏 √𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=− ±
2𝑎 2𝑎

17
 −𝑏 ± √𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
Example 3 Solve for 𝑥: 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 = 0

Solution

a = 2, b = −4, c = 1, 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = (−4)2 − 4(2)(1) = 16 − 8 = 8

−𝑏 ± √𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎

4 ± √8 4 ± 2√2 2(2 ± √2) 2 ± √2

= = = =
4 4 4 2

3.3 EQUATIONS REDUCIBLE TO QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

Example 4 Solve for 𝑥: (𝑥 2 − 3)2 − 5(𝑥 2 − 3) − 14 = 0

Solution

Put 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 3

The equation then becomes

𝑦 2 − 5𝑦 − 14 = 0

𝑦 2 − 7𝑦 + 2𝑦 − 14 = 0

𝑦 (𝑦 − 7) + 2(𝑦 − 7) = 0

(𝑦 − 7)(𝑦 + 2) = 0

𝑦 = 7 or 𝑦 = −2

⇒ 𝑥 2 − 3 = 7 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 − 3 = −2

𝑥 2 = 10 or 𝑥 2 = 1

𝑥 = ±√10 or 𝑥 = ±1

Example 5 Find the square root of √7 + 2√6

Solution

18
Assume the square root is √𝑎 + √𝑏.
2
⇒ 7 + 2√6 = (√𝑎 + √𝑏) = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 2√𝑎𝑏

⇒𝑎+𝑏 = 7 ⋯ (1)

𝑎𝑏 = 6 ⋯ (2)

From (1), 𝑏 = 7 − 𝑎

Substitute for 𝑏 in (2)

𝑎 (7 − 𝑎 ) = 6

𝑎2 − 7𝑎 + 6 = 0

(𝑎 − 6)(𝑎 − 1) = 0

𝑎 = 6 or 𝑎 = 1

⇒ 𝑏 = 1 or 𝑏 = 6

∴ √7 + 2√6 = √6 + 1

3.4 NATURE OF THE ROOTS OF A QUADRATIC EQUATION

Roots of an equation are the solutions of the equation.

Recall that the roots of the general quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 are given by

−𝑏 ± √𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎

−𝑏 ± √D
=
2𝑎
where D = 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐. D is called the discriminant of the quadratic equation.

Example 6 Find the discriminant of the equation 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 4 = 0

Solution

𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = −3, 𝑐 = 4

∴ D = 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = (−3)2 − 4 × 2 × 4 = 9 − 32 = −23

The roots of a quadratic equation are classified as:

19
(1) Real and distinct (2 distinct real roots) if D > 0;

(2) Real and equal (2 equal real roots) if D = 0;

(3) Complex roots (no real roots) if D < 0.

Example 7 Classify the roots of the following equations.

(a) 4𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 9 = 0

(b) 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 + 7 = 0

Solution

(a) 𝑎 = 4, 𝑏 = −12, 𝑐 = 9

D = 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = (−12)2 − 4 × 4 × 9 = 144 − 144 = 0

The roots are real and equal.

(b) 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = −2, 𝑐 = 7

𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = (−2)2 − 4 × 1 × 7 = 4 − 28 = −24

The roots are complex.

Example 8 If the equation 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1 = 𝑝(𝑥 − 3) has equal roots, find the possible values of
𝑝.

Solution

The condition for equal roots is 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0

𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1 = 𝑝(𝑥 − 3)

⇒ 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 𝑝𝑥 + 1 + 3𝑝 = 0

𝑥 2 − (3 + 𝑝)𝑥 + (1 + 3𝑝) = 0

Using the condition for equal roots,

∴ [−(3 + 𝑝)]2 − 4 × 1 × (1 = 3𝑝) = 0

𝑝2 + 6𝑝 + 9 − 4 − 12𝑝 = 0

𝑝2 − 6𝑝 + 5 = 0

(𝑝 − 5)(𝑝 − 1) = 0

20
 𝑝 = 5 𝑜𝑟 1

3.5 SUM AND PRODUCT OF THE ROOTS OF A QUADRATIC EQUATION

Let 𝛼 and 𝛽 be the roots of the quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, 𝑎 ≠ 0. Then

𝑏
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠, 𝛼 + 𝛽 = −
𝑎
𝑐
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠, 𝛼𝛽 =
𝑎
Proof

−𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐 −𝑏+√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐 −𝑏−√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐

Since 𝑥 = , take 𝛼 = and β =
2𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎

−𝑏+√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐 −𝑏−√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐 −2𝑏 −𝑏

Then 𝛼 + 𝛽 = + = =
2𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎 𝑎

and

−𝑏 + √𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 −𝑏 − √𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 𝑏2 − (𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐) 4𝑎𝑐 𝑐

𝛼𝛽 = × = = 2=
2𝑎 2𝑎 4𝑎2 4𝑎 𝑎
Example 9 Find the sum and product of the roots of the equation: 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 7 = 0.

Solution

𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = −5, 𝑐 = −7

5
∴ 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 =
3
7
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = −
3
3.6 SYMMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF THE ROOTS

A symmetric function of the roots 𝛼 and 𝛽 is an expression in terms of 𝛼 and 𝛽 in which, if 𝛼

and 𝛽 are interchanged, the function is interchanged or multiplied by -1.
1 1
Examples of symmetric functions are 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 , 3𝛼 − 3𝛽, 𝛼 + 𝛽 , 𝛼 3 − 𝛽 3 e.t.c. The following are
not: 3𝛼 + 𝛽 and 𝛼 2 + 𝛼𝛽.

We can express symmetric functions of 𝛼 and 𝛽 in terms of 𝛼 + 𝛽 and 𝛼𝛽 as we have below.

Useful Identities

21
 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛽

𝑘𝛼 + 𝑘𝛽 = 𝑘(𝛼 + 𝛽)

𝛼 2 𝛽 2 = (𝛼𝛽 )2

(𝛼 − 𝛽 )2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 4𝛼𝛽

𝛼 3 + 𝛽 𝟑 = (𝛼 + 𝛽 )𝟑 − 3𝛼𝛽(𝛼 + 𝛽)

Example 10 If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3 = 0, evaluate:

(a) 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2
𝛼 𝛽
(b) + 𝛼+1
𝛽+1

Solution

1 −3
𝛼+𝛽 =− , 𝛼𝛽 = = −1
3 3

2 2 2
1 2 19
(a) 𝛼 + 𝛽 = (𝛼 + 𝛽) − 2𝛼𝛽 = (− ) − 2(−1) =
3 9

𝛼 𝛽 𝛼(𝛼 + 1) + 𝛽(𝛽 + 1) 𝛼 2 + 𝛼 + 𝛽 2 + 𝛽
(b) + = =
𝛽+1 𝛼+1 (𝛽 + 1)(𝛼 + 1) 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽 + 𝛼 + 1

19 1
− 16 3 1
= 9 3= × − = −5
1 9 1 3
−3

3.7 FORMATION OF A NEW QUADRATIC EQUATION

The quadratic equation whose roots are 𝛼 and 𝛽 is

𝑥 2 − (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠)𝑥 + 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 0

Example 11 Find the equation whose roots are 1 ± √7.

Solution

𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = (1 + √7) + (1 − √7) = 2, 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = (1 + √7)(1 − √7)
= −6

So the equation is 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 6 = 0

22
Example12 If the roots of the equation 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 5 = 0 are 𝛼 and β, find the equation whose
roots are 𝛼 + 1 and 𝛽 + 1.

Solution
2 5
From the given equation, +𝛽 = 3 and 𝛼𝛽 = 3 .

For the new equation,

2 8
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = (𝛼 + 1) + (𝛽 + 1) = 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 2 = 3 + 2 = 3

2 5 10
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = (𝛼 + 1)(𝛽 + 1) = 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 1 = + +1 =
3 3 3
So the required equation is

8 10
𝑥2 − 𝑥 + =0
3 3
Multiply through by 3

3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 10 = 0

Post - test

1. Solve for 𝑥 by factorisation.

(i) 8𝑥 2 − 32 = 0 (ii) 3𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 = 6 (iii) 2(𝑥 2 − 7) = 𝑥 + 1 (iv) 5𝑥 2 − 44𝑥 + 32 = 0

2. Solve for 𝑥, by completing the square, leaving your answers in surd form.

(i) 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 4 (ii) 4𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 3 = 0

3. Solve for 𝑥 using the quadratic formula: (4𝑥 − 3)(2𝑥 − 1) = 5

4. Solve for 𝑥:

(a) 22𝑥 + 2 ∙ 2𝑥 − 8 = 0 (b) 2(4𝑥 ) + 4−𝑥 = 3 (c) (log 3 𝑥)2 − 5 log 3 𝑥 + 6 = 0

(d) 9𝑥 + 23√𝑥 − 12 = 0 (e) 𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 2 + 4 = 0

5. The sum and product of the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 + (𝑘 + 3)𝑥 + (2𝑘 + 2) = 0 are
−5 and 6 respectively, find the value of 𝑘.

6. Find the square roots of 9 − 4√2.

23
7. State the nature of the roots of the equations:

(a) 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 5 = 0 (b) 40𝑥 2 − 20𝑥 + 25 = 0 (c) 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 1 = 0

8. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 2 = 0, calculate the values of the
following.
1 1 1 1
(a) 𝛼 2 𝛽 + 𝛼𝛽 2 (b) 𝛼 + 𝛽 (c) (𝛼 + 𝛽)(𝛽 + 𝛼 ) (d) 𝛼 3 − 𝛽 3

9. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, show that 𝑎(𝛼 + 1)(𝛽 + 1) = 𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑐.

10. If the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥 − 10 = 0 are 𝛼 and 𝛽 and 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = 29, find the
values of 𝑘.

11. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 5 = 0, form the equation whose roots are
1 1
2𝛼 − 𝛽 and 2𝛽 − 𝛼 .

12. One roots of the equation 2𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 is three times the other roots. Prove that 3𝑏2 =
32𝑐

Module 4 REAL SEQUENCES/PROGRESSIONS AND SERIES

Introduction: We discuss real sequences and series in this module. A sequence is an ordered list
of numbers which a series is a sequence of partial sum. We also discuss their application to real
life problems.

Objectives: At the end of this module, the reader/ students should be able to:

1. Determine the next term of sequence.

2. Determine the nth term of arithmetic, geometric and harmonic progressions.

3. Find the arithmetic, geometric and harmonic means.

4. Find the sum of the first n terms of arithmetic and geometric series.

5. Find and solve problems on sum to infinity.

6. Find the sum of telescoping series.

7. Solve real life problems involving sequences and series.

Pre - test

24
 1. State the next two terms of the following sequences:

(i) 1, 3, 5, 7, ⋯ , 31
4 8
(ii) 3, 2, , ,⋯
3 9

(iii) 1, -1, 1, -1, 1,⋯

(iv) 3, 10, 21, 36,⋯

2. On commencing an employment a man is paid a salary of £7200 per annum and

receives annual increments of £350. Determine his salary in the 9th year and calculate
the total he will have received in the first 12 years.
1 1 1
3. Find the sum of the first six terms of the geometric series 4 + 8 + 16 + ⋯

4.1 DEFINITION

A sequence is an ordered list of numbers. Examples are given below.

(i) 1, 3, 5, 7, ⋯ , 31
4 8
(ii) 3, 2, , ,⋯
3 9

(iii) 1, -1, 1, -1, 1,⋯

(iv) 3, 10, 21, 36,⋯

The numbers in the ordered list are called ‘elements’ or ‘terms’. Each term is named according to
the position in the list. E.g. in (i), 1 is the first term, 3 is the second term, 5 is the third term and
so on. The nth term is denoted as 𝑎n .

Sequence may be finite or infinite. (i) above is an example of a finite sequence while (ii) – (iv)
are infinite.

Each sequence has a formula for obtaining its terms. For instance, the formula for the nth term of
(iv) is 𝑎n = n(2n + 1).

4.2 ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION OR SEQUENCE

In an Arithmetic Progression (A. P), the difference between a term and the preceding term is
always a constant. In other words, each term after the first is formed by adding a fixed amount,
called the common difference, to the preceding term. If 𝑎 is the first term, 𝑑 the common
difference and 𝑛 the number of terms of an A. P, then the terms are

25
 𝑎, 𝑎 + 𝑑, 𝑎 + 2𝑑, 𝑎 + 3𝑑, . . . 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑

So the nth (last) term of an A. P is given by the formula

𝑎n = 𝑎 + (n − 1)𝑑 ⋯ (4.1)

Example 1 Find the 14th term of the progression 2, 7, 12, 17, . . .

Solution

The sequence is an A. P.

𝑎 = 2, 𝑑 = 5, n = 14

a14 = 𝑎 + 13𝑑 = 2 + 13(5)

= 2 + 65 = 67

Example 2: Find the nth term of the sequence: 3, 10, 21, 36, 55, . . .

Solution

𝑎1 = 3 = 1 × 3

𝑎2 = 10 = 2 × 5

𝑎3 = 21 = 3 × 7

𝑎4 = 36 = 4 × 9

𝑎n = n × (3 + (n − 1)2)

= n(2n + 1)

Example 3 The 4th and 10th terms of an A. P. are -13 and -37 respectively. Find the sum of the
9th and 20th terms.

Solution

𝑎4 = 𝑎 + 3𝑑 = −13 ⋯ (i)

𝑎10 = 𝑎 + 9𝑑 = −37 ⋯ (ii)

(ii) − (i): 6𝑑 = −24

26
 𝑑 = −4

Put the value of 𝑑 in (i): 𝑎 − 12 = −13

𝑎 = −1

∴ 𝑎 + 𝑎20 = 2𝑎 + 19𝑑 = 2(−1) + 19(−4) = −78

Arithmetic Means

The arithmetic mean of two numbers 𝑥 and 𝑧 is the number 𝑦 such that 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 are in A. P. This
implies that

𝑦−𝑥 =𝑧−𝑦

2𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑧
𝑥+𝑧
𝑦=
2
For example, the arithmetic mean of -3 and 15 is 6.

Example 4 Insert five arithmetic means between 4 and 22.

Solution

We are to find 5 numbers 𝑣, 𝑤, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 such that 4, 𝑣, 𝑤, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 22are in A. P.

So,

𝑎1 = 𝑎 = 4

𝑎7 = 𝑎 + 6𝑑 = 22

⇒ 𝑑=3

∴ 𝑣 = 7, 𝑤 = 10, 𝑥 = 13, 𝑦 = 16, 𝑧 = 19

4.3 GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION OR EXPONENTIAL SEQUENCE

In a Geometric Progression, the ratio of a term and the immediately preceding term is always a
constant. This constant term is called the common ratio.

If 𝑎 is the first term and 𝑟 is the common ratio, then we have

𝑎1 = 𝑎

𝑎2 = 𝑎 × 𝑟

27
 𝑎3 = 𝑎 × 𝑟 2

𝑎n = 𝑎 × 𝑟 n−1

The nth term of a G.P. is 𝑎n = 𝑎𝑟 n−1 .

4 8
Example 5: Find the 12th term of the progression: 3, -2, 3, − 9, . . .

Solution

2
𝑎 = 3, 𝑟 = − , 𝑎 =?
3 12

𝑎12 = 3(− 2⁄3)11 = (−2)11 × (3)−10

Example 6 Find the possible values of 𝑥 if 𝑥 − 3, 𝑥 + 1 , 4𝑥 − 2 are in G.P.

Solution

Since 𝑥 − 3, 𝑥 + 1, 4𝑥 − 2 are in G.P.,

𝑥 + 1 4𝑥 − 2
=
𝑥−3 𝑥+1

⇒ (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 1) = (𝑥 − 3)(4𝑥 − 2)

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 = 4𝑥 2 − 14𝑥 + 6

3𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 + 5 = 0

(𝑥 − 5)(3𝑥 − 1) = 0
1
𝑥 = 5 or 3

Example 7 Find the 𝑛-th term of a G.P. whose 3rd term is 36 and whose 5th term is 324.

Solution

𝑎3 = 36, 𝑎5 = 324

𝑎5 𝑎𝑟 4 324
⇒ = = ⇒ 𝑟2 = 9
𝑎3 𝑎𝑟 2 36
36
Hence 𝑟 = ±3, 𝑎 = =4
9

28
𝑛-th term = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 = 4(3𝑛−1 ) or 4(−3)𝑛−1
3
Example 8 A ball is dropped from a height of 125 feet. If it rebounds 5 of the height from which
it falls every time it hits the ground, how high will it bounce after it strikes the ground for the
fifth time?

Solution
3 3
The first rebound= (125) = 75 feet. The second rebound= (75) = 45 feet. The heights of
5 5
3
the rebounds form a geometric sequence with first term75 and common ratio 5. Thus the fifth
term is

3 4 81 243 18
𝑎5 = 75 (5) = 75 (625) = 25
= 9 25 feet

Geometric Mean

If 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 are 3 consecutive terms of a G.P., then 𝑦 is called the geometric mean of 𝑥 and 𝑧. It is
given as

𝑦 = √𝑥𝑧

4.4 HARMONIC PROGRESSION

A sequence of the form

1 1 1
, , , . . .
𝑎 𝑎 + 𝑑 𝑎 + 2𝑑
is called a Harmonic Progression (H. P.). Note that the terms of an H.P. are reciprocals of the
terms of an A.P.
1
Hence, the 𝑛-th term of an H.P. is 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎+(𝑛−1)𝑑

1 1 1 1
Examples: (a) 2 , , , ,⋯
7 12 17

12 12 30
(b)12, 6, 4, 3, , 2, ⋯ (c) 10, 30, −30, −10, −6, ⋯
5 𝑛 5−2𝑛

Harmonic Mean

29
 2𝑥𝑧
If 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 are 3 consecutive terms of an H.P., then = 𝑥+𝑧 , is the Harmonic Mean of 𝑥 and 𝑧. For
1 1 1
example, 7 is the harmonic mean of and .
2 12

Example 9 Show that 12, 6, 4, 3, . . . is a harmonic progression. Find the next two terms and
state the formula for the nth term.

Solution

1 1 1 1 1
, , , , . . . is in A.P. with common difference 12. Therefore the original sequence is a
12 6 4 3
H.P.

5 6 12
The next two terms of the A.P. are 12 and 12. Therefore, the next two terms of the H.P. are and
5
2.

The nth term of the A.P. is

1 1 𝑛
𝑎𝑛 = + (𝑛 − 1) =
12 12 12

Therefore, the nth term of the H.P. is

12
𝑎𝑛 =
𝑛

4.5 SERIES

A series is a sequence of partial sum.

Given a sequence: 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , . . . , the corresponding series is 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ∙ ∙ ∙

If we denote the sum of the first n terms by Sn , then

S1 = 𝑎1

S2 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2

S3 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3

Sn−1 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ∙ ∙ ∙ +𝑎n−1

30
Sn = 𝑎
⏟1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ∙ ∙ ∙ +𝑎n−1 + 𝑎𝑛
Sn−1

∴ 𝑎n = Sn − Sn−1 ⋯ (4.2)

(4.2) can be used to find the nth term given the sum of the first nth term of the sequence.

Note: Another way of writing 𝑆𝑛 is

𝑛

𝑆𝑛 = ∑ 𝑎𝑖
𝑖=1

n2 (n+1)2
Example 10 The sum of the first n terms of a sequence is given by Sn = . Find the 5th
4
term of the sequence.

Solution
52 ×62 42 ×52
Using (4.2), 𝑎5 = S5 − S4 = −
4 4

= 225 − 100 = 125

Sum of an Arithmetic Progression

The sum 𝑆𝑛 of the first 𝑛 terms of an A.P. is called an Arithmetic Series.

Thus

𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑎 + 𝑑 ) + ∙ ∙ ∙ +[𝑎 + (𝑛 − 2)𝑑 ] + [𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 ] ⋯ (4.3)

𝑆𝑛 = [𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 ] + [𝑎 + (𝑛 − 2)𝑑 ] + ∙ ∙ ∙ +(𝑎 + 𝑑 ) + 𝑎 ⋯ (4.4)

Add (4.3) and (4.4): 2𝑆𝑛 = [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 ] + [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 ] + ∙ ∙ ∙ +[2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 ] +
[2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]
𝑛
⇒ 𝑆𝑛 = 2 [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]

𝑛 𝑛
∴ The sum of the first 𝑛 terms of an A.P. is 𝑆𝑛 = 2 [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 ] = 2 [𝑎 + 𝑎𝑛 ]

Example 11 Find the sum of the first 21 terms of the series: 3.5, 4.1, 4.7, 5.3, ∙ ∙ ∙

Solution

The sequence is an A.P.

𝑎 = 3.5, 𝑑 = 0.6, 𝑛 = 21

31
 21
𝑆21 = (2(3.5) + 20(0.6)) = 199.5
2

Example 12 Find the sum of all the numbers between 1 and 208 which are exactly divisible by
3.

Solution

The series 3, 6, 9, 12,⋯, 207 is an A.P. 𝑎 = 3, 𝑑 = 3, 𝑛 =? , 𝑎𝑛 = 207

From (6.1),

207 = 3 + (𝑛 − 1)3 = 3𝑛

⇒ 𝑛 = 69

69
∴ 𝑆69 = (3 + 207) = 7245
2
Example 13 Three numbers are in A.P. Their sum is 15and their product is 80. Determine the
three numbers.

Solution

Let the numbers be 𝑎 − 𝑑, 𝑎 and 𝑎 + 𝑑.

Their sum: 𝑎 − 𝑑 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑑 = 3𝑎 = 15

∴𝑎=5

Their product: (𝑎 − 𝑑 )𝑎(𝑎 + 𝑑 ) = 80

𝑎(𝑎2 − 𝑑 2 ) = 80

5(25 − 𝑑 2 ) = 80

(25 − 𝑑 2 ) = 16

𝑑2 = 9

𝑑 = ±3

The numbers are 2, 5 and 8.

We next consider an alternative method for solving example 2.

𝑎1 = 3

𝑎2 = 10 = 3 + 7

32
𝑎3 = 21 = 3 + 7 + 11

𝑎4 = 36 = 3 + 7 + 11 + 15

𝑎n = ⏟
3 + 7 + 11 + 15 + 19 + ∙ ∙ ∙ +𝑎(𝑛 − 1)𝑑

𝑛
= (2(3) + (𝑛 − 1)4)
2
𝑛
= (4𝑛 + 2)
2
= 𝑛(2𝑛 + 1)

Sum of a Geometric Progression

The sum 𝑆𝑛 of the first 𝑛 terms of a G.P. is called a Geometric Series. Thus

𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 + ∙ ∙ ∙ +𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1

⇒ 𝑟𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 + ∙ ∙ ∙ +𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛

Subtract:(1 − 𝑟)𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 − 𝑎𝑟 𝑛

𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
⇒ 𝑆𝑛 =
1−𝑟
𝑎(1−𝑟 𝑛)
The sum of the first 𝑛 terms of a G.P. is 𝑆𝑛 = 1−𝑟

Example 14 Evaluate
𝑛
2𝑘+3
∑
3𝑘
𝑘=2

Solution
𝑛
2𝑘+3 25 26 27 2𝑛+3
∑ = + + + ∙ ∙ ∙ +
3𝑘 32 33 34 3𝑛
𝑘=2

25 2
This is a G.P. containing (𝑛 − 1) terms with 𝑎 = 32 , 𝑟 = 3.

𝑛
2𝑘+3 1 − 𝑟 𝑛−1
⇒ 𝑆𝑛−1 = ∑ = 𝑎
3𝑘 1−𝑟
𝑘=2

33
 2 𝑛−1
1 − ( 3)
5
2
= 2
3 2
1−3

25 2 𝑛−1
= (1 − ( ) )
3 3

4.6 SUM TO INFINITY

The infinite sum

∞

𝑆∞ = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ∙ ∙ ∙ +𝑎𝑛 + ∙ ∙ ∙
𝑖=1

is called an infinite series of 𝑎𝑛 .

If 𝑆∞ is defined and finite, we say that the series converges or is convergent. We can also say
that

𝑆∞ = lim 𝑆𝑛
𝑛→∞

𝑎(1−𝑟 𝑛 )
For a G.P. with |r|<1, 𝑆𝑛 = . The value of 𝑟 𝑛 approaches zero as n tends to infinity. The
1−𝑟
sum of the first n terms as n approaches infinity is called the sum to infinity (𝑆∞ ).
𝑎
𝑆∞ =
1−𝑟
1. Geometric Series: For a Geometric Series,
𝑎
, if |𝑟| < 1
1−𝑟
𝑆∞ = {
+∞ , if |r| > 1
undefined , if 𝑟 = −1
1 1 1
Example 15 Find the sum to infinity of the sequence 1, − 4 , 16 , − 64 , . ..

Solution

1
𝑎 = 1, 𝑟 = −
4
𝑎 1
𝑆∞ = =
1−𝑟 1+1
4

34
 1
=
4+1
4
4
=
5
Example 16 Find the sum to infinity
∞
2𝑖+1
∑
3𝑖
𝑖=1

Solution
4 2
The series is a G.P. with 𝑎 = and 𝑟 =
3 3

4
𝑆∞ = 3
2
1−3

4 3
= ×
3 1
=4

2. Telescoping Series

A telescoping series is a series whose partial sums eventually only have a fixed number of terms
after cancellation.

Example 17 Evaluate
𝑛 ∞
1 1
(𝑎 ) ∑ (𝑏 ) ∑
𝑘(𝑘 + 1) 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)
𝑘=1 𝑘=1

Solution

Resolve into partial fractions

𝑛 𝑛
1 1 1
∑ = ∑[ − ]
𝑘(𝑘 + 1) 𝑘 𝑘+1
𝑘=1 𝑘=1

35
 1 1 1 1 1
= (1 − 2) + (2 − 3) + (3 − 4) + ∙ ∙ ∙
1 1 1 1
+ (𝑛−1 − 𝑛) + (𝑛 − 𝑛+1)

1
= 1 − 𝑛+1

𝑛
= 𝑛+1

∞
1 𝑛 1
(𝑏 ) ∑ = lim = lim =1
𝑘(𝑘 + 1) 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 + 1 𝑛→∞ 1 + 1
𝑘=1
𝑛

Post - test

1. Find the number of terms of the series 5, 8, 11, . . . of which the sum is 1025.

2. On commencing an employment a man is paid a salary of £7200 per annum and receives
annual increments of £350. Determine his salary in the 9th year and calculate the total he will
have received in the first 12 years.

3. 100 g of a radioactive substance disintegrates at a rate of 3% per annum. How much of the
substance is left after 11 years?

4. Find the value of 𝑘 such that 3𝑘 2 + 𝑘 + 1, 2𝑘 2 + 𝑘, 4𝑘 2 − 6𝑘 + 1 are in A.P.

5. Insert six arithmetic means between 7 and 77.

1
6. The sum of the first 10 terms of an A.P. is 142 2 and the 15-th term is 38. Find the common
difference and the sum of the first 21 terms.

7. Find the n-th term of the sequence:

(a) 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, . . .

(b) 3, 8, 13, 18, . . .

1 1 1 1
(c) 3 , 15 , 35 , 63 , . . .

(d) 8, -4, 2, -1, . . .

4 4
(e) 4, 2, , 1, 5 , . . .
3

36
8. If 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 are in H.P., show that
1 1 1 1
(a) + 𝑧 = 𝑦−𝑥 + 𝑦−𝑧
𝑥

2𝑥𝑧
(b) 𝑦 = 𝑥+𝑧

1 1 1
9. Find the 𝑛-th term and the sum of the first n terms of + 3∙5 + 5∙7 + ∙ ∙ ∙
1∙3

10. Evaluate
∞
7
(a) ∑
10𝑘
𝑘=0

∞
5 𝑘
(b) ∑ ( )
6
𝑘=0

∞
2𝑘+1
(c) ∑
5𝑘
𝑘=2

MODULE 5 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

Introduction: In this module, we discuss the principle of mathematical induction. The principle
of mathematical induction is a tool used to prove basic arithmetic fact about the natural numbers.

Objectives: At the of the module, the students/ reader should be able to apply the principle of
mathematical induction to prove basic arithmetic fact about natural numbers.

Pre - test

1. If 72𝑛 + 𝑘 is divisible by 3 for all 𝑛 𝜖 ℕ what is the least positive integral value of 𝑘?

2. Prove by mathematical induction to prove that 1 + 3 + 5 + ∙ ∙ ∙ +2𝑛 − 1 = 𝑛2

5.1 PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

Mathematical Induction is used to prove a basic arithmetic fact about the natural numbers.

Principle of Mathematical Induction: Let P(𝑛) be a statement concerning natural number 𝑛.

If (i) 𝑃(1) is true and

37
 (ii) the hypothesis that 𝑃(𝑘) is true for a particular 𝑘 is sufficient to ensure that it is also true
for 𝑃(𝑘 + 1) then 𝑃(𝑛) is true for every positive integer 𝑛 .
𝑛(𝑛+1)
Example 1 Prove by Mathematical Induction that 1 + 2 + 3 + ∙ ∙ ∙ +𝑛 = .
2

Solution

Let 𝑃(𝑛) be the given statement.

Consider 𝑛 = 1

L. H. S = 1

1(1 + 1)
R. H. S = = 1 = L. H. S
2
So the statement is true for 𝑛 = 1.

Let us assume the statement is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘, 𝑖. 𝑒

𝑘 (𝑘 + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ∙ ∙ ∙ +𝑘 =
2
We then prove that 𝑃(𝑘 + 1) is also true.
𝑘(𝑘+1)
L. H. S = (1 + 2 + 3 + ∙ ∙ ∙ +𝑘) + (𝑘 + 1) = + (𝑘 + 1) (From the assumption that
2
𝑃(𝑘) is true)
(𝑘+1)(𝑘+2)
= 2

(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 1 + 1)
R. H. S =
2
(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
= = L. H. S
2
Hence by the principle of mathematical induction, 𝑃(𝑛) is true for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.
𝑛(𝑛+1)(𝑛+2)
Example 2 Prove that 1 ∙ 2 + 2 ∙ 3 + 3 ∙ 4 + ∙ ∙ ∙ +𝑛(𝑛 + 1) = 3

Solution

Consider 𝑛 = 1.

L. H. S = 1(1 + 1) = 2

38
 1(1 + 1)(1 + 2)
R. H. S = = 2 = L. H. S
3
It is true for 𝑛 = 1.

Assume it is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘.

𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
1 ∙ 2 + 2 ∙ 3 + 3 ∙ 4 + ∙ ∙ ∙ +𝑘(𝑘 + 1) =
3
We then prove it for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1.

L. H. S = 1 ∙ 2 + 2 ∙ 3 + 3 ∙ 4 + ∙ ∙ ∙ +𝑘(𝑘 + 1) + (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)

𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
= + (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
3
(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(𝑘 + 3)
=
3
(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(𝑘 + 3)
R. H. S = = L. H. S
3
So 𝑃(𝑘 + 1) is true whenever 𝑃(𝑘) is true. Therefore, the statement is true for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ by the
principle of mathematical induction.

Example 3 Prove that 72𝑛 + 2 is a multiple of 3 for all natural numbers 𝑛.

Solution

Let 𝑃(𝑛) be the statement that 72𝑛 + 2 is a multiple of 3.

Consider 𝑛 = 1.

𝑃(1) = 49 + 2 = 51

= 3(17)

∴ 𝑃(1) is true

Assume 𝑃(𝑘) is true. Then there exists 𝑚 ∈ ℤ such that

72𝑘 + 2 = 3𝑚 ⋯ (1)

Now for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1

72𝑘+2 + 2 = 72𝑘 ∙ 72 + 2

39
 = 49(3𝑚 − 2) + 2 [72𝑘 = 3𝑚 − 2 from 1]

= 147𝑚 − 98 + 2

= 147𝑚 − 96

= 3(49𝑚 − 32)

= 3𝑡

Where 𝑡 = 49𝑚 − 32 ∈ ℤ. Hence it is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1. By the principle of mathematical

induction 𝑃(𝑛) is true for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.

Pose - test

Prove that for all integers 𝑛:

1. 15 is a factor of 24𝑛 − 1.

2. 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2) is divisible by 6.

3. 9 divides 22𝑛 − 3𝑛 − 1.

Use mathematical induction to prove that

4. 1 + 3 + 5 + ∙ ∙ ∙ +2𝑛 − 1 = 𝑛2

𝑛 2 (𝑛+1)2
5. 13 + 23 + 33 + ∙ ∙ ∙ +𝑛3 = 4

1 1 1 1 𝑛
6. 1∙2 + 2∙3 + 3.4 + ∙ ∙ ∙ + 𝑛(𝑛+1) = 𝑛+1

𝑛
𝑛(2𝑛 − 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
7. ∑(2𝑘 − 1)2 =
3
𝑘=1

8. 2𝑛 > 𝑛
1
9. The number of straight lines determined by 𝑛 > 1points, no three on the same, is 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1).

1
10. A convex polygon of 𝑛-sides has 𝑛(𝑛 − 3) diagonals.
2

MODULE 6 THE BINOMIAL THEOREM

Introduction: Here we are going to consider expansions of the form (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 , where 𝑛 ∈ ℝ.
We start with simpler cases like 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 and 4 and use this to introduce the Pascal’s triangle.

40
We discuss the binomial theorem. The theorem will be used to obtain the expansion for any
value of 𝑛, with interval of convergence in some cases.

Objectives: At the end of this module, the students/ reader should be able to:

1. Use the Pascal’s triangle to expand binomial expressions.

2. Apply the binomial theorem.

Pre – test

1. Expand and simplify (1 + 𝑥 )3 + (1 − 𝑥 )3.

2. Use the binomial theorem to expand (2𝑥 − 𝑦)4 .
3. Obtain the expansion of (1 − 𝑥 )−3 up to the term in 𝑥 2 .

6.1 INTRODUCTION

A binomial expression is the sum, or difference, of two terms. For example,

𝑥 + 1, 2𝑎 − 3𝑏, and 𝑥 − 𝑦

are all binomial expressions.

6.2 Theorem (The Binomial Theorem)

If 𝑥 and 𝑎 are any real numbers and 𝑛 is a positive integer, then

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
(𝑥 + 𝑎)𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 + ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑎 + ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑎2 + ∙ ∙ ∙ + ( ) 𝑥𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛
1 2 𝑛−1

𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 𝑛−2 2
= 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑎 + 𝑥 𝑎 + ∙ ∙ ∙ +𝑛𝑥𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛
2!
𝑛
𝑛
= ∑ ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−𝑟 𝑎𝑟
𝑟
𝑟=0

Example 1 Find the first five terms in ascending powers of 𝑥 of (2 + 3𝑥)7 .

Solution

By the binomial theorem,

7 7 7 7
(2 + 3𝑥)7 = 27 + ( ) 26 (3𝑥 ) + ( ) 25 (3𝑥)2 + ( ) 24 (3𝑥)3 + ( ) 23 (3𝑥)4 + ∙ ∙ ∙
1 2 3 4

41
 = 128 + 1344𝑥 + 6048𝑥 2 + 90720𝑥 3 + 136080𝑥 4 + ∙ ∙ ∙

The Binomial Coefficients and Pascal’s Triangle.

n = 0: 1

n = 1: 1 1

n = 2: 1 2 1

n = 3: 1 3 3 1

n = 4: 1 4 6 4 1

n = 5: 1 5 10 10 5 1

Pascal’s Triangle

Each number in the triangle, except those at the ends of the rows, which are always equal to 1, is
the sum of the two nearest numbers in the row above.

The numbers in the n-th row represent the binomial coefficients in the expansion of (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 .
For example

(𝑥 + 𝑦)5 = 𝑥 5 + 5𝑥 4 𝑦 + 10𝑥 3 𝑦 2 + 10𝑥 2 𝑦 3 + 5𝑥𝑦 4 + 𝑦 5

Example 2 Expand (𝑥 − 2)10 in ascending power of 𝑥 up to the term in 𝑥 3 .

Solution

10(9) 10(9)(8)
(𝑥 − 2)10 = (−2 + 𝑥)10 = (−2)10 + 10(−2)9 𝑥 + (−2)8 𝑥 2 + (−2)7 𝑥 3 + ∙ ∙ ∙
2(1) 3(2)(1)

= 1024 − 5120𝑥 + 11520𝑥 2 − 15360𝑥 3 + ∙ ∙ ∙

Example 3 Find the coefficient of 𝑥 3 in (1 + 𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 )(1 − 2𝑥)5

Solution

Since

(1 − 2𝑥)5 = 1 − 5(2𝑥) + 10(2𝑥)2 − 10(2𝑥)3 +∙ ∙ ∙= 1 − 10𝑥 + 40𝑥 2 − 80𝑥 3 + ∙ ∙ ∙

the 𝑥 3 term in (1 + 𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 )(1 − 2𝑥)5 is given by the sum of 1(−80𝑥 3 ),

𝑥(40𝑥 2 ) and 2𝑥 2 (−10𝑥) .

42
So the coefficient of 𝑥 3 is − 80 + 40 − 20 = −60.

2
Example 4 Find the constant term in the expansion of (𝑥 2 − 𝑥)6.

Solution
6 6
2 6 6 2 𝑟 6
(𝑥 − ) = ∑ ( ) (𝑥 2 )6−𝑟 (− ) = ∑ ( ) (−2)𝑟 (𝑥 )12−2𝑟−𝑟
2
𝑥 𝑟 𝑥 𝑟
𝑟=0 𝑟=0

6
6
= ∑ ( ) (−2)𝑟 (𝑥)12−3𝑟
𝑟
𝑟=0

For the constant term, the power of 𝑥 is 0. This correspond to 12 − 3𝑟 = 0. Which gives 𝑟 = 4.

So the constant term is

6
( ) (−2)4 = 15(16) = 24
4

6.3 Applications of Binomial Theorem

Example 5 Obtain the expansion of (2 + 𝑥)4. Use the expansion to find the value of (1.99)4,
correct to 4 decimal places.

Solution

(2 + 𝑥)4 = 24 + 4(2)3 𝑥 + 6(2)2 𝑥 2 + 4(2)𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 = 16 + 32𝑥 + 24𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4

If we compare (2 + 𝑥)4 with (1.99)4 , we will see that (1.99)4 = (2 − 0.01)4.

Substitute 𝑥 = −0.01 in the expansion above

(2 − 0.01)4 = 16 + 32(−0.01) + 24(−0.01)2 + 8(−0.01)3 + (−0.01)4

= 16 − 0.32 + 0.0024 − 0.000008 + 0.00000001 = 15.6824 (to 4decimal places)

6.4 The Binomial Theorem for 𝒏𝝐ℝ and |𝒙| < 𝟏

𝑛(𝑛−1) 𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2)
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥2 + ∙ ∙ ∙
2×1 3×2×1

Example 6: Find the following expansions up to the term containing 𝑥 4 .

43
 1
(a) (2+𝑥)3

(b) √1 − 2𝑥

Solution

1 𝑥
(a) (2+𝑥)3 = (2 + 𝑥)−3 = 2−3 (1 + 2)−3

Using the general formula:

𝑥 𝑥 (−3)(−4) 𝑥 2 (−3)(−4)(−5) 𝑥 3 (−3)(−4)(−5)(−6) 𝑥 4

(1 + )−3 = 1 + (−3) + + + +⋯
2 2 1×2 4 1×2×3 8 1×2×3×4 16

3𝑥 3 2 5 3 15 4
=1− + 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 +⋯
2 2 4 16

1 1 3𝑥 3 2 5 3 15 4
∴ 3
= (1 − + 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 +⋯ )
(2 + 𝑥) 8 2 2 4 16

valid for |𝑥 | < 2.

(b) √1 − 2𝑥

1 1 1 1 1
1 1 (2) (2 − 1) (2) (2 − 1) (2 − 2)
= (1 − 2𝑥 ) ⁄2 = 1 + ( ) (−2𝑥 ) + (−2𝑥 )2 + (−2𝑥 )3
2 2! 3!
1 1 1 1
(2) (2 − 1) (2 − 2) (2 − 3)
+ (−2𝑥)4 + ⋯
4!

𝑥 2 𝑥 3 5𝑥 4
= 1−𝑥− − − −⋯
2 2 8
1
valid for |𝑥 | < 2.

Post - test

1. Use the binomial theorem to expand (3 − 𝑥)5 .

1
2. Find the fifth term in the expansion of (𝑥 3 − 2𝑥)6 in the descending powers of 𝑥.

3. Find the possible values of 𝑎 if the coefficient of 𝑥 2 in the expansion of (1 + 𝑎𝑥)6 is the
same as the coefficient of 𝑥 3 in the binomial expansion of (1 + 2𝑥)10 .

44
4. Find the coefficient of 𝑥 2 in the expansion of (1 + 𝑥 )4 (2 − 𝑥)3

5. Evaluate (1.02)12 correct to 4 decimal places.

6. a) Find the expansion of (𝑥 − 2𝑦)3 .

b) Obtain the first five terms in ascending powers of 𝑥 in the expansion of (2 + 𝑥)10 . Use the
expansion to find the value of 1.9910 correct to 4 decimal places.

c) Find the expansion of √1 − 2𝑥 up to the term containing 𝑥 4 .

MODULE 7 TRIGONOMETRY

Introduction: In this module, we will discuss Radian measure, Basic Trigonometric functions,
Trigonometric functions of general angles, Trigonometric identities, Addition and Product formula.

Objectives: At the end of this module, the students/ reader should be able to:

1. Convert angles from radians to degree and vice-versa.

2. Find the area of a sector, segment and length of an arc with the angles in degree or radian.

3. Solve problems on trigonometric ratios and state the trig. ratios of special angles.

4. Prove trigonometric identities.

5. Solve problems on addition and product formula.

Pre – test
3𝜋
1. Convert rad to degree.
2
2. Convert 300° to radian.
3 1−cos2 𝜃
3. Given that sin 𝜃 = 5 , evaluate .
cot 𝜃+csc 𝜃

7.1 Unit Circle

The unit circle is the circle with centre at the origin (0, 0) and radius 1.

45
Consider an angle 𝜃 in the unit circle. The angle is positive if it is measured in anticlockwise direction
from the 𝑂𝑥- axis. It is negative if it is measured in the clockwise direction.

Two angles are equivalent if their difference is a multiple of 360°. For instance, the following angles are
equivalent: 120°, −240°, 480° and 840°.

Angles can be measured in degrees, radians and gradient

7.2 Radian Measure

A radian is defined as the angle subtended by an arc of length 𝑟 in a circle of radius 𝑟. Recall the formula
for the length of an arc:

𝜃
𝑙= × 2𝜋𝑟 (1)
360°

If 𝜃 = 1 𝑟𝑎𝑑 and 𝑙 = 𝑟, then

2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 360°

180°
⇒ 1 𝑟𝑎𝑑 =
𝜋

Therefore,

180° 𝜋
1 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = and 1° = 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 0.017453 rad
𝜋 180

where 𝜋 = 3.14159.

Example 1: Convert (i) 45° (ii) 240° to radians.

Solution
𝜋 𝜋
(i) 45° = 45 × 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑
180 4

46
 𝜋 4𝜋
(ii) 240° = 240 × 180 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 3
𝑟𝑎𝑑

3
Example 2: Convert (i) 2 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 (ii) 4 𝑟𝑎𝑑 to degrees.

Solution
3 3 180°
(i) 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝜋 × = 270°
2 2 𝜋

180°
(ii) 4 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 4 × = 229°
𝜋

Length of an arc and Area of a sector

The length of an arc of radius 𝑟 and angle 𝜃 radian is

𝑙 = 𝑟𝜃 (2)

Area of the sector formed is given as

𝜃
𝐴= × 𝜋𝑟𝜃
360°
1
= 𝑟2𝜃 (3)
2
1
Example 3: Find the length of an arc of radius 30𝑐𝑚 which subtends 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 at the centre.
2

Solution

1
𝑙 = 30 × 𝜋𝑐𝑚 = 15𝜋 𝑐𝑚
2
3
Example 4: Find the area of a sector of radius 6cm which subtend angle 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 at the centre.
2

Solution

1 3
𝐴= × 62 × 𝜋 𝑐𝑚 2
2 2

= 27𝜋 𝑐𝑚 2

7.3 The Right Triangle

A closed figure composed of three lines will always include 3 angles. These figures are called triangles.
As a theorem ,the sum of the angles in a triangle is 180°.

A right angled triangle is a triangle in which one of its angles is 90°. The side of the triangle that is
opposite to the right angle is called hypotenuse.

47
Pythagoras’ theorem states that square of the length of the hypotenuse side equals the sum of the length of
the squares of the other sides.

7.4 The Basic Trigonometric Ratios

Given a right angled triangle ABC with 𝐶̂ = 90° as shown below,

C 𝑎 𝜃 B

the three basic trigonometric ratios are defined as follows

adjacent side
cosine of an angle = hypotenuse side

opposite side
sine of an angle = hypotenuse side

opposite side
tangent of an angle = adjacent side

𝑎 𝑏 𝑎
sin 𝐴 = cos 𝐴 = tan 𝐴 =
𝑐 𝑐 𝑏
𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
sin 𝐵 = cos 𝐵 = tan 𝐵 =
𝑐 𝑐 𝑎

Reciprocals of Basic Ratios

1
secant of an angle 𝜃 (sec 𝜃) =
cos 𝜃

1
cosecant of an angle 𝜃 (cosec 𝜃) = sin 𝜃

1
cotangent of an angle 𝜃 (cot 𝜃) = tan 𝜃

3 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
Example 5: Given that sin 𝜃 = 5, evaluate cot 𝜃+cosec 𝜃

Solution

3 5

C a 𝜃 B

48
Using Pythagoras’ theorem,

52 = 32 + 𝑎2

𝑎 = √25 − 9 = √16 = 4

4 3 5 4
cos 𝜃 = , tan 𝜃 = , cosec 𝜃 = , cot 𝜃 =
5 4 3 3
16 9 9
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 1 − 25 25 25 9 3 3
∴ = = = = × =
cot 𝜃 + cosec 𝜃 4 5 4+5 9 25 9 25
+ 3
3 3 3
Ratios of Complementary Angles

Two angles 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 are complementary if 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 = 90° (This means 𝜃1 = 90° − 𝜃2 ). For example
30° and 60° are complementary. From the definitions above

sin 𝜃 = cos(90° − 𝜃)

cos 𝜃 = sin(90° − 𝜃)

tan 𝜃 = cot(90° − 𝜃)

csc 𝜃 = sec(90° − 𝜃)

cot 𝜃 = tan(90° − 𝜃)

sec 𝜃 = csc(90° − 𝜃)

Example 6: Find the value of 𝑥 if sin 3𝑥° = cos(𝑥 + 50)°

Solution

sin 3𝑥° = cos(90° − 3𝑥)

⇒ cos(90° − 3𝑥°) = cos(𝑥 + 50)°

90° − 3𝑥° = 𝑥° + 50°

4𝑥° = 40°

𝑥 = 10

Trigonometric Ratios of Special Angles

Angle 𝜃 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 tan 𝜃

0° 0 1 0
30° 1 √3 √3
2 2 3

49
 45° √2 √2 1
2 2
60° √3 1 √3
2 2
90° 1 0 ∞

Trigonometric Functions of A General Angle

Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) be a point in the Cartesian plane, different from the origin. The axes divide the plane into four
parts called quadrant. These are labeled as I, II, III and IV or as first, second, third and fourth
respectively. The length OP is always positive. The signs of the coordinates in each quadrant are shown
below.

If 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) is in the first quadrant with OP making angle 𝜃 with the OX-axis, then

𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
sin 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 = tan 𝜃 = (4)
𝑟 𝑟 𝑥

All the trigonometric functions are positive in the first quadrant.

If 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) is in the second quadrant with OP making angle 𝜃 with the OX-axis, then

50
 𝑦
sin(180° − 𝜃) = = sin 𝜃
𝑟
−𝑥
cos(180° − 𝜃) = = − cos 𝜃
𝑟
𝑦
tan(180° − 𝜃) = − = − tan 𝜃
𝑥
√3
For example, cos 150° = cos(180° − 30) = − cos 30° = − 2

If 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) is in the third quadrant with OP making angle 𝜃 with the positive OX-axis, then

𝑦
sin(𝜃 − 180°) = − = − sin 𝜃
𝑟
−𝑥
cos(𝜃 − 180°) = = − cos 𝜃
𝑟
𝑦
tan(𝜃 − 180°) = = tan 𝜃
𝑥

Alternatively, the we can write these as

sin(180° + 𝜃) = − sin 𝜃

cos(180° + 𝜃) = − cos 𝜃

tan(180° + 𝜃) = tan 𝜃

√3
For example, tan 210° = tan(180° + 30°) = tan 30° =
3

51
If 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) is in the fourth quadrant with OP making angle 𝜃 with the positive OX-axis, then

𝑦
sin(360° − 𝜃) = − = −sin 𝜃
𝑟
𝑥
cos(360° − 𝜃) = = cos 𝜃
𝑟
𝑦
tan(360° − 𝜃) = − = − tan 𝜃
𝑥
1
For example, sin 330° = − sin 30° = − 2

Trigonometric Functions of Negative Angles

sin(−𝜃) = sin(360° − 𝜃) = − sin 𝜃

cos(−𝜃) = cos(360° − 𝜃) = cos 𝜃

tan(−𝜃) = tan(360° − 𝜃) = − tan 𝜃

1
For example, sin(−30°) = − sin 30° = − 2

Trigonometric functions of angles greater than 360°

sin(𝜃 + 𝑛 ∙ 360°) = sin 𝜃

cos(𝜃 + 𝑛 ∙ 360°) = cos 𝜃

tan(𝜃 + 𝑛 ∙ 360°) = tan 𝜃

1
For example, sin 510° = sin 150° = 2

Trigonometric functions of Quadrantal angles

Quadrantal angles are the angles whose terminal side coincides with one of the axes.

52
 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

Degrees 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 135° 150° 180°

Radians 0 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋
6 4 3 2 3 4 6
sin 𝑥 0 1 √2 √3 1 √3 √2 1 0
2 2 2 2 2 2
cos 𝑥 1 √3 √2 1 0 1 √2 √3 −1
− − −
2 2 2 2 2 2
tan 𝑥 0 √3 1 √3 ∞ −√3 -1 √3 0
−
3 3

𝑦 = tan 𝑥

7.5 TRIGONOMETRIC
IDENTITIES

Equations connecting the

trigonometric functions, which are
true for all values of angle 𝜃, are
called trigonometric identities.

From (4), we can deduce that

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 = (5)
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
53
Also from (4),

𝑦 2 + 𝑥2
sin2 𝜃 + cos2 𝜃 = =1
𝑟2

𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝜽 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝜽 = 𝟏 (6)

Divide (6) by sin2 𝜃: 𝟏 + 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝟐 𝜽 = 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐 𝜽 (7)

Divide (6) by cos2 𝜃: 𝟏 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝜽 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝜽 (8)

There are still many identities. We can verify any trigonometric identity by transforming one choice into
another as shown in the following examples.

sin2 𝜃+2 cos2 𝜃

Example 8: Verify the identity tan 𝜃 + 2 cot 𝜃 = sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
.

Solution

sin2 𝜃 + 2 cos2 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 2 cos2 𝜃

= + = tan 𝜃 + 2 cot 𝜃
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
sin2 𝜃+2 cos2 𝜃
Thus, tan 𝜃 + 2 cot 𝜃 = sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
.

1 1
Example 7: Prove that 1+cos 𝜃 + 1−cos 𝜃 = 2 csc 2 𝜃.

Solution

1 1 1 − cos 𝜃 + 1 + cos 𝜃 2 2
+ = = = = 2 csc 2 𝜃
1 + cos 𝜃 1 − cos 𝜃 (1 + cos 𝜃)(1 − cos 𝜃) 1 − cos 𝜃 sin2 𝜃
2

sin 𝑥 1−cos 𝑥
Example 8: Verify that = .
1+cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥

Solution

sin 𝑥 1 − cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 (1 − cos 𝑥) sin 𝑥 (1 − cos 𝑥 ) sin 𝑥 1 − cos 𝑥

= ∙ = = =
1 + cos 𝑥 1 − cos 𝑥 1 + cos 𝑥 1 − cos2 𝑥 sin2 𝑥 sin 𝑥

7.6 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF TWO ANGLES

ADDITION FORMULA

sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) = sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 + cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽

cos(𝛼 + 𝛽) = cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 − sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽

tan 𝛼 + tan 𝛽
tan(𝛼 + 𝛽) =
1 − tan 𝛼 tan 𝛽

SUBTRACTION FORMULA

54
 sin(𝛼 − 𝛽) = sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 − cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽

cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) = cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 + sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽

tan 𝛼 − tan 𝛽
tan(𝛼 − 𝛽) =
1 + tan 𝛼 tan 𝛽
𝜋
Example 9: Find the value cos 12 in surd form.

Solution
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
cos = cos ( − ) = cos cos + sin sin
12 4 6 4 6 4 6

√2 √3 √2 1
= × + ×
2 2 2 2

√6 √2 √6 + √2
= + =
4 4 4
4 12
Example 10: If sin 𝐴 = 5 and cos 𝐵 = 13, where 𝐴 is obtuse and 𝐵 is acute, find without using tables the
values of sin(𝐴 + 𝐵).

Solution

sin2 𝐴 + cos2 𝐴 = 1

16 9
cos2 𝐴 = 1 − sin2 𝐴 = 1 − =
25 25

9 3
cos 𝐴 = ±√ = ±
25 5

3
Since A is obtuse cos 𝐴 = − 5

5
Similarly, sin 𝐵 = 13.

4 12 5 3
sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + sin 𝐵 cos 𝐴 = × + × (− )
5 13 13 5
48 15 33
= − =
65 65 65

DOUBLE ANGLES FORMULA

sin 2𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃

cos 2𝜃 = cos2 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃 = 2 cos2 𝜃 − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 𝜃

55
 2 tan 𝜃
tan 2𝜃 =
1 − tan2 𝜃
HALF ANGLE FORMULA

1 1 − cos 𝜃
sin 𝜃 = ±√
2 2

1 1 + cos 𝜃
cos 𝜃 = ±√
2 2

1 1 − cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 1 − cos 𝜃

tan 𝜃 = ±√ = =
2 1 + cos 𝜃 1 + cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃

Example 11: Rewrite each of the following expressions as a single function of an angle.

I. 2 sin 15° cos 15°

tan 22°+tan 53°
II. 1−tan 53° tan 32°
1−cos 84°
III. √
2

1
Example 12: Find the exact value of sin 22 2 °

Example 13: If tan(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 33 and tan 𝑥 = 3, find tan 𝑦.

Products of Sines and Cosines

1
sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 = [sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) + sin(𝛼 − 𝛽)]
2
1
cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽 = [sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) − sin(𝛼 − 𝛽)]
2
1
cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 = [cos(𝛼 + 𝛽) + cos(𝛼 − 𝛽)]
2
1
sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽 = [cos(𝛼 + 𝛽) − cos(𝛼 − 𝛽)]
2
Sum and Difference of Sines and Cosines

1 1
sin 𝛼 + sin 𝛽 = 2 sin (𝛼 + 𝛽) cos (𝛼 − 𝛽)
2 2
1 1
sin 𝛼 − sin 𝛽 = 2 cos (𝛼 + 𝛽) sin (𝛼 − 𝛽)
2 2

56
 1 1
cos 𝛼 + cos 𝛽 = 2 cos (𝛼 + 𝛽) cos (𝛼 − 𝛽)
2 2
1 1
cos 𝛼 − cos 𝛽 = −2 sin (𝛼 + 𝛽) sin (𝛼 − 𝛽)
2 2
Post - test

1. Verify the following identities:

(i) sec 2 𝑥 csc 2 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥 + csc 2 𝑥

sec 𝑥−tan 𝑥 1
(ii) √ =
sec 𝑥+tan 𝑥 sec 𝑥+tan 𝑥

sin 𝑥 1+cos 𝑥
(iii) 2 csc 𝑥 = 1+cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥

(iv) (1 − cos 𝑥)(1 + sec 𝑥 ) cot 𝑥 = sin 𝑥

(v) (1 + tan 𝑥)2 + (1 − tan 𝑥)2 = 2 sec 2 𝑥

2𝑡
2. Given that tan 𝜃 = 1−𝑡 2, and that 𝜃 is an acute angle, express sin 𝜃 and cos 𝜃 in terms of 𝑡.

3. Express sin 50° sin 20° as sum or difference of cosine.

4. Express cos 70° + cos 10° as a product of trigonometric functions.

sin 4𝛼+sin 2𝛼
5. Prove that cos 4𝛼+cos 2𝛼 = tan 3𝛼

6. Transform 4 cos 𝑥 + 3 sin 𝑥 into the form 𝑐 cos(𝑥 − 𝛼).

7. Prove that cos 130° + cos 110° + cos 10° = 0

MODULE 8 COMPLEX NUMBERS

Introduction: In module 1 of the course we discussed the real numbers system. We have also
learnt how to solve quadratic equations with real roots. However, some equations do not have
solutions within the real numbers system. For example, 𝑥 2 = −1 does not have a real root. To be
able to find the square roots of negative number, the symbol 𝑖 is taken to be √−1 . So the
solution is ±𝑖. In this module we discuss complex numbers.

Objectives: At the end of this module, the students/ reader should be able to:

1. Give examples of complex numbers.

57
 2. Add, subtract, multiply and divide complex numbers.

3. Convert complex numbers from rectangular form to polar form and vice-versa.

4. State and apply De Moivre’s theorem.

5. Find the roots of complex numbers.

Pre – test

1. Simplify 3(1 − 2𝑖 ) + 2(4 + 3𝑖 ) − 4(1 − 𝑖).

2. Express (3 − 2𝑖 )2 in the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖.
3. Express 𝑖 3 (1 + 𝑖 ) + 𝑖 5 (3 − 𝑖) in the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖.
4. Solve the equation 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 5 = 0.

8.1 Introduction

Pure Imaginary Numbers: The square root of a negative number (e.g. √−1, √−5, √−16) is
called a pure imaginary number. With the symbol 𝑖 = √−1, it then implies that

√−5 = √5 × √−1 = √5𝑖

√−16 = √16 × √−1 = 4𝑖

The symbol 𝑖 has the property 𝑖 2 = −1; and for higher integral powers we have

𝑖 3 = 𝑖 2 × 𝑖 = −1 × 𝑖 = −𝑖

𝑖 4 = 𝑖 2 × 𝑖 2 = −1 × −1 = 1

𝑖 5 = (𝑖 4 ) × 𝑖 = 𝑖

and so on.

Complex Numbers: A complex number is a number that can be expressed in the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖,
where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers and 𝑖 2 = −1. The first term 𝑎 is called the real part and the
second term 𝑏 is called the imaginary part.

The symbol ℂ is used to denote the complex numbers system.

Two complex numbers 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 and 𝑐 + 𝑑𝑖 are said to be equal if and only if 𝑎 = 𝑐 and 𝑏 = 𝑑.

Example 1 Solve the quadratic equation 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 5 = 0.

58
 Solution

Using the quadratic formula

−3 ± √32 − 4(1)(5) −3 ± √−11

𝑥= =
2(1) 2

−3 ± √−11
=
2

−3 ± √11𝑖 3 √11
= =− ± 𝑖
2 2 2

8.2 Algebra of Complex Numbers

Let 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 and 𝑦 = 𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑 be two complex numbers.

1. Addition: 𝑥 + 𝑦 = (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏) + (𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑 ) = (𝑎 + 𝑐 ) + 𝑖(𝑏 + 𝑑)

Example 2 (3 + 2𝑖 ) + (−7 + 5𝑖 ) = −4 + 7𝑖

2. Subtraction: 𝑥 − 𝑦 = (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏) − (𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑 ) = (𝑎 − 𝑐 ) + 𝑖(𝑏 − 𝑑)

Example 3 (9 − 2𝑖 ) − (4 + 𝑖 ) = 5 − 3𝑖

3. Multiplication: 𝑥 ∙ 𝑦 = (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏)(𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑 ) = 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑎𝑑𝑖 + 𝑏𝑐𝑖 + 𝑏𝑑𝑖 2 = 𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏𝑑 + (𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐)𝑖

4. Division: To divide two complex numbers, multiply both the numerator and denominator of
the fraction by the conjugate of the denominator.

The conjugate of a complex number 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 is the complex number 𝑧̅ = 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖. Thus, −2 +

3𝑖 and −2 − 3𝑖 are pair of conjugate complex numbers.

Example 4

2 + 3𝑖 (2 + 3𝑖) (4 + 5𝑖) 8 + 10𝑖 + 12𝑖 − 15

= ∙ =
4 − 5𝑖 (4 − 5𝑖) (4 + 5𝑖) 16 + 20𝑖 − 20𝑖 + 25

−7 + 22𝑖 7 22
= =− + 𝑖
41 41 41

Example 5 Express the following in the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖.

5(1+𝑖) 2 (2+3𝑖) 2
i) ( ) (ii) 𝑖(4−5𝑖) + 𝑖 (iii) 𝑖 3 (1 + 𝑖 ) + 𝑖 5 (3 − 𝑖 ) + 𝑖 7 (2 + 𝑖)
1+3𝑖

59
 Solution

5(1 + 𝑖) 2 5 + 5𝑖 5 + 5𝑖 25 + 25𝑖 + 25𝑖 − 25

i) ( ) =( )( )=
1 + 3𝑖 1 + 3𝑖 1 + 3𝑖 1 + 3𝑖 + 3𝑖 − 9

50𝑖
=
−8 + 6𝑖

50𝑖 −8 − 6𝑖
= ∙
−8 + 6𝑖 −8 − 6𝑖

−400𝑖 + 300
=
64 + 48𝑖 − 48𝑖 + 36

−400𝑖 + 300
=
100

= 3 − 4𝑖

(2 + 3𝑖) 2 2 + 3𝑖 + 2(4 − 5𝑖)

ii) + =
𝑖(4 − 5𝑖) 𝑖 𝑖(4 − 5𝑖)

2 + 3𝑖 + 8 − 10𝑖
=
5 + 4𝑖

−7𝑖 + 10
=
5 + 4𝑖

−7𝑖 + 10 5 − 4𝑖
= ∙
5 + 4𝑖 5 − 4𝑖

−35𝑖 − 28 + 50 − 40𝑖
=
25 + 16

22 − 75𝑖 22 75
= = − 𝑖
41 41 41

iii) 𝑖 3 (1 + 𝑖 ) + 𝑖 5 (3 − 𝑖 ) + 𝑖 7 (2 + 𝑖 ) = 𝑖 3 + 𝑖 4 + 3𝑖 5 − 𝑖 6 + 2𝑖 7 + 𝑖 8

= −𝑖 + 1 + 3𝑖 + 1 − 2𝑖 + 1

=3

Example 6 Find the quadratic equation whose roots are 3 + 𝑖 and 3 − 𝑖.

Solution

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Sum of the roots = (3 + 𝑖 ) + (3 − 𝑖 ) = 6

Product of the roots = (3 + 𝑖 )(3 − 𝑖 ) = 9 + 1 = 10

The equation is 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 10 = 0

8.3 The Argand Diagram

Argand diagram is a pictorial representation of complex numbers.

The complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 may be represented graphically by the point P whose

rectangular coordinates are (𝑥, 𝑦).

The x- axis is called the real axis and the y- axis is the imaginary axis. In addition to representing
a complex number by a point P in the complex plane, the number may be represented by the
directed line segment or vector OP.

61
The length OP = 𝑟 is called the modulus or absolute value of the complex number 𝑧. It is also
written as |𝑧|. By Pythagoras’ theorem,

𝑟 = |𝑧| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

Note that

𝑧 ∙ 𝑧̅ = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)(𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = |𝑧|2

Example 7 The modulus of 3 + 4𝑖 = √32 + 42 = √25 = 5

8.4 Polar or Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers

62
A complex number can be described in terms of its modulus and the positive angle 𝜃 the vector
makes with the positive x- axis. The angle 𝜃 is called the amplitude or argument of 𝑧.

From the diagram, we can see that

𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 ; 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟2

𝑦 𝑦
tan 𝜃 = so that 𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
𝑥 𝑥

Therefore 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝑖𝑟 sin 𝜃

= 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)

𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) is called the polar form of 𝑧.

Example 8 Write −4√3 − 4𝑖 in polar form.

Solution

2
𝑟 = √(−4√3) + (−4)2 = √48 + 16 = √64 = 8

Note that the complex number is in the third quadrant.

−4 1
So 𝜃 = tan−1 (−4 3) = tan−1 ( 3) = 210°
√ √

Therefore, the polar form is

𝑧 = 8(cos 210° + 𝑖 sin 210°)

63
Example 9 Write 8(cos 210° + 𝑖 sin 210°) in rectangular form.

Solution

√3 1
8(cos 210° + 𝑖 sin 210°) = 8 (− − 𝑖) = −4√3 − 4𝑖
2 2

8.5 PRINCIPAL argument

On the circle, the angles 𝜃 and 𝜃 + 2𝑛𝜋, where 𝑛 is an integer, represent the same angle. It then
follows that the argument 𝜃 of a complex number 𝑧 is not unique.

The principal argument of a complex number, denoted by 𝐴𝑟𝑔(𝑧) is the value of the argument 𝜃
in the range (−𝜋, 𝜋] i.e. −𝜋 < 𝐴𝑟𝑔(𝑧) ≤ 𝜋

5
Example 10 The principal argument of −4√3 − 4𝑖 is −150° = − 6 𝜋

8.6 Multiplication and Division in Polar Form

Let 𝑧1 = 𝑟1 (cos 𝜃1 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃1 ) and 𝑧2 = 𝑟2 (cos 𝜃2 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃2 ) and recall that

cos(𝐴 ± 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 ∓ sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵

sin(𝐴 ± 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 ± sin 𝐵 cos 𝐴

1. Multiplication

𝑧1 ∙ 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 (cos 𝜃1 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃1 ) ∙ 𝑟2 (cos 𝜃2 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃2 )

= 𝑟1 𝑟2 (cos 𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 + 𝑖 cos 𝜃1 sin 𝜃2 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 − sin 𝜃1 sin 𝜃2 )

= 𝑟1 𝑟2 [cos(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖 sin(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 )]

So,

|𝑧1 𝑧2 | = 𝑟1 𝑟2 and 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧1 𝑧2 ) = 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧1 ) + 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧2 )

Example 11 3(cos 30° + 𝑖 sin 30°) ∙ 5(cos 70° + 𝑖 sin 70°) = 15(cos 100° + 𝑖 sin 100°)

2. Division

𝑧1 𝑟1 (cos 𝜃1 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃1 ) 𝑟1 (cos 𝜃1 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃1 ) (cos 𝜃2 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃2 )

= = ∙
𝑧2 𝑟2 (cos 𝜃2 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃2 ) 𝑟2 (cos 𝜃2 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃2 ) (cos 𝜃2 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃2 )

64
 𝑟1 (cos 𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 − 𝑖 cos 𝜃1 sin 𝜃2 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 + sin 𝜃1 sin 𝜃2 )
=
𝑟2 (cos 𝜃2 cos 𝜃2 − 𝑖 cos 𝜃2 sin 𝜃2 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃2 cos 𝜃2 + sin 𝜃2 sin 𝜃2 )

𝑟1
= [cos(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖 sin(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )]
𝑟2

So,

𝑧1 𝑟1 𝑧1
| | = , 𝑎𝑟𝑔 ( ) = 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧1 ) − 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧2 )
𝑧2 𝑟2 𝑧2
𝑧
Example 12 Find the quotient 𝑧1 given that 𝑧1 = 2(cos 300° + 𝑖 sin 300°) and 𝑧2 =
2
8(cos 200° + 𝑖 sin 200°).

Solution

𝑧1 2 1
| |= =
𝑧2 8 4

𝑧1
𝑎𝑟𝑔 ( ) = 300° − 200° = 100°
𝑧2

Therefore,

𝑧1 1
= (cos 100° + 𝑖 sin 100°)
𝑧2 4

3+4𝑖 2
Example 13 Find the modulus and argument of (7𝑖−2) .

Solution

3 + 4𝑖 2 3 + 4𝑖 2 32 + 42
|( |
) =| | = 2
−2 + 7𝑖 −2 + 7𝑖 2 + 72

9 + 16 25
= = = 0.472
4 + 49 53

3 + 4𝑖 2 3 + 4𝑖
𝑎𝑟𝑔 ( ) = 2𝑎𝑟𝑔 ( ) = 2[arg(3 + 4𝑖 ) − arg(−2 + 7𝑖)]
7𝑖 − 2 −2 + 7𝑖

4 7
= 2[tan−1 ( ) − tan−1 ( )]
3 −2

= 2[53.1° − 105.9°]
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 = 2(−52.8°)

= −105.6°

8.7 De Moivre’s TheoreM

If 𝑛 is any rational number and 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃), then

𝑧 𝑛 = [𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)]𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 (cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃)

Applications of De Moivre’s Theorem

10
Example 14 Evaluate (√3 − 𝑖)

Solution

Let 𝑧 = √3 − 𝑖.

2
|𝑧| = √(√3) + 1 = √3 + 1 = 2

1
arg(𝑧) = tan−1 (− ) = 330°
√3

𝑧 = 2(cos 330° + 𝑖 sin 330°)

∴ 𝑧 10 = 210 (cos 10(330°) + 𝑖 sin 10(330°))

= 1024(cos 3300 + 𝑖 sin 3300)

= 1024(cos 60° + 𝑖 sin 60°)

1 √3
= 1024 ( + 𝑖) = 512 + 512√3𝑖
2 2

Example 15 Express sin 3𝜃 in terms of sin 𝜃.

Solution

By De Moivre’s theorem:

(cos 3𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 3𝜃) = (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)3

= cos 3 𝜃 + 3cos 2 𝜃(𝑖 sin 𝜃 ) + 3 cos 𝜃 (𝑖 sin 𝜃)2 + (𝑖 sin 𝜃)3

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 = cos 3 𝜃 + 3𝑖cos 2 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − 3 cos 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 − 𝑖sin3 𝜃

= (cos 3 𝜃 − 3 cos 𝜃 sin2 𝜃) + 𝑖(3cos 2 sinθ − sin3 𝜃)

Comparing the imaginary parts of the equation above we obtain

sin 3𝜃 = 3cos 2 sinθ − sin3 𝜃

= 3(1 − sin2 𝜃) sin 𝜃 − sin3 𝜃

= 3 sin 𝜃 − 3sin3 𝜃 − sin3 𝜃

= 3 sin 𝜃 − 4sin3 𝜃

Example 16 Show that if 𝑧 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 and 𝑚 is a positive integer then

1 1
𝑧𝑚 + 𝑚
= 2 cos 𝑚𝜃 and 𝑧 𝑚 − 𝑚 = 2𝑖 sin 𝑚𝜃
𝑧 𝑧

Solution

By De Moivre’s theorem:

𝑧 𝑚 = (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)𝑚

= cos 𝑚𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑚𝜃

Also,

1
= 𝑧 −𝑚 = (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)−𝑚
𝑧𝑚

= cos 𝑚𝜃 + 𝑖 sin(−𝑚𝜃)

= cos 𝑚𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝑚𝜃

1
∴ 𝑧𝑚 + = cos 𝑚𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑚𝜃 + cos 𝑚𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝑚𝜃 = 2 cos 𝑚𝜃
𝑧𝑚

1
𝑧𝑚 − = cos 𝑚𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑚𝜃 − cos 𝑚𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑚𝜃 = 2𝑖 sin 𝑚𝜃
𝑧𝑚

Example 17 Show that 8sin4 𝜃 = cos 4𝜃 − 4 cos 2𝜃 + 3

Solution

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From the last example, we have that

1 4
(𝑧 − ) = (2𝑖 sin 𝜃)4 = 16sin4 𝜃
𝑧

Also,

1 4 1 1 1 1
(𝑧 − ) = 𝑧 4 − 4𝑧 3 ∙ + 6𝑧 2 . 2 − 4𝑧 ∙ 3 + 4
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧

1 1
= 𝑧 4 − 4𝑧 2 + 6 − 4 2
+ 4
𝑧 𝑧

1 1
= 𝑧4 + 4
− 4 (𝑧 2 + 2 ) + 6
𝑧 𝑧

= 2 cos 4𝜃 − 8 cos 2𝜃 + 6

8.8 ROOTS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

Let 𝑧 𝑛 = 𝜆 , where λ is a complex number. The equation has exactly 𝑛 distinct roots which is
given as

1⁄ 1⁄ 𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋 𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋
𝑧=𝜆 𝑛 =𝑟 𝑛 (cos + 𝑖 sin )
𝑛 𝑛

𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, ⋯ , 𝑛 − 1, 𝜃 is the argument and 𝑟 the modulusof 𝜆.

All the values of the n-th roots lie in a circle of radius 𝑛√|𝜆| with centre at zero dividing the
circle into n equal parts.

Example 18 Solve the equation 𝑧 5 − 4 = −4𝑖.

Solution

𝑧 5 = 4 − 4𝑖
5
𝑧 = √4 − 4𝑖

4 7
arg(4 − 4𝑖 ) = tan−1 (− ) = 315° = 𝜋
4 4

𝑟 = √42 + 42 = √32 = 4√2

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The fifth roots are given as

1⁄
5 315° + 360°𝑘 315° + 360°𝑘
𝑧𝑛 = (4√2) (cos + 𝑖 sin )
5 5

= √2(cos(63° + 72°𝑘) + 𝑖 sin(63° + 72°𝑘)) 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4

The five roots are

𝑧0 = √2(cos 63° + 𝑖 sin 63°)

𝑧1 = √2(cos 135° + 𝑖 sin 135°)

𝑧2 = √2(cos 207° + 𝑖 sin 207°)

𝑧3 = √2(cos 279° + 𝑖 sin 279°)

𝑧4 = √2(cos 351° + 𝑖 sin 351°)

Roots of Unity

The case when λ = 1 is called n-th roots of unity.

Note that 1 = cos 0 + 𝑖 sin 0.

So arg(1) = 0.

∴ If 𝑧 𝑛 = 1, the 𝑛 − th roots are given as

1⁄ 2𝑘𝜋 2𝑘𝜋
𝑧𝑛 = 1 𝑛 = (cos + 𝑖 sin ) 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, ⋯ , 𝑛 − 1.
𝑛 𝑛

Example 19 The cube roots of unity are

𝑧0 = 1

1 √3
𝑧1 = (cos 120° + 𝑖 sin 120°) = − + 𝑖
2 2

1 √3
𝑧2 = (cos 240° + 𝑖 sin 240°) = − − 𝑖
2 2

Example 20 Find all the fourth roots of −16.

Solution
69
Modulus of −16 = 16

−16 = −16 + 0𝑖

0
arg(−16) = tan−1 ( )=𝜋
−16
4 1⁄ 𝜋+2𝑘𝜋 𝜋+2𝑘𝜋
√−16 = 16 4 (cos
4
+ 𝑖 sin 4
) 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, 3

The four roots are

𝜋 𝜋 √2 √2
𝑧0 = 2 (cos + 𝑖 sin ) = 2 ( + 𝑖 ) = √2 + 𝑖√2
4 4 2 2

3𝜋 3𝜋 −√2 √2
𝑧1 = 2 (cos + 𝑖 sin ) = 2 ( + 𝑖 ) = −√2 + 𝑖√2
4 4 2 2

5𝜋 5𝜋 −√2 √2
𝑧2 = 2 (cos + 𝑖 sin ) = 2 ( − 𝑖 ) = −√2 − 𝑖√2
4 4 2 2

7𝜋 7𝜋 √2 √2
𝑧3 = 2 (cos + 𝑖 sin ) = 2 ( − 𝑖 ) = √2 − 𝑖√2
4 4 2 2

Post - test

1. Simplify the following expressions in the form 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖.

(a) (2 − 3𝑖 ) + 2(5 + 2𝑖 ) − 7(3 + 𝑖) (b) (3 + 2𝑖 )3 − 𝑖 4 (𝑖 3 + 2)

4𝑖 2 2
(c) (1 + 𝑖 )2 + (1 − 𝑖 )2 (d) (1+2𝑖)2 (e) 2+𝑖 − 2−𝑖

2. Solve for 𝑧 when (𝑧 + 2𝑖 )(1 − 𝑖 ) = 5𝑖

3. Mark on an Argand diagram the points representing the following numbers:

(a) 3 + 2𝑖 (b) −1 − 3𝑖 (c) 2 (d) 5𝑖

4. Express the following complex numbers in polar form.

(a) −1 + √3𝑖 (b) 6√3 + 6𝑖

70
 𝑧1
5. Find the modulus and argument of 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧1 𝑧2 and when 𝑧1 = 1 + 𝑖 and 𝑧2 = √3 + 𝑖. What
𝑧2
do you notice?

6. The points A, B, C and D represents the numbers 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 , and 𝑧4 and O is the origin. If
OABC is a parallelogram, and 𝑧1 = 1 + 𝑖, 𝑧2 = 4 + 5𝑖, find 𝑧3 .

7. Express the following complex numbers 𝑧 in rectangular form:

2 2
(a) 3(cos 90° + 𝑖 sin 90°) (b) 2(cos 245 ° + 𝑖 sin 245°) (c) 5(cos 3 𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 3 𝜋)

8. Perform the indicated operations, giving the result in both rectangular and polar form.

(a) 3(cos 25° + 𝑖 sin 25°) ∙ 2(cos 100° + 𝑖 sin 100°)

1
(b) 6(cos 150° + 𝑖 sin 150°) ÷ 2 (cos 25° + 𝑖 sin 25°)

9. Evaluate each of the following using De Moivre’s theorem and express each result in
rectangular form:

4 −2
(a) (1 + 𝑖√3) (b) (−1 + 𝑖 )10 (c) (√3 − 𝑖)

10. Use De Moivre’s theorem to prove the trig identities:

(a) sin 2𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃

(b) cos 5𝜃 = cos 5 𝜃 − 10cos 3 𝜃sin2 𝜃 + 5 cos 𝜃 sin4 𝜃

11. If 𝑧 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 then use De Moivre’s theorem to show that

1 1
(a) 𝑧 + 𝑧 = 2 cos 𝜃 (b) 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 2 = 2 cos 2𝜃

cos 𝜃−𝑖 sin 𝜃

12. Simplify cos 4𝜃−𝑖 sin 4𝜃

13. Solve the equation 𝑧 4 − 2 + 2√3𝑖 = 0

14. Find the tenth roots of 1.

15. Find the equation whose roots are 3 + 2𝑖 and 3 − 2𝑖.

16. Simplify (1 + 𝑖 )10 − (1 − 𝑖)10 .

17. Given that n is a positive integer, show that (1 + 𝑖 )4𝑛 − (1 − 𝑖 )4𝑛 = 0.

71
18. Show that the three roots of 𝑧 3 = 1 can be expressed in the form 1, 𝜔, 𝜔2 .
Hence show that 1 + 𝜔 + 𝜔2 = 0.
Using this relation and the fact that 𝜔3 = 1, simplify the following
𝜔5
(a) (1 + 𝑤)7 (b) 1+𝑤 (c) (1 − 𝜔)(1 − 𝜔2 )

72