UNIT-I

INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Definition:
Mechanical engineering is a diverse and interdisciplinary field of engineering that focuses on
the design, analysis, development, and maintenance of mechanical systems, devices, and
processes. It is often referred to as the "mother" of all engineering disciplines because it
serves as the foundation for various engineering specialties.
Scope of Mechanical Engineering:
Design and Analysis: Mechanical engineers are responsible for creating and optimizing the
design of various mechanical components and systems. They use computer-aided design
(CAD) software and simulations to ensure efficiency, reliability, and safety.
Manufacturing and Production: Mechanical engineers play a crucial role in developing
manufacturing processes and techniques. They are involved in selecting the right materials,
designing manufacturing systems, and improving production methods to enhance efficiency
and reduce costs.
Thermodynamics and Energy Systems: This aspect of mechanical engineering deals with
the study of energy, heat transfer, and thermodynamic principles. Mechanical engineers work
on the design and optimization of energy systems, such as engines, power plants, and HVAC
(heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) systems.
Materials Science: Understanding the properties and behavior of materials is fundamental
for mechanical engineers. They select materials based on their suitability for specific
applications, considering factors like strength, durability, and thermal properties.
Robotics and Automation: Mechanical engineers are at the forefront of robotics and
automation technologies. They design robotic systems for manufacturing, healthcare, and
various industries to improve precision, efficiency, and safety.
Aerospace Engineering: In the aerospace industry, mechanical engineers work on the design
and development of aircraft, spacecraft, and related systems. They focus on aerodynamics,
propulsion systems, and structural integrity.
Automotive Engineering: Mechanical engineers are involved in the automotive industry,
designing vehicles, engines, and safety features. They work on innovations like electric and
autonomous vehicles to improve efficiency and sustainability.
Environmental Sustainability: Mechanical engineers contribute to sustainability efforts by
designing eco-friendly products, renewable energy systems, and energy-efficient
technologies.
Biomechanics and Medical Devices: Mechanical engineers apply their expertise to the
design of medical devices, prosthetics, and healthcare equipment. They aim to enhance
patient care and improve the quality of life.
Research and Development: Mechanical engineers engage in research to develop cutting-
edge technologies and solve complex engineering challenges. They are crucial in advancing
fields like nanotechnology, 3D printing, and artificial intelligence.
Consulting and Management: Many mechanical engineers move into consulting or
management roles, where they oversee projects, budgets, and teams, ensuring the successful
execution of engineering projects.
The scope of mechanical engineering is broad and constantly evolving, making it a dynamic
and exciting field that contributes significantly to technological advancements and the
betterment of society.
Mechanical engineering is inherently interdisciplinary, meaning it draws upon and
collaborates with various other fields and disciplines to solve complex problems and develop
innovative solutions. Here are some key aspects highlighting the interdisciplinary nature of
mechanical engineering:
Physics and Mathematics: Mechanical engineering heavily relies on principles of physics
and mathematics to analyze and model mechanical systems. Concepts like Newton's laws of
motion, thermodynamics, and calculus are fundamental to understanding and designing
mechanical systems.
Materials Science: Mechanical engineers work closely with materials scientists to select and
develop materials with the right properties for specific applications. The choice of materials
impacts the performance, durability, and safety of mechanical systems.
Electrical and Electronic Engineering: In modern mechanical systems, electronics and
sensors play a vital role. Mechanical engineers collaborate with electrical and electronic
engineers to integrate control systems, sensors, and actuators into machines and devices.
Computer Science and Programming: Computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided
engineering (CAE) software are integral tools for mechanical engineers. They work with
computer scientists to develop software for simulation, modeling, and data analysis.
Chemistry: Understanding the chemical properties of materials and their interactions with
environmental factors is crucial in material selection and corrosion prevention, which are
vital aspects of mechanical engineering.
Biomechanics and Medicine: Mechanical engineers contribute to the field of biomechanics,
working alongside medical professionals to design prosthetics, artificial organs, and medical
devices that improve healthcare outcomes.
Environmental Science: Given the increasing emphasis on sustainability, mechanical
engineers collaborate with environmental scientists to design eco-friendly systems, such as
renewable energy technologies and energy-efficient buildings.
Aerospace Engineering: The aerospace industry involves both mechanical and aerospace
engineers who collaborate on aircraft and spacecraft design, propulsion systems, and
aerodynamics.
Civil Engineering: In civil engineering projects, such as bridges and dams, mechanical
engineers may collaborate to address structural integrity and the mechanical aspects of
construction and maintenance.
Manufacturing and Industrial Engineering: Mechanical engineers working in
manufacturing industries often partner with industrial engineers to optimize production
processes, improve quality control, and enhance efficiency.
Robotics and Automation: Mechanical engineers work hand-in-hand with experts in
robotics, control systems, and artificial intelligence to develop autonomous systems and
robots for various applications.
Business and Management: As mechanical engineers advance in their careers, they may
need to collaborate with professionals in business, management, and project management to
ensure the successful execution of engineering projects.
The interdisciplinary nature of mechanical engineering enables engineers to address complex
real-world challenges, innovate across multiple domains, and contribute to advancements in
various industries. This collaboration with other fields underscores the versatility and
significance of mechanical engineering in modern society

Role of Mechanical Engineers in Energy sector:

Mechanical engineers play a crucial role in the energy sector by applying their knowledge of
mechanical systems, thermodynamics, and fluid mechanics to design, develop, and maintain
various components and processes related to the generation, conversion, and utilization of
energy. Here are some key areas where mechanical engineers contribute to the energy sector:
Power Generation: Mechanical engineers are involved in the design and maintenance of
power generation systems, such as steam turbines, gas turbines, and internal combustion
engines. They work on optimizing these systems for efficiency, reliability, and safety.
Renewable Energy: Mechanical engineers are at the forefront of renewable energy
technologies like wind, solar, and hydroelectric power. They design and analyze the
mechanical components of wind turbines, solar panels, and hydroelectric generators.
Fossil Fuel Energy: In the case of fossil fuel energy, mechanical engineers work on
improving the performance and environmental impact of power plants and refining processes.
They develop technologies for carbon capture and emissions reduction.
Energy Storage: Mechanical engineers contribute to the development of energy storage
systems, including batteries, flywheels, and pumped hydro storage. They design and optimize
these systems for maximum efficiency and longevity.
Transmission and Distribution: Mechanical engineers are involved in the design of
transmission and distribution systems for electricity and other forms of energy. They ensure
that these systems can efficiently transport energy over long distances while minimizing
losses.
HVAC Systems: In buildings and industrial facilities, mechanical engineers design heating,
ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems to optimize energy efficiency and comfort.
Energy Efficiency: Mechanical engineers work on energy-efficient technologies and
processes across various industries. They conduct energy audits, analyze data, and
recommend improvements to reduce energy consumption.
Nuclear Energy: Mechanical engineers are involved in the design and maintenance of
nuclear power plants, focusing on reactor components, cooling systems, and safety measures.
Research and Development: Mechanical engineers often engage in research and
development to explore innovative energy solutions, such as advanced materials, novel
energy conversion techniques, and new energy storage technologies.
Environmental Sustainability: They play a role in addressing environmental concerns
related to energy production, such as reducing emissions, minimizing waste, and promoting
sustainable practices.
Safety and Compliance: Mechanical engineers ensure that energy systems and processes
meet safety standards and regulatory requirements, minimizing the risks associated with
energy production and distribution.
Project Management: They are often involved in project management roles, overseeing the
planning, design, and execution of energy projects, ensuring they are completed on time and
within budget.
In summary, mechanical engineers in the energy sector contribute to the design, optimization,
and maintenance of various energy systems, with a focus on efficiency, sustainability, and
safety. Their expertise is crucial in addressing the growing global demand for clean and
reliable energy sources.
Role of Mechanical Engineers in Automotive sector: Mechanical engineers play a pivotal
role in the automotive sector, contributing to the design, development, and improvement of
vehicles in various ways. Their impact is felt across multiple aspects of the automotive
industry:
Vehicle Design: Mechanical engineers are involved in the early stages of vehicle design,
where they use computer-aided design (CAD) software to create detailed 3D models of cars
and components. They ensure that the design meets safety, performance, and efficiency
standards.
Engine Development: Engine design and optimization are core areas where mechanical
engineers make a significant impact. They work on combustion engines (internal combustion
engines) and increasingly on electric powertrains, focusing on efficiency, emissions
reduction, and overall performance.
Safety Systems: Mechanical engineers design and integrate safety systems, including airbags,
seatbelts, crumple zones, and collision avoidance technologies. These systems are critical for
protecting passengers in the event of an accident.
Materials Selection: Selecting the right materials is crucial for vehicle design. Mechanical
engineers consider factors like strength, weight, durability, and cost when choosing materials
for various components, such as the chassis, body, and engine components.
Aerodynamics: Optimizing the vehicle's aerodynamics is essential for fuel efficiency and
performance. Mechanical engineers work on reducing drag and improving airflow to enhance
both fuel economy and handling.
Suspension and Handling: Mechanical engineers fine-tune suspension systems and chassis
design to ensure a comfortable and stable ride. They balance factors like ride comfort and
handling performance to create an enjoyable driving experience.
Transmission and Gearbox: Transmission design and efficiency are key considerations for
mechanical engineers. They work on both manual and automatic transmissions to maximize
power delivery to the wheels.
Testing and Validation: Mechanical engineers conduct rigorous testing and validation
processes, including crash tests, emissions testing, and durability testing, to ensure vehicles
meet safety and regulatory standards.
Manufacturing Processes: Mechanical engineers collaborate with manufacturing teams to
optimize production processes, reduce costs, and ensure the quality of vehicle components.
They may also work on automation and robotics in the manufacturing line.
Emissions Reduction: In response to environmental concerns, mechanical engineers develop
technologies like catalytic converters and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) systems to reduce
emissions and meet strict emission standards.
Electric and Hybrid Vehicles: With the shift towards electric and hybrid vehicles, mechanical
engineers are at the forefront of designing electric motors, battery systems, and power
electronics to create sustainable and efficient electric propulsion systems.
Autonomous Vehicles: Mechanical engineers contribute to the development of autonomous
vehicles by designing sensors, actuators, and control systems that enable self-driving
capabilities.
Telematics and Infotainment: The integration of technology into vehicles, such as
infotainment systems and connectivity features, also involves mechanical engineers in
designing the physical interfaces and housing for these components.
Supply Chain Management: Mechanical engineers often work in supply chain management to
ensure the timely delivery of vehicle components and materials, helping maintain efficient
production processes.
Regulatory Compliance: Staying up-to-date with safety and environmental regulations is
essential. Mechanical engineers are responsible for ensuring that vehicles comply with local
and international standards.
The role of mechanical engineers in the automotive sector is multidisciplinary and
continually evolving. Their contributions are essential for improving vehicle performance,
safety, sustainability, and overall driving experience in a rapidly changing industry.

Role of Mechanical Engineers in Aerospace sector:

Mechanical engineers play a critical and multifaceted role in the aerospace industry,
contributing to the design, development, testing, and maintenance of aircraft and spacecraft.
Their expertise is essential for ensuring the safety, performance, and reliability of aerospace
systems. Here are some key aspects of their role in the aerospace industry:
Aircraft Design: Mechanical engineers are involved in the design of aircraft, including
commercial airliners, military jets, and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). They work on
various aspects of the aircraft's structure, such as the fuselage, wings, landing gear, and
control surfaces, to optimize aerodynamics, weight distribution, and structural integrity.
Aircraft Systems: Mechanical engineers design and integrate critical systems within aircraft,
including propulsion systems (jet engines or turboprops), hydraulic systems, landing gear
mechanisms, and avionics. They ensure these systems operate efficiently and reliably under
extreme conditions.
Spacecraft Design: For spacecraft, mechanical engineers work on the design and construction
of components such as the spacecraft's body (spaceframe), propulsion systems (rocket
engines or thrusters), and thermal control systems. They must consider the challenges of
operating in the vacuum of space, where extreme temperatures and radiation are common.
Aerodynamics: Mechanical engineers play a key role in optimizing the aerodynamics of
aircraft and spacecraft. They use computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations and wind
tunnel testing to analyze and improve the vehicle's performance, stability, and fuel efficiency.
Structural Analysis: Mechanical engineers perform stress analysis and finite element analysis
(FEA) to ensure that aircraft and spacecraft structures can withstand the forces they encounter
during flight, including turbulence, G-forces, and vibrations.
Materials Selection: Selecting the right materials is crucial in aerospace engineering.
Mechanical engineers consider factors like strength-to-weight ratios, heat resistance, and
durability to choose materials for various components.
Manufacturing and Production: Mechanical engineers collaborate with manufacturing teams
to develop production processes that meet strict quality standards and regulatory
requirements. They may also work on automation and robotics for assembly and inspection.
Safety and Reliability: Ensuring the safety and reliability of aerospace systems is paramount.
Mechanical engineers conduct risk assessments, failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA),
and reliability engineering to identify and mitigate potential issues.
Testing and Validation: Mechanical engineers are involved in planning and executing
rigorous testing procedures, including ground testing, flight testing, and component testing, to
validate the performance and safety of aerospace systems.
Environmental Considerations: Aerospace engineers address environmental concerns by
designing more fuel-efficient engines, reducing emissions, and developing quieter aircraft to
meet environmental regulations and contribute to sustainability efforts.
Space Exploration: In the realm of space exploration, mechanical engineers design spacecraft
for missions to explore our solar system and beyond. They work on landers, rovers, and
instruments for planetary exploration missions.
Aircraft and Spacecraft Maintenance: Mechanical engineers are also involved in the
maintenance, repair, and retrofitting of existing aircraft and spacecraft, ensuring that they
remain safe and operational throughout their service life.
Emerging Technologies: Mechanical engineers are at the forefront of developing emerging
aerospace technologies, such as electric propulsion systems for aircraft and new materials for
spacecraft construction.
The aerospace industry demands precision, innovation, and attention to detail, and
mechanical engineers are at the core of ensuring that aerospace systems are not only cutting-
edge but also safe, reliable, and environmentally responsible. Their contributions help
advance aviation and space exploration, driving technological progress and expanding our
understanding of the universe.
Mechanical engineering plays a significant and multifaceted role in the healthcare industry,
contributing to the design, development, and improvement of various medical devices,
equipment, and systems. Mechanical engineers work collaboratively with medical
professionals to enhance patient care, improve diagnostic accuracy, and advance medical
research. Here are some key ways in which mechanical engineering is involved in healthcare:
Medical Device Design: Mechanical engineers are instrumental in designing a wide range of
medical devices, including surgical instruments, diagnostic equipment, prosthetic limbs, and
implantable devices like pacemakers and artificial organs. They ensure these devices meet
safety and performance standards while addressing specific medical needs.
Biomechanics: Mechanical engineers apply principles of mechanics to study the mechanics
of the human body. They analyze how forces, stresses, and strains affect biological tissues
and organs, which is essential for designing orthopedic implants, assistive devices, and
rehabilitation equipment.
Medical Imaging: Mechanical engineers contribute to the development of medical imaging
technologies such as X-ray machines, MRI scanners, CT scanners, and ultrasound devices.
They design the mechanical components, cooling systems, and positioning mechanisms that
allow for accurate and safe imaging.
Prosthetics and Orthotics: Mechanical engineers work on the design and development of
prosthetic limbs and orthotic devices to enhance mobility and quality of life for individuals
with limb loss or mobility impairments.
Rehabilitation Equipment: Mechanical engineers design rehabilitation equipment like
wheelchairs, mobility aids, and physical therapy devices to assist patients in regaining
strength and mobility after injuries or surgeries.
Drug Delivery Systems: Engineers design and improve drug delivery systems, including
insulin pumps, inhalers, and controlled-release drug capsules, to ensure precise dosing and
patient comfort.
Surgical Robotics: Mechanical engineers are involved in the development of surgical robots
and robotic-assisted surgical systems. These systems enhance the precision and dexterity of
surgeons, reducing invasiveness and improving patient outcomes.
Ventilation and Life Support Systems: Mechanical engineers design mechanical ventilation
systems and life support equipment for intensive care units and operating rooms. These
systems are critical for supporting patients with respiratory and cardiac conditions.
Lab Equipment: Engineers design laboratory equipment, such as centrifuges, microscopes,
and analytical instruments, used by healthcare professionals and researchers for diagnostics
and experiments.
Micro-fabrication and Nanotechnology: Mechanical engineers contribute to the development
of micro-fabricated devices and nano-scale technologies for applications like point-of-care
diagnostics and drug delivery at the cellular level.
Safety and Regulatory Compliance: Mechanical engineers ensure that medical devices and
equipment comply with strict safety and regulatory standards, including FDA (Food and
Drug Administration) regulations, to guarantee patient safety and product efficacy.
Environmental Sustainability: Mechanical engineers in healthcare focus on designing eco-
friendly devices and technologies, such as energy-efficient medical equipment and
sustainable healthcare facilities, to reduce the industry's environmental footprint.
Research and Development: Engineers engage in research to develop innovative solutions to
complex medical challenges, pushing the boundaries of what is possible in healthcare.
The interdisciplinary nature of healthcare engineering, combining mechanical engineering
principles with biological and medical knowledge, drives advancements in medical
technology, ultimately leading to improved patient care, better treatment outcomes, and
enhanced quality of life for individuals worldwide.

Role of Mechanical Engineers in manufacturing sector:

Mechanical engineers play a crucial role in improving manufacturing processes across
various industries. They apply their expertise to enhance efficiency, reduce costs, and ensure
product quality. Here's how mechanical engineers contribute to manufacturing process
improvement, with a focus on advancements in automation, robotics, and quality control:

1. Automation and Robotics:

Robotic Automation: Mechanical engineers design and integrate robotic systems into
manufacturing processes. These robots can perform repetitive tasks with high precision,
speed, and consistency, reducing human labor and the risk of errors. Robotic arms are used
for tasks like welding, assembly, painting, and material handling.
CNC Machining: Mechanical engineers work on the development of Computer Numerical
Control (CNC) machines, which are essential for precision machining operations. CNC
machines are highly automated and capable of producing complex parts with tight tolerances.
Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs): Engineers design AGVs, autonomous mobile robots
that transport materials and goods within manufacturing facilities. AGVs improve material
handling efficiency and reduce the need for manual labor.
Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS): Mechanical engineers design FMS, which consist of
interconnected machines and robots that can adapt to produce various products with minimal
reconfiguration. FMS systems enhance production flexibility and reduce downtime.
3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing: Engineers explore and develop 3D printing
technologies, which are automated processes that create complex parts layer by layer. These
processes are highly efficient for rapid prototyping and custom manufacturing.

2. Quality Control:
Precision Measurement and Inspection: Mechanical engineers work on advanced
measurement and inspection systems, such as Coordinate Measuring Machines (CMMs) and
optical inspection systems, to ensure that manufactured parts meet design specifications.
Statistical Process Control (SPC): Engineers use SPC techniques to monitor and control
manufacturing processes. By analyzing data in real-time, they can identify deviations from
quality standards and take corrective actions promptly.
Non-Destructive Testing (NDT): Mechanical engineers develop NDT methods, such as
ultrasonic testing and X-ray inspection, to assess the integrity of materials and components
without damaging them. This is critical for ensuring safety and reliability in industries like
aerospace and nuclear.
Quality Management Systems (QMS): Engineers implement QMS, including standards like
ISO 9001, to establish quality control processes, documentation, and continuous
improvement practices within manufacturing facilities.
Advanced Materials Testing: Mechanical engineers use advanced materials testing
techniques, such as tensile testing, hardness testing, and fatigue testing, to evaluate the
mechanical properties of materials and ensure they meet specific requirements.
Automated Inspection Systems: Engineers design automated inspection systems using
computer vision and machine learning algorithms. These systems can detect defects,
anomalies, and deviations from quality standards in real-time.

3. Energy Efficiency and Sustainability:

Energy Audits: Mechanical engineers conduct energy audits in manufacturing facilities to
identify areas where energy consumption can be reduced. They may recommend
improvements in lighting, HVAC systems, and machinery to optimize energy efficiency.
Sustainable Materials and Processes: Engineers explore eco-friendly materials and
manufacturing processes that minimize waste, reduce emissions, and promote sustainability
in manufacturing operations.
Lean Manufacturing: Mechanical engineers implement Lean principles and practices to
eliminate waste, streamline processes, and improve overall efficiency in manufacturing
facilities.
The involvement of mechanical engineers in manufacturing process improvement leads to
increased productivity, reduced production costs, enhanced product quality, and a more
sustainable approach to manufacturing. Their contributions are essential for maintaining
competitiveness and meeting the demands of today's global manufacturing landscape
Role of Mechanical Engineer in Marine sector:
Mechanical engineers play a vital role in the marine sector, which encompasses industries
related to ships, boats, offshore structures, and maritime technology. Their expertise is
essential for the design, construction, operation, and maintenance of various marine systems
and equipment. Here's a breakdown of the role of mechanical engineers in the marine sector:
Ship Design and Construction: Mechanical engineers are involved in the design and
construction of all types of vessels, from small boats to large cargo ships and naval vessels.
They work on hull design, propulsion systems, and the integration of various onboard
systems, ensuring the vessels are efficient, safe, and seaworthy.
Propulsion Systems: Mechanical engineers design and optimize propulsion systems for ships,
including diesel engines, gas turbines, and electric propulsion. They focus on maximizing
fuel efficiency, reducing emissions, and ensuring reliable performance.
Fluid Dynamics and Hydrodynamics: Understanding fluid dynamics is crucial in designing
hulls and underwater components. Mechanical engineers use their knowledge to minimize
drag, improve stability, and enhance the overall hydrodynamic performance of ships.
Marine HVAC Systems: Mechanical engineers design heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning (HVAC) systems for ships, ensuring comfortable living conditions for crew and
passengers while accounting for the unique challenges of the marine environment.
Safety Systems: They are responsible for the design and installation of safety systems and
equipment, such as fire suppression systems, life-saving appliances, and emergency power
systems, to meet stringent maritime safety regulations.
Marine Propeller Design: Mechanical engineers work on the design and optimization of
marine propellers, tailoring them to specific ship types and operational requirements for
improved efficiency and reduced vibration.
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems: These engineers design and maintain hydraulic and
pneumatic systems used in various shipboard applications, such as steering systems, cargo
handling equipment, and crane operations.
Materials and Corrosion Control: Mechanical engineers select materials that can withstand
the corrosive marine environment and develop strategies to prevent corrosion, ensuring the
longevity and reliability of marine structures and equipment.
Offshore Structures: In addition to ships, mechanical engineers are involved in the design of
offshore structures, such as oil rigs, floating platforms, and underwater pipelines. They ensure
these structures can withstand harsh marine conditions.
Naval Architecture: Some mechanical engineers specialize in naval architecture, focusing on
ship design, stability analysis, and weight distribution to ensure ships meet performance,
safety, and regulatory requirements.
Environmental Compliance: They work on solutions to reduce the environmental impact of
marine operations, including emissions control systems, ballast water treatment, and waste
disposal systems.
Research and Development: Mechanical engineers in the marine sector engage in research
and development to innovate new technologies and materials for the maritime industry,
aiming to improve efficiency, reduce emissions, and enhance safety.
Maintenance and Repairs: They are involved in the maintenance, troubleshooting, and repair
of mechanical systems and equipment on board ships and offshore structures, ensuring they
remain in operational condition.
Overall, mechanical engineers in the marine sector play a pivotal role in shaping the design,
functionality, safety, and environmental sustainability of vessels and maritime infrastructure,
contributing to the efficient and safe movement of goods and people on the world's oceans
and waterways

ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Engineering materials refers to the group of materials that are used in the construction of
man-made structures and components. The primary function of an engineering material is to
withstand applied loading without breaking and without exhibiting excessive deflection. The
major classifications of engineering materials include metals, polymers, ceramics, and
composites.

Classification of Engineering materials

Metals Non -Metals Composite/advanced

materials
 Ferrous Metals  Polymers
o Iron o Plastics
o Steel o Rubbers
 Metal Matrix
o Cast Iron. etc  Ceramics
Composites
 Non Ferrous Metals  Semiconductors
(MMCs)
o Aluminum
 Polymer
o Brass
Matrix
o Bronze
Composites
o Titanium
(PMCs)
 Ceramic
Matrix
Composites
(CMCs)
 Smart
materials
 Biomaterials

Metals: A metal is a material any of various substances (as gold, tin, or copper) that have a
more or less shiny appearance, are good conductors of electricity and heat, can be melted, and
are usually capable of being shaped. especially one that is a chemical element rather than an
alloy.
Ferrous Metals: Ferrous material is the one in which iron is the major constituent, Ferrous
alloys (Iron-based Alloys): Such as steel, cast iron, and wrought iron.
Non-Ferrous Metals: These do not contain iron as the primary element.
Aluminium: Lightweight, corrosion-resistant, used in aerospace, automotive, and
construction.
Copper: Excellent electrical conductivity, used in electrical wiring and components.
Brass: Alloy of copper and zinc, used in fittings and decorative applications.
Bronze: Alloy of copper and tin, known for its strength and corrosion resistance.
Lead, Tin, Zinc, Nickel, etc.

Polymers:
Plastics: Lightweight, versatile, insulating, used in various applications like packaging,
automotive parts, and consumer goods.
Thermoplastics: Can be melted and remoulded multiple times (e.g., PVC, PE, PP).
Thermosetting Plastics: Once set, they cannot be remoulded (e.g., epoxy, phenolic).
Rubbers: Elastic materials with excellent resilience, used in tires, seals, and various
industrial applications.
Ceramics: A ceramic is a material that is neither metallic nor organic. It may be crystalline,
glassy or both crystalline and glassy. Ceramics are typically hard and chemically non-reactive
and can be formed or densified with heat.
Traditional Ceramics: Includes clay-based materials like porcelain, pottery, and bricks.
Advanced Ceramics: These are the engineering materials with enhanced properties and can
be used in high-tech applications like cutting tools, electronics, and aerospace components.
Composites: Combination of two or more materials to achieve specific properties (e.g., fiber-
reinforced composites
like carbon fiber reinforced polymers).
Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs): Metal combined with other materials like ceramics or
fibers.
Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs): Polymers combined with other materials like fibers
or fillers.
Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs): Ceramic combined with other materials for
enhanced properties.
Semiconductors: The materials whose electrical conductivity lies between that of metals and
insulators and can be used in electronic devices.
Adhesives: Substances used to join or bond materials together.
Biomaterials: Materials compatible with biological systems, used in medical applications
like implants and prosthetics.
Smart Materials: Materials that have the ability to respond to changes in their environment
(e.g., shape-memory alloys, piezoelectric materials).

Properties of materials;
A property is anything that describes a material or substance. It is a characteristic of that
material. For example, how hard the material is, its colour, or its shape. Elasticity is a
property of rubber; in other words: rubber is elastic.
The properties of materials can be broadly categorized into several different types, including
physical, mechanical properties, thermal properties, electrical properties, magnetic properties,
optical properties, and chemical properties. Here's an overview of each of these categories
Physical Properties: The physical properties of the metals include luster, colour, size, shape,
density, electric and thermal conductivity, and melting point.

Mechanical Properties
Strength: Measures a material's ability to withstand an applied force without breaking or
deforming.
Stiffness: Material's resistance to deformation when subjected to an external force.
Hardness: Determines a material's resistance to wear, abrasion, or indentation.
Elasticity: Describes a material's ability to return to its original
shape after deformation.It is the property of a material to
regain its original shape after deformation when the external
forces are removed. It may be noted that steel is more elastic
than rubber.
Plasticity: It is property of a material which retains the
deformation produced under load permanently.
Example: this is necessary for forgings, in stamping images on coins and in
ornamental work.
Ductility: Indicates how much a material can be stretched or drawn into wires
without breaking.
Example: mild steel, copper, aluminium, nickel, zinc, tin and lead
Brittleness: Refers to a material's tendency to fracture without significant
plastic deformation.
It is the property of a material opposite to ductility.
Malleability: It is a special case of ductility which permits materials to be
rolled or hammered into thin sheets.
Ex.: lead, soft steel, wrought iron, copper and aluminium.
Toughness: Combines strength and ductility to assess a material's ability
to absorb energy before failing.
 This property is desirable in parts subjected to shock and impact loads.
  The toughness of the material decreases when it is heated.

Metal Alloy Composite

Definition Metals are chemical An alloy is a mixture of A composites are the

elements that are two or more elements, at materials composed of
typically solid at room least one of which is a two or more distinct
temperature, lustrous, metal. It is created to materials (usually matrix
malleable (can be enhance or impart specific material and reinforcing
hammered or rolled into properties not present in the material) these materials
thin sheets), and pure elements. will gives enhanced
conductive (both properties over the
electrically and individual components.
thermally).

Examples: Common metals include Steel (iron and carbon), Carbon fiber reinforced
iron, copper, aluminium, brass (copper and zinc), polymers (CFRP),
and gold. and bronze (copper and fiberglass, and concrete.
tin).

Properties: Good electrical and Will exhibits the Tailored properties based
thermal conductivity. combinational properties on the combination of
High strength and from its constituent materials.
durability. Ductile and elements.
Often lighter and stronger
malleable. Can be
Often stronger or harder than traditional materials.
magnetic (e.g., iron,
than the individual
nickel, cobalt).Tend to Can be engineered to
elements.
have high melting points. have specific
Can be designed for characteristics, such as
specific applications, such high strength-to-weight
as corrosion resistance, heat ratio, corrosion
resistance, or electrical resistance, or thermal
conductivity. stability.

FERROUS MATERIALS
Ferrous materials are materials that primarily consist of iron (Fe) and have iron as their main
constituent.
Classification: They can be classified into two main categories: Pure iron and ferrous alloys.
Pure Iron (Wrought Iron):
Pure iron contains very low levels of impurities and carbon. It is relatively soft and ductile
compared to ferrous alloys.
Properties: Soft, ductile, malleable, and good thermal and electrical conductivity.
Applications: Historically used for decorative wrought ironwork, but its use has diminished
in Favor of ferrous alloys.
Ferrous Alloys:
Basically, there are two types of ferrous alloys steels and cast Iron
I. Steels: It is alloy of Iron (Fe) and Carbon(c). it contain carbon upto 2% and other
elements like silicon, Sulphur, manganese and phosphorus.

Types:
 Plane carbon steels
 Stainless steels
 Tools steels
II. Cast Iron: It is alloy of Iron (Fe) and Carbon(c). it containcarbon 2% to 6.7%and
other elements like silicon, Sulphur, manganese and phosphorus.
 Gray Cast Irons
 White cast Irons
 Nodular Cast Iron
I. STEELS

a) Plan Carbon Steels: These alloys primarily consist of iron and carbon, with small
amounts of other elements. The carbon content can range from 0.02% to 2.11%. They
are further classified based on their carbon content into low, medium, and high carbon
steels.
Low carbon steels: contains 0.008% to 0.3% carbon.
Medium Carbon steels: 0.3 to 0.65 % carbon.
High Carbon steels: 0.65% to 1.5% carbon.
Properties: Strength, hardness, toughness, and machinability depend on the carbon
content. They can be heat treated for improved properties.
Applications: Used in a wide range of applications including construction,
automotive, machinery, and tools. Especially plane Carbone steels used for
Connecting rods, spring clips, gear shafts, crank shafts, agriculture tools, Clutch discs,
thrust washers.Car bumpers, razor blades, Knives, leaf springs, Cutters, music wires,
metal cutting saws.
b) Stainless Steels: These alloys contain at least 10.5% chromium, which gives them
corrosion resistance. They can also contain other alloying elements like nickel,
molybdenum, and titanium.
Properties: Corrosion resistance, high-temperature strength, and good mechanical properties.
Applications: Used in applications where corrosion resistance is crucial, such as kitchen
appliances, cutlery, medical instruments, and in the chemical and food processing industries.
c) Tool Steels: These are specifically designed for making tools, dies, and other cutting or
forming implements. They have high hardness, wear resistance, and toughness.
Properties: High hardness, wear resistance, and toughness.
Applications: Used in the production of cutting tools, molds, and dies.

II. CAST IRONS:

These alloys contain a higher carbon content than steel (usually between 2.1% and
4%). They also contain silicon, manganese, and other elements. Cast irons can be
further classified into gray iron, ductile iron, and white iron.
• Gray Cast Iron:Gray iron, named because its fracture has a gray appearance.
Carbon in the form of flake graphite in a matrix which consists of ferrite, pearlite
or a mixture of the two.
• Properties:
• Excellent compressive strength and machinability.
• Good wear resistance and very good damping capacity
• Graphite flakes gives lubrication effect to cast iron
• Applications: Frames for electric motors, Piston rings, cylindrical blocks and
heads for I.C. engines, Gas or water pipes for underground purposes, Manhole
covers, Rolling and general machinery parts.
• White cast Iron: White cast iron is unique in that it is the only member of the
cast iron family in which carbon is present only as carbide (combined form
cementite). Contains pearlite + cementite, not graphite. Due to the absence of
graphite, it has a light appearance.

• Properties
• Very hard and brittle
• Difficult to machine and can't be welded
• High wear resistance compare to gray cast iron

• Applications
– Mostly used for manufacturing those component parts which require a
hard and abrasion resistant material like rollers for crushers, brake
shoes.

• Ductile Cast Iron(Nodular CI)

• The carbon forms into spheres when, sodium magnesium or other elements are
added to a melt of iron with very low sulpur content that will inhibit carbon from
forming.
Properties:
• Strength of SG iron is nearly equal to that of steel
• Ductile cast iron possesses very good machinability
• It possesses damping capacity intermediate between cast iron and steel
• It possesses excellent Castability, wear resistance, Toughness, ductility and
good shock resistance
 Applications:
• The automotive and agricultural industries are the major users of ductile iron
castings.
• Critical automotive parts
– as crankshafts, engine connecting rods, wheel hubs, truck axles, front
wheel spindle supports, disk brake calipers, suspension system parts,
power transmission yokes,

NON-FERROUS MATERIALS:
Definition: Non-ferrous materials are metals and alloys that do not contain iron (Fe) in
significant amounts. This means that they lack the magnetic properties associated with
ferrous materials.

Properties:
• Non-magnetic: Non-ferrous materials do not exhibit magnetic properties, unlike
ferrous materials like iron or steel.
• Corrosion Resistance: Many non-ferrous metals, like aluminum, copper, and
titanium, are naturally resistant to corrosion.
• High Conductivity: Metals like copper and aluminum are excellent conductors of
electricity and heat.
• Lightweight: Non-ferrous metals are generally lighter than ferrous metals, making
them suitable for applications where weight is a concern.
• Malleability and Ductility: Non-ferrous metals are often malleable and ductile,
meaning they can be easily shaped or stretched without breaking

Important type of non-ferrous materials

Aluminum (Al): Lightweight, corrosion-resistant, and highly conductive. Used in aerospace,
automotive, construction, and packaging industries.
Copper (Cu): Excellent conductor of electricity and heat, corrosion-resistant. Used in
electrical wiring, plumbing, electronics, and construction.
Brass (Cu-Zn Alloy): Combination of copper and zinc, known for its attractive appearance
and corrosion resistance. Used in musical instruments, plumbing fixtures, and decorative
applications.
Bronze (Cu-Sn Alloy): Combination of copper and tin, known for its strength, corrosion
resistance, and durability. Used in bearings, sculptures, and marine applications.
Lead (Pb): Soft, malleable, and dense metal. Used in batteries, radiation shielding, and
plumbing.
Nickel (Ni): Corrosion-resistant and heat-resistant. Used in alloys, plating, batteries, and
aerospace applications.
Titanium (Ti): High strength-to-weight ratio, corrosion-resistant. Used in aerospace, medical
implants, and chemical processing.
Zinc (Zn): Corrosion-resistant and easily malleable. Used in galvanizing steel, die-casting,
and batteries.
CERAMICS
Ceramics refer to a broad category of inorganic, non-metallic materials that are typically
composed of compounds of metallic and non-metallic elements, primarily including oxides,
nitrides, and carbides. These materials are known for their excellent thermal and electrical
insulating properties, as well as their hardness, corrosion resistance, and high melting points.
Types of ceramics:
1. Traditional Ceramics:
Pottery: This includes clay-based items like pottery, tableware, and decorative ceramics.
Traditional ceramics are typically made from natural clay and are fired at lower temperatures.
Porcelain: Used for making dishes, toilets, insulators, and decorative items.
Glass-Ceramics: These are a type of ceramic with a glassy phase, used in cookware, dental
restorations, and electronics.

2. Refractory Ceramics:
Refractories: These ceramics are engineered to withstand extremely high temperatures and
harsh environments, making them suitable for use in industries like metallurgy and glass
manufacturing.
Refractory Ceramics: Used in lining furnaces, kilns, and other high-temperature industrial
equipment.

3. Structural Ceramics:
Engineering Ceramics: These ceramics are designed for their mechanical and structural
properties. Examples include alumina, silicon nitride, and silicon carbide. They are used in
applications such as cutting tools, ball bearings, and armor. The following are few types and
their application.
Alumina (Aluminum Oxide): Used in cutting tools, spark plugs, and high-voltage insulators.
Silicon Carbide: Used in abrasive applications, such as grinding wheels.
Zirconia: Used in dental implants, cutting tools, and thermal barriers.
Ferrites: Used in electronic components like inductors and transformers.
Titanate Ceramics: Used in piezoelectric devices like sensors and actuators.

Advanced or Functional Ceramics:

Piezoelectric Ceramics: These ceramics exhibit the piezoelectric effect, which allows them
to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy or vice versa. They find applications in
sensors, actuators, and ultrasound devices.
Ferroelectric Ceramics: These ceramics have a spontaneous electric polarization and are
used in electronic components like capacitors and non-volatile memory devices.
Superconducting Ceramics: Certain ceramics exhibit superconductivity at relatively high
temperatures, making them valuable for applications in energy transmission and medical
devices.
Bioceramics:Bioceramics are used in medical and dental applications, such as dental
implants and bone replacements. They are biocompatible and can bond with biological
tissues.
Electronic Ceramics: These ceramics are used in the electronics industry for components
like insulators, substrates, and capacitors.
Optical Ceramics: These ceramics have optical properties that make them suitable for use in
lasers, lenses, and other optical devices.
Applications of ceramics based on their Properties
Ceramics have a wide range of applications due to these properties, including in the
manufacturing of household items, electronics, engineering components, and more.Here are
some of the key properties of ceramics, along with examples of their applications:
1. Hardness: Ceramics are typically hard and resistant to scratching. This property makes
them suitable for applications where wear resistance is important.
Example application: Cutting tools, ball bearings, grinding wheels.
2.High melting point: Ceramics have high melting points, which means they can withstand
high temperatures without melting or deforming.
Example application: Kiln furniture, refractory linings for furnaces.
3. Electrical insulating properties: Many ceramics are excellent insulators of electricity,
making them essential in electrical and electronic applications.
Example application: Insulators for power lines, ceramic capacitors, spark plugs.
4. Thermal insulating properties: Ceramics are often good insulators of heat, which makes
them useful in high-temperature applications.
Example application: Tiles for heat shields in spacecraft, thermal barriers in engines.
5. Chemical resistance: Ceramics are generally resistant to chemical corrosion, making them
suitable for environments where exposure to harsh chemicals is a concern.
Example application: Chemical processing equipment, laboratory crucibles.
6. Low thermal expansion: Some ceramics have low coefficients of thermal expansion,
meaning they expand and contract very little with changes in temperature.
Example application: Advanced ceramics used in precision instruments.
7. Biocompatibility: Certain ceramics are biocompatible, meaning they can be used in
medical applications without causing harm to living tissue.
Example application: Dental implants, artificial bones and joints.
8. Brittle behavior: Ceramics can be brittle and have low fracture toughness, which means
they can break under high stress concentrations.
Example application: Ceramic plates, tiles, and bricks.
9. Transparency: Some ceramics, like certain types of glass and transparent ceramics, can
transmit visible light.
Example application: Windows, lenses, optical fibers.

COMPOSITES
Fiber-reinforced composites:
Fiber-reinforced composites are materials made up of a polymer matrix reinforced with
fibers. These materials combine the desirable properties of both the matrix material (usually a
polymer) and the reinforcing fibers, resulting in a material that is stronger, stiffer, and more
durable than the matrix material alone. Here are some key aspects of fiber-reinforced
composites:
Types of Fiber-Reinforced Composites:
a. Glass Fiber-Reinforced Composites (GFRP):
Fiber Type: Made from glass fibers.
Properties: Good tensile strength, stiffness, and resistance to corrosion. Relatively low cost.
Applications: Boat hulls, automotive body panels, pipes, and sporting goods.
b. Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Composites (CFRP):

Fiber Type: Made from carbon fibers.

Properties: Very high strength-to-weight ratio, excellent stiffness, low thermal expansion, and
corrosion resistance.
Applications: Aerospace components (e.g., aircraft wings), automotive parts, sporting
equipment (e.g., bicycles, tennis rackets), high-performance structures.
c. Aramid Fiber-Reinforced Composites (AFRP):
Fiber Type: Made from aramid fibers (e.g., Kevlar).
Properties: High strength-to-weight ratio, good impact resistance, excellent heat resistance.
Applications: Body armor, aerospace components, automotive racing components, sporting
goods.
d. Natural Fiber-Reinforced Composites (NFRP):

Fiber Type: Made from natural fibers like bamboo, hemp, or flax.
Properties: Renewable, low cost, good specific strength, and biodegradable.
Applications: Automotive interiors, construction materials, packaging, and consumer goods.

Properties of Fiber-Reinforced Composites:

1. Strength: Fiber-reinforced composites are known for their high strength-to-weight
ratio. They can be stronger than metals of similar weight.
2. Stiffness: The presence of reinforcing fibers leads to higher stiffness, which is
beneficial in applications where rigidity is important.
3. Lightweight: These composites are typically lighter than metals, making them
desirable for applications where weight reduction is crucial.
4. Corrosion Resistance: Depending on the type of fibers used, composites can exhibit
excellent resistance to corrosion and environmental degradation.
5. Fatigue Resistance: They can have good resistance to cyclic loading and fatigue,
making them suitable for applications with repetitive stresses.
6. Thermal Stability: Some types of fiber-reinforced composites have good thermal
stability, making them suitable for high-temperature applications.

Applications of Fiber-Reinforced Composites:

1. Aerospace: CFRP is extensively used in aerospace for components like wings,
fuselage sections, and interior structures due to its high strength-to-weight ratio.
2. Automotive: GFRP, CFRP, and AFRP are used in automotive applications to reduce
weight and improve fuel efficiency. They can be found in body panels, interiors, and
structural components.
3. Marine: GFRP is commonly used in boat hulls and other marine applications due to
its corrosion resistance and high strength.
 4. Sports and Recreation: Carbon fiber composites are widely used in sporting
equipment like bicycles, tennis rackets, golf clubs, and helmets due to their
lightweight and high strength properties.
5. Construction: Fiber-reinforced composites find applications in construction for
elements like bridges, reinforcing bars, and panels.
6. Military and Defense: Aramid fiber composites are used in body armor and other
protective equipment for military personnel.
7. Wind Energy: Composite materials are used in wind turbine blades due to their
lightweight and high strength properties.
8. Electronics: Composites are used in electronic components where lightweight and
high strength are required.

Metal-based composites
These are materials composed of a metal matrix reinforced with one or more other materials.
These reinforcements can be in the form of particles, fibers, or continuous sheets. The
combination of the metal matrix and the reinforcement material imparts enhanced properties
compared to the base metal alone. Here are some common types, properties, and applications
of metal-based composites:
Types of Metal-Based Composites:
a. Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs): In MMCs, a metal matrix (e.g., aluminum,
magnesium, titanium) is reinforced with a secondary material, which is typically a ceramic
like silicon carbide (SiC), alumina (Al2O3), or carbon. These composites offer high strength-
to-weight ratios and improved wear resistance.

b. Particulate Reinforced Composites: These composites consist of a metal matrix

with small, discrete particles dispersed throughout. The particles can be ceramic, carbon, or
other metals. Examples include aluminum composites reinforced with silicon carbide
particles.
c. Fiber Reinforced Composites: In this type, continuous or discontinuous fibers (e.g.,
carbon, glass, aramid) are embedded within the metal matrix. Fiber-reinforced composites
exhibit excellent specific strength and stiffness.
d. Laminar Composites: These composites consist of layers of different materials
bonded together. For instance, carbon fiber-reinforced composites may have multiple layers
of carbon fiber sheets bonded together with a metal matrix.
Properties of Metal-Based Composites:
1. High Strength and Stiffness: Metal composites are known for their enhanced
mechanical properties, especially when reinforced with high-strength materials like
carbon fibers or ceramics.
2. Improved Hardness and Wear Resistance: The addition of hard reinforcement
materials increases the hardness and wear resistance of the composite.
3. Reduced Weight: Metal-based composites can be significantly lighter than traditional
metals, making them suitable for aerospace and automotive applications.
4. Good Thermal Conductivity: Depending on the reinforcement material and matrix
combination, some metal composites can maintain good thermal conductivity.
 5. Corrosion Resistance: Depending on the choice of reinforcement and matrix
materials, composites can have improved resistance to corrosion compared to the base
metal.
Applications of Metal-Based Composites:
1. Aerospace Industry: Metal composites find extensive use in aerospace applications
due to their high strength-to-weight ratios. They are used in components like aircraft
structures, engine components, and space vehicles.
2. Automotive Industry: Metal composites are used in automotive applications to reduce
weight and improve fuel efficiency. They can be found in components like brake
rotors, suspension components, and engine parts.
3. Electronic and Electrical Components: MMCs with good thermal conductivity are
used in electronic and electrical applications, such as heat sinks and electronic
packaging.
4. Sporting Goods: Composite materials, including metal-based composites, are used in
the production of sporting goods like golf clubs, tennis rackets, and bicycle frames to
enhance performance.
5. Military and Defense: Metal composites are used in various defense applications,
including armor plating, missile components, and aircraft structures.
6. Medical Devices: Some metal composites find applications in medical implants and
devices due to their biocompatibility and high strength.
7. Construction and Infrastructure: Metal composites can be used in structural elements,
particularly in situations where high strength and low weight are critical factors.

SMART MATERIALS - SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS

Shape memory alloys (SMAs) are a unique class of materials that have the ability to
"remember" their original shape and return to it after being deformed. This property is a
result of a reversible phase transformation that occurs in the material. The most
common type of shape memory alloy is composed of nickel and titanium, often referred
to as NiTi or Nitinol.

Types of Shape Memory Alloys:

a. Nickel-Titanium (NiTi or Nitinol): NiTi is the most well-known shape memory alloy. It
exhibits excellent shape memory properties, with the ability to recover significant
deformations. It is widely used in various applications.
b. Copper-Based Alloys: These SMAs are primarily composed of copper along with other
elements like zinc, aluminum, or nickel. Examples include Cu-Al-Ni and Cu-Zn-Al.
c. Iron-Based Alloys: These alloys are composed of iron along with elements like
manganese, silicon, and chromium.

Properties of Shape Memory Alloys:

1. Shape Memory Effect (SME): SMAs can be deformed at low temperatures, and when
heated, they return to their original shape. This is known as the shape memory effect.
This property is crucial in applications where precise and repeatable actuation is
required.
2. Super-elasticity (Pseudo-elasticity): SMAs can also exhibit a property called super-
elasticity. In this state, they can undergo large deformations and still return to their
original shape upon unloading. This makes them useful in applications where high
strains are involved.
3. High Strength: SMAs typically have good mechanical strength, which makes them
suitable for various structural applications.
4. Biocompatibility: Nickel-Titanium (NiTi) alloys are biocompatible, which means they
can be used in medical applications like stents, orthodontic wires, and surgical
instruments.

Applications of Shape Memory Alloys:

1. Medical and Healthcare Industry:
Stents: SMAs are used in the manufacturing of stents for coronary and peripheral artery
disease treatment.
Orthodontic Wires: They are used in dental braces and orthodontic devices.
Surgical Instruments: SMAs are employed in various surgical tools like forceps and
tweezers.
2. Aerospace and Aviation:
Actuators: SMAs are used in components like actuators for controlling flaps, valves,
and other movable parts in aircraft.
Engine Components: They are utilized in certain engine components that require
precise control and adjustments.
3. Automotive Industry:
Engine Components: SMAs can be used in components like valves, which require
precise control of opening and closing.
4. Consumer Electronics:
Eyeglass Frames: Some eyeglass frames are made from shape memory alloys, allowing
them to return to their original shape after being bent.
5. Seismic Dampers: SMAs can be used in building structures as seismic dampers to
absorb and dissipate energy during earthquakes.
6. Robotics and Automation:
Actuators and Grippers: SMAs can be used in robots and automation systems for
precise actuation and gripping.
Automated Valves and Fittings: They can be used in valves and fittings that require
precise control of flow.
7. Oil and Gas Industry: SMAs can be used in downhole tools and wellbore completion
equipment.
8. Eyewear Frames: Some eyeglass frames are made from shape memory alloys, allowing
them to return to their original shape after being bent.
9. Sporting Goods: Some sporting equipment, like certain types of eyeglasses or bike
frames, may incorporate shape memory alloys.
 UNIT-II
MANUFACTURING

Introduction to Manufacturing:
The word manufacture is derived from two Latin words, manus (hand) and factus
(make); the combination means ―made by hand‖.
Technologically, manufacturing is the application of physical and chemical processes
to alter the geometry, properties, and/or appearance of a given starting material to make parts
or products; manufacturing also includes assembly of multiple parts to make products. The
processes to accomplish manufacturing involve a combination of machinery, tools, power,
and labor, as depicted in Figure.

Economically, manufacturing is the transformation of materials into items of greater

value by means of one or more processing and/or assembly operations. The key point is that
manufacturing adds value to the material by changing its shape or properties, or by
combining it with other materials that have been similarly altered. The material has been
made more valuable through the manufacturing operations performed on it.

CASTING
―Casting is one of the oldest materials shaping methods known. Casting means pouring
molten metal into a mold with a cavity of the shape to be made, and allowing it to solidify.
When solidified, the desired metal object is taken out from the mold either by breaking the
mold or taking the mold apart. The solidified object is called the casting.‖
(Or)
―Sand Casting is a process in which molten metal flows by gravity or other force into a mold
where it solidifies in the shape of the mold cavity.‖

Advantages:
 Casting can be used to create complex part geometries, including both external and
internal shapes.
 Some casting processes are capable of producing parts to net shape. No further
manufacturing operations are required to achieve the required geometry and
dimensions of the parts.
 Other casting processes are near net shape, for which some additional shape
processing is required (usually machining) in order to achieve accurate dimensions
and details.
 Casting can be used to produce very large parts. Castings weighing more than 100
tons have been made.
 The casting process can be performed on any metal that can be heated to the liquid
state.
 Some casting methods are quite suited to mass production.

Draw backs:
 Limitations on mechanical properties, porosity, poor dimensional accuracy and
surface finish for some casting processes.
 Safety hazards to humans when processing hot molten metals
 Environmental problems.

Applications for Sand Castings

Sand casting is used for a variety of applications to produce a wide range of parts including:
 air compressor pistons ,bearings
 electronic equipment
 engine crankcases
 engine oil pans
 gas and oil tanks ,gears
 hardware of computer parts
 machine parts
 mining machine parts
 printing press
 pump bodies, pump pistons
 screw nuts, truck body parts

Steps involved in casting:

The following are the basic steps involved in casting process:
 Pattern Making
 Mold making
 Melting
 Pouring
 Solidification
  Fettling, Cleaning & Finishing
 Inspection

Flow diagram - Casting Process

Die casting: Die casting is a permanent-mold casting process in which the molten metal is
injected into the mold cavity under high pressure.
Die casting is a manufacturing process that can produce geometrically complex metal parts
through the use of reusable molds, called dies, hence the name die casting.
This process is a further development of Permanent – mold casting. A permanent mold
casting process in which molten metal is injected into mold cavity under high pressure,
typical pressures are (7 to 350 MPa). Pressure is maintained during solidification, then mold
is opened and part isremoved.
Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity is what distinguihes this fromother
permanent mold processes.
Steps of Die Casting: There are four key steps in the process of die casting, the die casting
machine should be at the required temperature, to ensure the molten metal not to solidify too
quickly. According to the size of the casting, heating can take from several hours to several
minutes.
 The four steps are:
1. Spray the mold with lubricant and close it, allowing for an easier removal of the
cast object later on.
2. Inject the molten metal into the die. The metal is inserted at an extremely high
pressure, which allows the metal to conform to the precise shape of the die.
3. Cool the mold, and wait for the metal to solidify. In some cases, the mold may be
immersed or sprayed with cold water to help the casting become solid faster. A
high pressure is maintained inside the mold, which ensures the metal doesn't
change properties while inside the die.
4. Open the die and remove the solid cast.
Applications of Die Casting:
Manufacture of consumer: The process is suitable for making consumer products such as
sink faucets
Manufacture of industrial products: The process is suitable for making industrial products
such as compressor pistons, connector rods, heat sinks, etc.
Manufacture of automotive products: The process is used in making gear, cylinders, small
engines.

Forming Processes
Metal Forming Processes: Forming is the process of obtaining the required shape and size
on the raw material by subjecting the material to plastic deformation through the
application of tensile force, compressive force, bending or shear force or combinations of
these forces.
Forging:
Forging is a deformation processing of materials through compressive stress. It is
carried out either hot or cold. Typical applications of forging include bolts, disks, gears,
turbine disk, crank shaft, connecting rod, valve bodies, small components for hydraulic
circuits etc. Forging has several advantages. Closer dimensional accuracies achieved require
very little machining after forging. Material saving is the result. Higher strength, greater
productivity, favourable grain orientation, high degree of surface finish is other merits.
However, complex die making is costly.
Rolling:
Rolling is a deformation process in which the thickness of the work is reduced by
compressive forces exerted by two opposing rolls. The rolls rotate to pull and simultaneously
squeeze the work between them. The basic process shown in our figure is flat rolling, used to
reduce the thickness of a rectangular cross section.

Most rolling processes are very capital intensive, requiring massive pieces of
equipment, called rolling mills, to perform them. The high investment cost requires the mills
to be used for production in large quantities of standard items such as sheets and plates. Most
rolling is carried out by hot working, called hot rolling. The following diagram illustrates few
input and output products of rolling process.

Drawing:
Drawing is a metal forming process used to reduce cross section and increase length
of work piece. This process associated with tensile force which distinguishes it from other
metal forming processes like extrusion, forging etc. In this process a large cross section work
piece is forced to pass through a die which has smaller opening comparing cross section area
of work piece. This will plastically deform the work piece by decreasing its cross section area
and increases its length. This process is used for making wires, rods, tubes etc.

Extrusion:
Working Principle: Extrusion is a simple compressive metal forming process. In this process,
piston or plunger is used to apply compressive force at work piece. This process can be
summarized as follow.

Steps:
 First billet or ingot (metal workpiece of standard size) is produced.
 This billet is heated in hot extrusion or remains at room temperature and placed into a
extrusion press (Extrusion press is like a piston cylinder device in which metal is
placed in cylinder and pushed by a piston. The upper portion of cylinder is fitted with
die).
  Now a compressive force is applied to this part by a plunger fitted into the press
which pushes the billet towards die.
 The die is small opening of required cross section. This high compressive force allow
the work metal to flow through die and convert into desire shape.
 Now the extruded parts remove from press and are heat treated for better mechanical
properties.
Types of Extrusion: Extrusion process can be classified into following types.(According to
the direction of flow of metal)
Direct Extrusion: In this type of extrusion process, metal is forced to flow in the direction of
feed of punch. The punch moves toward die during extrusion. This process required higher
force due to higher friction between billet and container.

Indirect Extrusion: In this process, metal is flow toward opposite direction of plunger
movement. The die is fitted at opposite side of punch movement. In this process, the metal is
allowed to flow through annular space between punch and container.

METAL JOINING PROCESSES

Definition: ―Metal joining is defined as joining of two metal parts either temporarily or
permanently with or without the application of heat or pressure. ―
 The term joining is generally used for welding, brazing, soldering, and adhesive
bonding, which form a permanent joint between the parts—a joint that cannot easily
be separated.

 The term assembly usually refers to mechanical methods of fastening parts together.

Classification of joining processes:

WELDING
Definition: “Welding is a material joining process in which two or more parts are coalesced
at their contacting surfaces by a suitable application of heat and/or pressure, with or without
filler material. ―

ARC WELDING
Arc welding (AW) is a fusion-welding process in which coalescence of the metals is achieved
by the heat of anelectric arc between an electrode and the work.

Working principle:
 An electric arc is a discharge of electric current across a gap in a circuit. It is sustained
by the presence of a thermally ionized column of gas (called a plasma) through which
current flows.
 To initiate the arc in an AW process, the electrode is brought into contact with the
work and then quickly separated from it by a short distance. The electric energy from
the arc thus formed produces temperatures of 5500oC (10,000oF) or higher,
sufficiently hot to melt any metal.
 A pool of molten metal, consisting of base metal(s) and filler metal (if one is used) is
formed near the tip of the electrode. In most arc welding processes, filler metal is
added during the operation to increase the volume and strength of the weld joint.

Arc Welding equipment:

Arc welding equipment setup

Welding Power Sources - Shielded metal arc welding may utilize either current.
Welding Cables - The electrode cable and the ground cable are important parts of the
welding circuit.
Electrode Holder - The electrode holder connects to the welding cable.
Electrode holders are available in different sizes and are rated on their current carrying
capacity.
Ground Clamp - The ground clamp is used to connect the ground cable to the work piece. It
may be connected directly to the work.
Electrode: An electrode is a tool used in arc welding to produce electric arc. It may be used
as a positively charged anode or as a negatively charged cathode.
 Machines
Machining or Metal Cutting or Metal Removal:
“Machining is a machining process in which a finished surface of desired shape, size,
accuracy or finish is obtained by separating the excess layers of material in form of chips
with aid of an wedge shaped device called cutting tool”.
Machining or Metal Cutting is process of producing a workpiece by removing unwanted
material from block of metal, in the form of chips for workpiece gets their final shape an
size.
Machining is the process of removing unwanted material from a workpiece in the form of
chips in order to get the final desired product.

LATHE
A lathe is a machine tool which rotates the workpiece on its axis to perform various
operations such as cutting, knurling, drilling, or deformation with tools that are applied to the
workpiece to create an object which has symmetry about an axis of rotation.
Lathe machine is also known as ―the mother/father of the entire tool family‖.

Working principle of lathe:

 It holds the job between two rigid and strong supports called centers which rotate the
work piece.
 The cutting tool held rigidly in tool post .
 While job rotates about its own axis the cutting tool is fed against the job either in parallel
or at an inclination.

Type of job:
 Majorly cylindrical, conical shaped components can be easily machined.

Main parts of lathe are:

Bed
 A bed is the main body of the machine.
 All the main components are bolted on it.
 It is usually made of cast iron due to its high compressive strength.
 It is made by the casting process and is bolted to the floor space.
 Its top section consists of bed guideways or 'V' ways which are precision machined
and used to guide and align the other parts of the lathe.
Guide ways
 Guide ways take care of the movement of tailstock and carriage on the bed.

Lathe

Headstock

 Headstocks are the main body parts that are placed on the left side of the bed.
 It serves as a holding device for gear chains, spindles, driving pulleys, etc.
 The mechanism of the headstock is driven by an electric motor that rotates the
spindle.
 It is also made of cast iron.
Carriage

 It is located between headstock and tailstock.

 It is used to hold and move the tool post along the bed either towards or away from
the headstock.
 It slides on the guideways.
 It is also made of cast iron.
Tool Post

 It is bolted to the carriage on top of the compound slide.

 It is used to hold the tools at the correct position with rigidity.
Apron

 An apron is situated on the carriage.

 It consists of all controlling and moving mechanisms of carriage.
 The apron is fastened to the saddle with feed mechanisms that provide automatic feed
to the carriage.
 The apron hand wheel can be rotated to move the carriage by hand along with the bed
of the lathe.
Tailstock

 Tailstock is a casting located on the right side of the bed.

 Its function is to support the loose end of the workpiece or a job while machining.

CNC Machines (Computer Numerical Control Machines):

CNC machines are automated manufacturing tools that operate based on numerical control.
They use computer programs to control the movement and operation of machine tools, such
as mills, lathes, routers, and 3D printers.
Principles of CNC Machines:
1. Numerical Control: CNC machines rely on a computer program or code that contains
instructions for the machine's operations. These instructions are in the form of
alphanumeric characters, defining toolpaths and specific movements.
2. Motion Control: CNC machines precisely control the motion of cutting tools or
workpieces along multiple axes (typically X, Y, and Z for 3-axis machines) to create
the desired shapes and features.
3. Tool Changes: CNC machines can automatically change and control the tools they
use, allowing for a wide range of operations with a single machine.
4. Feedback Systems: CNC machines often incorporate feedback systems like encoders
and sensors to ensure accuracy, detect errors, and make real-time adjustments if
necessary.

Pros of CNC Machines:

1. Precision: CNC machines offer high levels of precision and repeatability, making
them suitable for tasks requiring tight tolerances.
2. Automation: They can operate continuously with minimal human intervention,
improving productivity and efficiency.
 3. Complex Geometries: CNC machines can produce intricate and complex shapes and
designs that may be impossible with manual machining.
4. Reduced Waste: CNC machining generates less material waste compared to
traditional manufacturing methods, as it is subtractive in nature.
5. Wide Range of Materials: CNC machines can work with various materials, including
metals, plastics, wood, and composites.
6. Customization: They allow for customization and rapid prototyping, making them
suitable for small-scale and one-off production runs.
Cons of CNC Machines:
1. High Initial Cost: CNC machines, especially high-quality ones, can be expensive to
purchase and set up, which may not be feasible for small businesses.
2. Complex Programming: Creating CNC programs can be challenging and time-
consuming, requiring skilled operators or programmers.
3. Maintenance: CNC machines require regular maintenance to ensure accuracy and
reliability.
4. Limited Flexibility: Changing the design or tooling setup can be less flexible
compared to some other manufacturing methods.
5. Size Limitations: The size of the workpiece is limited by the machine's capacity.
Applications of CNC Machines:
1. Manufacturing: CNC machines are widely used in various industries, including
aerospace, automotive, and electronics, to produce precision parts and components.
2. Metalworking: CNC machining is essential for producing metal parts such as gears,
shafts, and engine components.
3. Woodworking: In carpentry and furniture production, CNC routers are used to cut,
shape, and engrave wood.
4. Prototyping: CNC machines are valuable tools for rapid prototyping and product
development.
5. Mold Making: CNC machining is used to create molds for plastic injection molding
and other manufacturing processes.
6. 3D Printing: Some CNC machines, like 3D printers, can create 3D objects layer by
layer.
7. Engraving and Marking: CNC engraving machines are used for creating detailed
markings and designs on various materials.
8. Art and Sculpture: Artists use CNC machines for sculpting and creating intricate
artwork.
CNC machines have revolutionized manufacturing by improving precision, automation, and
efficiency across a wide range of industries, from heavy manufacturing to artisanal
craftsmanship.
3D Printing Principle: 3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing, is a
manufacturing process that creates three-dimensional objects layer by layer from a digital
model. The basic principles of 3D printing involve the following steps:
1. Digital Design: A 3D model of the object to be printed is created using computer-
aided design (CAD) software or obtained from existing 3D models.
2. Slicing: The 3D model is sliced into thin horizontal layers using slicing software.
Each layer is essentially a 2D cross-section of the object.
3. Printing: The 3D printer reads the sliced layers and begins to add material layer by
layer, typically from the bottom up. Various materials such as plastics, metals,
ceramics, and even food can be used, depending on the type of 3D printer.
4. Solidification: Each layer is solidified or bonded together. This can be done through
processes like melting, curing, or sintering, depending on the material and the 3D
printing technology.
5. Completion: The printing continues layer by layer until the entire object is complete.

Merits of 3D Printing:
1. Customization: 3D printing allows for the easy and cost-effective customization of
products, making it ideal for creating one-of-a-kind or personalized items.
2. Rapid Prototyping: It's a valuable tool for product development, as it enables quick
and cost-effective prototyping, reducing time to market.
3. Reduced Material Waste: Traditional subtractive manufacturing often results in
significant material waste, while 3D printing is an additive process that generates less
waste.
4. Complex Geometry: 3D printing can create intricate and complex geometries that
would be challenging or impossible to achieve using traditional manufacturing
methods.
5. On-Demand Production: It allows for on-demand production, reducing the need for
large inventories and associated costs.
6. Cost-Efficiency: For low-volume or specialized production, 3D printing can be more
cost-efficient than traditional manufacturing.
Demerits of 3D Printing:
1. Limited Materials: While the range of printable materials is growing, it's still more
limited compared to traditional manufacturing methods.
2. Speed: 3D printing can be slower than traditional manufacturing processes, especially
for larger and more complex objects.
3. Surface Finish: The surface finish of 3D-printed objects can be rough and may require
post-processing to achieve a desired level of smoothness.
4. Size Limitations: Most 3D printers have size limitations, which can be a constraint for
producing large objects.
5. Initial Cost: High-quality 3D printers can be expensive, making the initial investment
a barrier for some businesses.

Applications of 3D Printing:
1. Rapid Prototyping: 3D printing is widely used for creating prototypes in industries
like automotive, aerospace, and consumer products.
2. Custom Medical Implants: It's used to create customized implants, prosthetics, and
dental devices.
3. Aerospace: Components for aircraft and spacecraft are 3D printed for their
lightweight and strength properties.
4. Dental: Crowns, bridges, and orthodontic devices are 3D printed for dental patients.
5. Architectural Models: Architects use 3D printing to create scale models of buildings
and structures.
6. Fashion: Designers use 3D printing to create unique fashion pieces and accessories.
7. Art and Sculpture: Artists use 3D printing to bring their creative visions to life.
8. Education: 3D printing is used in educational settings to teach students about design
and engineering.
9. Tooling and Jigs: Manufacturers use 3D printing for producing custom tooling and
jigs to improve production processes.
10. Food: Food-grade 3D printing is used for creating decorative culinary items and
customized food products.
The merits and demerits of 3D printing are evolving as the technology continues to advance,
and its applications are expanding into new industries and domains.

Smart manufacturing:
Smart manufacturing, also known as Industry 4.0 or the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT),
is a modern approach to manufacturing that leverages advanced technologies and principles
to improve efficiency, productivity, and overall operations. The principles of smart
manufacturing revolve around the integration of data, automation, and digital technologies to
create a more responsive and interconnected manufacturing environment. Here are some key
principles of smart manufacturing:
1. Data Integration: Collecting and integrating data from various sources, such as
sensors, machines, and processes, to gain insights into the manufacturing process.
2. Connectivity: Establishing a robust network infrastructure to connect all components,
including machinery, sensors, and software systems, to enable real-time data sharing
and communication.
3. Real-time Monitoring and Control: Using sensors and data analytics to monitor and
control manufacturing processes in real-time, allowing for immediate adjustments to
optimize production.
4. Predictive Analytics: Utilizing machine learning and data analytics to predict issues or
maintenance requirements before they cause downtime, optimizing asset utilization.
5. Automation: Implementing automation technologies like robotics and autonomous
systems to enhance production efficiency and reduce manual labor.
6. Cloud Computing: Storing and processing data in the cloud, providing scalability,
accessibility, and data security for manufacturing operations.
7. Interoperability: Ensuring that different devices, systems, and software can work
together seamlessly, promoting a flexible and agile manufacturing environment.
8. Cyber security: Implementing robust security measures to protect sensitive
manufacturing data and systems from cyber threats.
9. Additive Manufacturing: Incorporating 3D printing and other advanced additive
manufacturing techniques for rapid prototyping and production of complex parts.
10. Customization: Tailoring products to individual customer needs through flexible
manufacturing processes, often referred to as "mass customization."
11. Continuous Improvement: Embracing a culture of continuous improvement, where
data-driven insights and feedback from various sources are used to refine processes
and products.
12. Sustainability: Focusing on environmentally friendly practices, resource optimization,
and waste reduction to create more sustainable manufacturing processes.
13. Human-Machine Collaboration: Encouraging collaboration between humans and
machines, with technology supporting and augmenting human capabilities rather than
replacing them.
14. Supply Chain Integration: Integrating the supply chain with manufacturing processes
to improve visibility, coordination, and responsiveness in the production and delivery
of products.
15. Digital Twins: Creating digital representations of physical assets and processes to
simulate, monitor, and optimize them in a virtual environment.
These principles form the foundation of smart manufacturing, and their implementation can
lead to greater efficiency, quality, and competitiveness in the manufacturing industry. Smart
manufacturing is an ongoing journey, and companies continue to adapt and adopt new
technologies and strategies to stay competitive and meet the evolving needs of their
customers and the market.

Merits of Smart Manufacturing:

1. Increased Efficiency: Smart manufacturing optimizes production processes, reducing
downtime, minimizing errors, and enhancing overall efficiency.
2. Improved Quality: Real-time monitoring and data analytics help maintain consistent
product quality and reduce defects.
3. Cost Reduction: By reducing waste, optimizing resource utilization, and increasing
energy efficiency, smart manufacturing can lead to cost savings.
4. Flexibility: Manufacturers can adapt to changing market demands by quickly
reconfiguring production processes and customizing products.
5. Enhanced Decision-Making: Data-driven insights enable informed decision-making
and proactive maintenance.
6. Competitive Advantage: Companies adopting smart manufacturing can gain a
competitive edge through improved productivity and innovation.
7. Sustainability: Smart manufacturing contributes to sustainable practices by reducing
waste and energy consumption.
8. Customization: Mass customization becomes feasible, allowing for more personalized
products.

Demerits and Challenges of Smart Manufacturing:

1. Initial Investment: Implementing smart manufacturing technologies can be costly,
requiring a significant upfront investment in infrastructure and equipment.
2. Cybersecurity Risks: Increased connectivity opens up new cybersecurity
vulnerabilities, making data and systems more susceptible to cyberattacks.
3. Skill Gap: To fully benefit from smart manufacturing, companies need a workforce
with specialized skills, which can be challenging to acquire and retain.
4. Integration Complexity: Integrating diverse technologies and systems can be complex
and require expertise.
5. Privacy Concerns: Collecting and analyzing large amounts of data can raise privacy
concerns, particularly with regard to employee data.
6. Dependence on Technology: Reliance on technology means that downtime or
technical issues can halt production.

Applications of Smart Manufacturing:

1. Automotive Industry: Smart manufacturing is used for quality control, supply chain
optimization, and customization of vehicles.
 2. Aerospace Industry: Aerospace manufacturers use smart manufacturing for precision
machining, real-time monitoring, and complex part production.
3. Pharmaceuticals: Smart manufacturing is applied to improve the production of
pharmaceuticals and ensure product quality and consistency.
4. Consumer Electronics: Electronics manufacturers utilize smart manufacturing for
process automation, quality control, and reducing production waste.
5. Food and Beverage: This industry benefits from smart manufacturing for inventory
management, quality control, and traceability.
6. Chemical Industry: Chemical manufacturers apply smart manufacturing for process
optimization, safety, and efficiency.
7. Textiles and Apparel: Textile companies use smart manufacturing for customization,
supply chain management, and sustainability.
8. Energy and Utilities: Smart manufacturing enhances energy generation, distribution,
and resource management in the energy sector.
9. Medical Devices: Smart manufacturing ensures high-quality and compliant
production of medical devices, reducing errors and risks.
10. Heavy Machinery and Equipment: Manufacturers of industrial machinery and
equipment use smart manufacturing for maintenance, repair, and quality control.
11. Packaging Industry: Smart manufacturing helps in efficient packaging processes and
reducing material waste.
These applications showcase the versatility and wide-reaching impact of smart manufacturing
across various industries. Despite the challenges and costs associated with its
implementation, the benefits of improved efficiency, quality, and competitiveness make it an
attractive approach for modern manufacturers.

BOILERS
Boiling is a process of converting liquid into vapor by supplying the heat in a device
called a Boiler.
A Boiler is a heat-exchanging device in which the heat in a hot fluid (gas) is transferred
to a cold fluid (water). By gaining heat, the water is converted into vapor called steam.
During this process, the water gains heat at constant pressure. It is as follows:
1. Sensible heat: When the water gains sensible heat, its temperature increases from
the inlet to the saturation temperature.
2. Latent heat: At the saturation temperature, the water gains heat and converts it into
vapor.
3. Superheat: As the heat is supplied further, the vapor gains heat, and the
temperature of the vapor increases. This condition is called super-heated vapor.
 The steam thus generated is used for the following purposes:
(i) Power generation: For generating power in a steam engine or steam turbine.
(ii) Heating: The steam is utilized for heating residential and industrial buildings in
cold weather and producing hot water for hot water supply.
(iii) Utilization of steam for industrial processes such as for sizing and bleaching, etc.,
in textile industries and many industries like sugar mills and chemical industries

Classification:

Working of a Boiler:
A steam boiler is a steam producing heating system; it produces energy by heating water to
create steam. A steam boiler burns fuel to heat water. The combination of heat and water
produces steam. Steam boilers are defined by their construction, portability, types of tubes,
types of fuel, and the pressure they produce.

Fire Tube Boiler:

A fire-tube boiler is a type of boiler in which the water or other fluid to be heated flows
through tubes that are surrounded by fire. This is in contrast to a water tube boiler, in which
the fire flows through tubes that are surrounded by water. Fire-tube boilers are typically used
for smaller applications, such as heating homes or businesses, while water-tube boilers are
used for larger applications, such as generating steam for power plants.
Cochran Boiler:
It is one of the best types of vertical multi-tubular boiler and has a number of horizontal fire
tubes.
Construction: It consists of a cylindrical shell with a dome-shaped top where the space is
provided for steam. The furnace is one-piece and seamless. Its crown has a hemispherical
shape and thus provides a maximum volume of space. A large number of fire tubes, which
are usually 75 – 100 mm in diameter, are supported between two end covers. Several hand-
holes are provided around the outer shell for cleaning purposes.
Specifications:
Shell diameter : 2.75 m
Height : 5.79 m
Working pressure : 6.5 bar (max. 15 bar)
Steam capacity : 3500 kg/hr (max. 4000 kg/hr)
Heating surface : 120 m2
Efficiency : 70 – 75%

Cochran Boiler
Working: The fuel is burnt on the grate, and ash is collected and disposed of from the pit. The
combustion gases produced by burning fuel enter the combustion chamber through the fire
tube and strike against the fire brick lining, which directs them to pass through a number of
horizontal tubes surrounded by water. After heat transfer to the water, the gases escape to the
atmosphere through the smoke box and chimney.

Water Tube Boiler:

A high pressure water tube boiler (also spelled water-tube and water tube) is a type of boiler
in which water circulates in tubes heated externally by the fire. Fuel is burned inside the
furnace, creating hot gas which boils water in the steam-generating tubes.
BABCOCK AND WILCOX BOILER

It is a water tube boiler suitable for meeting demand of increased pressure and large evaporation
capacity or large sized boiler units. It has three main parts: (i) Steam and water drum (ii) Water tubes
(iii) Furnace.

Steam and water drum is a long drum fabricated using small shells riveted together. End cover plates
can be opened as and when required. Mountings are mounted on drum as shown. Drum is followed by
water tubes which are arranged below drum and connected to one another and drum through headers.
Header in which water flows from drum to tubes is called down take header while headers in which
flow is from tubes to drum is called uptake header.

Soot deposition takes place in mud box which is connected to downtake header. ―Blow off cock‖ for
blowing out the sediments settled in mud box is shown in figure. Superheater tubes are also shown in
the arrangement, which are U-shape tubes placed horizontally between drum and water tubes.
Superheating of steam is realized in super heater tubes. Below the superheater and water tubes is the
furnace, at the front of which fuel feed hopper is attached. Mechanical stoker is arranged below the
hopper for feeding fuel. Bridge wall and baffles made of fire resistant bricks are constructed so as to
facilitate hot gases moving upward from the grate area, then downwards and again upwards before
escaping to the chimney. A smoke box is put at the back of furnace through which smoke goes out via
chimney, put at top of smoke box. A damper is used for regulating pressure difference (draught)
causing expulsion of hot gases.

The complete boiler unit with all mountings and accessories is suspended by steel slings from girders
resting on steel columns. It is done so as to permit free expansion and contraction of boiler parts with
temperature.

Otto Cycle:
This cycle is so named as it was conceived by ‗Otto.‘ On this cycle, petrol, gas, and manyoil
engines work. It is the standard of comparison for internal combustion engines.
The figureshows the theoretical p-V diagram of this cycle.
1. The point 1 represents that the cylinder is full of air with volume V1, pressure p1, and
absolutetemperature T1.
2. Line 1–2 represents the adiabatic air compression due to which p1, V1, and T1
change top2, V2, and T2, respectively.
3. Line 2–3 shows the supply of heat to the air at constant volume so that p2 and T2
change top3 and T3 (V3 being the same as V2).
 4. Line 3–4 represents the adiabatic expansion of the air. During expansion,p3, V3, and
T3change to a final value of p4, V4, or V1 and T4, respectively.
5. Line 4–1 shows the heat rejection by air at constant volume until the original state
(point 1)reaches.

Point 1 represents that the cylinder is full of air. Let p1, V1, and T1 be the corresponding
pressure, volume, and absolute temperature. The piston then compresses the air
adiabatically (i.e., pVγ = constant) till the values become p2, V2, and T2, respectively (at
the end of the stroke) at point 2. Heat is added from a hot body at a constant volume (V2
= V3). During this addition of heat, pressure increases from p2 to p3 and temperature T2
to T3, corresponding to point 3. The air then expands adiabatically to the conditions p4,
V4, and T4, respectively, corresponding to point 4. Work is done on the piston during the
expansion process, and the power is produced. Finally, the air rejects the heat to the cold
body at constant volume till point 1, where it returns to its original state.

Diesel Cycle:
This cycle was introduced by Dr. R. Diesel in 1897. It this cycle, theheat issupplied at
constant pressure.The following figure shows the p-v diagram of this cycle, respectively.This
cycle comprises the following operations:
(i) 1–2......Adiabatic compression.
(ii) 2–3......Addition of heat at constant pressure.
(iii) 3–4......Adiabatic expansion.
(iv) 4–1......Rejection of heat at constant volume.
Point 1 represents that the cylinder is full of air. Let p1, V1, and T1 be the
correspondingpressure, volume, and absolute temperature. The piston then compresses the air
adiabatically (i.e.,pVγ = constant) till the values become p2, V2, and T2, respectively (at the
end of the stroke) at point2. Heat is then added from a hot body at a constant pressure. During
this addition of heat, letvolume increase from V2 to V3 and temperature T2 to T3,
corresponding to point 3. This point (3)is called the point of cut-off. The air then expands
adiabatically to the conditions p4, V4, and T4, respectively, corresponding to point 4. Finally,
the air rejects the heat to the cold body at constantvolume till point 1 where it returns to its
original state.

Fundamentals of Refrigeration
Introduction:
Refrigeration is the science of producing andmaintaining temperatures below that of the
surrounding atmosphere. This means the removing of heat from a substance to be cooled.
Heat always passes downhill, from a warm body to a cooler one, until both bodies are at the
same temperature. Maintaining perishables at their required temperatures is done by
refrigeration. Not only perishables but today many human work spaces in offices and factory
buildings are air-conditioned and a refrigeration unit is the heart of the system.
In simple, refrigeration means the cooling of or removal of heat from a system. The
equipment employed to maintain the system at a low temperature is termed as refrigerating
system and the system which is kept at lower temperature is called refrigerated system.
Refrigeration is generally produced in one of the following three ways:
(i) By melting of a solid.
(ii) By sublimation of a solid.
(iii) By evaporation of a liquid.
Most of the commercial refrigeration is produced by the evaporation of a liquid called
refrigerant. Mechanical refrigeration depends upon the evaporation of liquid refrigerant and
its circuit includes the equipment naming evaporator, compressor, condenser and expansion
valve. It is used for preservation of food, manufacture of ice, solid carbon dioxide and control
of air temperature and humidity in the air-conditioning system.

Important refrigeration applications:

1. Ice making
2. Transportation of foods above and below freezing
3. Industrial air-conditioning
4. Comfort air-conditioning
5. Chemical and related industries
6. Medical and surgical aids
7. Processing food products and beverages
8. Oil refining and synthetic rubber manufacturing
9. Manufacturing and treatment of metals
10. Freezing food products
11. Miscellaneous applications:
(i) Extremely low temperatures
(ii) Plumbing
(iii) Building construction, etc.

Types of refrigeration Systems

The various refrigeration systems may be enumerated as below:
1. Ice refrigeration
2. Air refrigeration system
3. Vapour compression refrigeration system
4. Vapour absorption refrigeration system
5. Special refrigeration systems
(i) Adsorption refrigeration system
(ii) Cascade refrigeration system
(iii) Mixed refrigeration system
(iv) Vortex tube refrigeration system
(v) Thermoelectric refrigeration
(vi) Steam jet refrigeration system

Elements of Refrigeration Systems

All refrigeration systems must include at least four basic units as given below :
(i) A low temperature thermal ―sink‖ to which heat will flow from the space to be cooled.
(ii) Means of extracting energy from the sink, raising the temperature level of this energy,
and delivering it to a heat receiver.
(iii) A receiver to which heat will be transferred from the high temperature high-pressure
refrigerant.
(iv) Means of reducing of pressure and temperature of the refrigerant as it returns from the
receiver to the ―sink‖.
Co-efficient of Performance (C.O.P.)
The performance of a refrigeration system is expressed by a term known as the ‗‗co-efficient
of performance‘‘, which is defined as the ratio of heat absorbed by the refrigerant while
passing through the evaporator to the work input required to compress the refrigerant in the
compressor ; in short it is the ratio between heat extracted and work done (in heat units).
If, Rn = Net refrigerating effect,
W = Work expanded in by the machine during the same interval of time,
Then, C.O.P. = Rn/W and Relative C.O.P. = Actual C.O.P./Theoretical C.O.P
Simple Vapour Compression Cycle
In a simple vapour compression system fundamental processes are completed in one cycle.
These are :1. Compression 2. Condensation 3. Expansion 4. Vaporisation.
The flow diagram of such a cycle is shown in Fig. 1.The vapour at low temperature and
pressure (state ‗2‘) enters the ―compressor‖ where it is compressed isentropically and
subsequently its temperature and pressure increase considerably (state ‗3‘). This vapour after
leaving the compressor enters the ‗‗condenser‖ where it is condensed into high pressure
liquid (state ‗5‘) and is collected in a ―receiver tank‖. From receiver tank it passes through the
―expansion valve‖, here it is throttled down to a lower pressure and has a low temperature
(state ‗6‘). After finding its way through expansion ―valve‖ it finally passes on to
―evaporator‖ where it extracts heat from the surroundingsor circulating fluid being
refrigerated and vaporizes to low pressure vapor (state ‗2‘).

Vapor compression refrigeration system

Air-conditioning:
‗‗Air-conditioning‘‘ is the simultaneous control oftemperature, humidity, motion and purity
of the atmospherein confined space. Thus the important factors which areinvolved in a
complete air-conditioning installation are (i) Temperature control;(ii) Humidity control ;(iii)
Airmovement and circulation and (iv) Air filtering, cleaning and purification. Complete air
conditioning providessimultaneous control of these factors for both summer andwinter. In
addition to comfort phases of air-conditioningmany industries have found that air-
conditioning of theirplants has made possible more complete control ofmanufacturing
processes and material and improves thequality of the finished products.
An air-conditioning system is defined as an assembly of different parts of the system used to
produce aspecified condition of air within a required space or building.
The basic elements of air-conditioning systems (of whatever form) are:
1. Fans for moving air.
2. Filters for cleaning air, either fresh, recirculatedor both.
3. Refrigerating plant connected to heat exchange surface, such as finned coils or chilled
water sprays.
4. Means for warming the air, such as hot water or steam heated coils or electrical elements.
5. Means for humidification; and or dehumidification.
6. Control system to regulate automatically the amount of cooling or warming.

Classification of Air conditioning systems According to Season

The air conditioning systems are classified, according to the season, either as winter air
conditioning systems, summer air conditioning systems or year-round air conditioning
systems. This is done since the requirements during summer and winter are different.

Summer air conditioning systems

This involves cooling of air, removal of excess moisture, removing the pollutants, dust and
introducing fresh air to dilute the odours and the carbon dioxide level. Cooling is done by a
refrigeration system and the removal of moisture is also done by the cooling coil. In
extremecases, dehydration by silica gel or other chemicals may be required.

Winter air conditioning systems

Winter comfort usually involves heating and humidification with air purity and movement.
Circulating hot water or steam to fin tube radiators or fan coil convectors usually does the
heating. Boilers, furnaces fired by gas, oil, coal or electrical heaters are used to heat the
water. Solar collectors may also be used for heating. Heat pumps are very efficient compared
to electrical heating. Humidification is done by adding water vapour to the moist air.
Humidifiers are simple pan type, spray type or rotary type.

Year-round air conditioning systems

These systems involve both cooling/heating and humidification/dehumidification apart from
improving the purity of the air quality so that one can use them throughout the year. In true
sense, these systems are called Heating Ventilating and Air Conditioning (HVAC) systems.
These have automatic controls to switch them over to heating and dehumidifying systems
during winter and vice-versa during summer. In fact, the modern packaged residential heat
pumps with their improved designs and better refrigerants work very efficiently as heat
pumps during winter and provide cooling during summer.

Psychrometric Processes
The various psychrometric processes involved in air conditioning to vary the
psychrometricproperties of air according to the requirement are as follows:
1.Sensible heating, 2. Sensible cooling, 3.Humidification and dehumidification, 4.Cooling
and adiabatic humidification, 5.Cooling and humidification by water injection, 6.Heating and
humidification, 7.Humidification by steam injection, 8.Adiabatic chemical dehumidification,
9. Adiabatic mixing of air streams.

Sensible Heating
The heating of air, without any change in its specific humidity, is known as sensible
heating.The heat absorbed by the air during sensible heating may be obtained from the
psychrometric chart by the enthalpy difference (h2 – h1).

Sensible Heating Sensible Cooling

Sensible Cooling: The cooling of air, without any change in its specific humidity, is known
as sensible cooling.
Humidlfication and Dehumidification: The addition of moisture tothe air, without change
in its dry bulb temperature, is known as humidification. Similarly, removal of moisture from
the air, without change in its dry bulb temperature, is known as dehumidification. The heat
added during humidification process and heat removed during dehumidification process is
shown on the psychrometric chart in Fig.
 Humidification and Dehumidification

IC Engine:
Any type of engine or machine which derives heat energy from the combustion of fuel or any
other source and converts this energy into mechanical work is termed as a heat engine. Heat
engines may be classified into two main classes as follows :
1. External Combustion Engines.
2. Internal Combustion Engines.
1. External Combustion Engines (E.C. Engines) In this case, combustion of fuel takes place
outside the cylinder as in case of steam engines where the heat of combustion is employed to
generate steam which is used to move a piston in a cylinder. Other examples of external
combustion engines are hot air engines, steam turbine and closed cycle gas turbine. These
engines are generally used for driving locomotives, ships, generation of electric power etc.
2. Internal Combustion Engines (I.C. Engines)
In this case, combustion of the fuel with oxygen ofthe air occurs within the cylinder of the
engine. The internalcombustion engines group includes engines employing mixtures of
combustible gases and air, known as gas engines, those using lighter liquid fuel or spirit
known as petrol engines and those using heavier liquid fuels, known as oil compression
ignition or diesel engines.
Internal combustion engines may be classified as given below :
1. According to cycle of operation: (i) Two-stroke cycle engines (ii) Four-stroke cycle
engines.
2. According to method of ignition :(i) Spark ignition (S.I.) engine(ii) Compression
ignition (C.I.) engine.

BASIC ENGINE COMPONENTS AND NOMENCLATURE

Even though reciprocating internal combustion engines look quite simple, they are highly
complex machines. There are hundreds of components which haveto perform their functions
effectively to produce output power. There aretwo types of engines, viz., spark-ignition (SI)
and compression-ignition (CI)engine. Let us now go through some of the important engine
components andthe nomenclature associated with an engine.
Engine Components
A cross section of a single cylinder spark-ignition engine with overhead valvesis shown in
Fig. The major components of the engine are shown below.

Fig. Cross-section of a spark-ignition engine

Nomenclature
Cylinder Bore (d) : The nominal inner diameter of the working cylinder is called the
cylinder bore and is designated by the letter d and is usually expressed in millimeter (mm).
Piston Area (A) : The area of a circle of diameter equal to the cylinder bore is called the
piston area and is designated by the letter A and is usually expressed in square centimeter
(cm2).
Stroke (L): The nominal distance through which a working piston moves between two
successive reversals of its direction of motion is called the stroke and is designated by the
letter L and is expressed usually in millimeter (mm).
Stroke to Bore Ratio: L/d ratio is an important parameter in classifying the size of the
engine. If d < L, it is called under-square engine. If d = L, itis called square engine. If d > L,
it is called over-square engine. An over-square engine can operate at higher speeds because
of larger bore and shorter stroke.
Dead Centre: The position of the working piston and the moving parts which are
mechanically connected to it, at the moment when the direction of the piston motion is
reversed at either end of the stroke is called the dead centre. There are two dead centres in the
engine as indicated in Fig.6. They are: (i) Top Dead Centre (ii) Bottom Dead Centre.
 Fig. 6 Top and bottom dead centres
(i) Top Dead Centre (TDC): It is the dead centre when the piston is farthest from the
crankshaft. It is designated as T DC for vertical engines and Inner Dead Centre (IDC) for
horizontal engines.
(ii) Bottom Dead Centre (BDC): It is the dead centre when the piston is nearest to the
crankshaft. It is designated as BDC for vertical engines and Outer Dead Centre (ODC) for
horizontal engines.
Displacement or Swept Volume (Vs): The nominal volume swept by the working piston
when travelling from one dead centre to the other is called the displacement volume. It is
expressed in terms of cubic centimeter (cc) and given by

Cubic Capacity or Engine Capacity: The displacement volume of a cylinder multiplied by

number of cylinders in an engine will give the cubic capacity or the engine capacity. For
example, if there are K cylinders in an engine, then Cubic capacity = Vs× K
Clearance Volume (VC): The nominal volume of the combustion chamber above the piston
when it is at the top dead centre is the clearance volume. It is designated as VC and expressed
in cubic centimeter (cc).
Compression Ratio (r): It is the ratio of the total cylinder volume when the piston is at the
bottom dead centre, VT, to the clearance volume, VC . It is designated by the letter r.

THE WORKING PRINCIPLE OF ENGINES

The credit of inventing the spark-ignition engine goes to Nicolaus A. Otto (1876) whereas
compression-ignition engine was invented by Rudolf Diesel (1892). Therefore, they are often
referred to as Otto engine and Diesel engine.
Four-Stroke Spark-Ignition Engine
In a four-stroke engine, the cycle of operations is completed in four strokes of the piston or
two revolutions of the crankshaft. During the four strokes, there are five events to be
completed, viz., suction, compression, combustion, expansion and exhaust. Each stroke
consists of 180° of crankshaft rotation and hence a four-stroke cycle is completed through
720° of crank rotation.

The cycle of operation for an ideal four-stroke SI engine consists of the following four
strokes: (i) suction or intake stroke; (ii) compression stroke; (iii) expansion or power stroke
and (iv) exhaust stroke. The details of various processes of a four-stroke spark-ignition
engine with over head valves are shown in Fig.7 (a-d). When the engine completes all the
five events under ideal cycle mode, the pressure-volume (p-V ) diagram will be as shown in
Fig.8

Fig 7

Fig 8
(i) Suction or Intake Stroke: Suction stroke 0→1 (Fig.) starts when the piston is at the top
dead centre and about to move downwards. The inlet valve is assumed to open
instantaneously and at this time the exhaust valve is in the closed position, Fig.1.4(a). Due to
the suction created by the motion of the piston towards the bottom dead centre, the charge
consisting of fuel-air mixture is drawn into the cylinder. When the piston reaches the bottom
dead centre the suction stroke ends and the inlet valve closes instantaneously.
(ii) Compression Stroke: The charge taken into the cylinder during the suction stroke is
compressed by the return stroke of the piston 1→2,(Fig.1.5). During this stroke both inlet and
exhaust valves are in closed position, Fig.7 (b). The mixture which fills the entire cylinder
volume is now compressed into the clearance volume. At the end of the compression stroke
the mixture is ignited with the help of a spark plug located on the cylinder head. In ideal
engines it is assumed that burning takes place instantaneously when the piston is at the top
dead centre and hence the burning process can be approximated as heat addition at constant
volume. During the burning process the chemical energy of the fuel is converted into heat
energy producing a temperature rise of about 2000◦C (process 2→3), Fig.8. The pressure at
the end of the combustion process is considerably increased due to the heat releasefrom the
fuel.
(iii) Expansion or Power Stroke: The high pressure of the burnt gases forces the piston
towards the BDC, (stroke 3→4) Fig.8. Both the valves are in closed position, Fig.7(c). Of the
four-strokes only during this stroke power is produced. Both pressure and temperature
decrease during expansion.
(iv) Exhaust Stroke: At the end of the expansion stroke the exhaust valve opens
instantaneously and the inlet valve remains closed, Fig.7(d).The pressure falls to atmospheric
level a part of the burnt gases escape. The piston starts moving from the bottom dead centre
to top dead centre (stroke 5→0), Fig.8 and sweeps the burnt gases out from the cylinder
almost at atmospheric pressure. The exhaust valve closes when the piston reaches TDC. At
the end of the exhaust stroke and some residual gases trapped in the clearance volume remain
in the cylinder. These residual gases mix with the fresh charge coming in during the
following cycle, forming its working fluid. Each cylinder of a four-stroke engine completes
the above four operations in two engine revolutions, first revolution of the crankshaft occurs
during the suction and compression strokes and the second revolution during the power and
exhaust strokes. Thus, for one complete cycle there is only one power stroke while the
crankshaft makes two revolutions. For getting higher output from the engine the heat addition
(process 2→3) should be as high as possible and the heat rejection (process 3→4) should be
as small as possible. Hence, one should be careful in drawing the ideal p-V diagram(Fig.8),
which should depict the processes correctly.

Four-Stroke Compression-Ignition Engine

The four-stroke CI engine is similar to the four-stroke SI engine but it operates at a much
higher compression ratio. The compression ratio of an SI engine is between 6 and 10 while
for a CI engine it is from 16 to 20. In the CI engine during suction stroke, air, instead of a
fuel-air mixture, is inducted. Due to higher compression ratios employed, the temperature at
the end of the compression stroke is sufficiently high to self ignite the fuel which is injected
into the combustion chamber. In CI engines, a high pressure fuel pump and an injector are
provided to inject the fuel into the combustion chamber. The carburetor and ignition system
necessary in the SI engine are not required in the CI engine. The ideal sequence of operations
for the four-stroke CI engine as shown inFig.1.6 is as follows:
(i) Suction Stroke: Air alone is inducted during the suction stroke. During this stroke inlet
valve is open and exhaust valve is closed, Fig.9(a).
(ii) Compression Stroke: Air inducted during the suction stroke is compressed into the
clearance volume. Both valves remain closed during this stroke, Fig.9(b).
(iii) Expansion Stroke: Fuel injection starts nearly at the end of the compression stroke. The
rate of injection is such that combustion maintains the pressure constant in spite of the piston
movement on its expansion stroke increasing the volume. Heat is assumed to have been
added at
constant pressure. After the injection of fuel is completed (i.e. after cut-off) the products of
combustion expand. Both the valves remain closed during the expansion stroke, Fig.9(c).
(iv) Exhaust Stroke : The piston travelling from BDC to TDC pushes out the products of
combustion. The exhaust valve is open and the intake valve is closed during this stroke,
Fig.9. The ideal p-V diagram is shown in Fig.10.

Fig 9

Fig 10
 Electric vehicle
An electric vehicle (EV) is a vehicle that is powered by electricity. EVs use an electric
motor powered by electricity from batteries or a fuel cell, instead of a gasoline or diesel-
powered engine.
EVs have low running costs and are environmentally friendly because they use little or no
fossil fuels. They have an all-electric range from 20 to 60 miles and can be charged at a
charging station. When the car uses up its electric range, it switches to gas and drives just like
a conventional car.
The key components of a Battery Electric Vehicle are:
 Electric motor
 Inverter
 Battery
 Battery charger
 Controller
 Charging cable

 Electric motor
 You will find electric motors in everything from juicers and toothbrushes, washing
machines and dryers, to robots. They are familiar, reliable and very durable. Electric
vehicle motors use AC power.

 Inverter
 An inverter is a device that converts DC power to the AC power used in an electric
vehicle motor. The inverter can change the speed at which the motor rotates by
adjusting the frequency of the alternating current. It can also increase or decrease the
power or torque of the motor by adjusting the amplitude of the signal.
 Battery
 An electric vehicle uses a battery to store electrical energy that is ready to use. A
battery pack is made up of a number of cells that are grouped into modules. Once the
battery has sufficient energy stored, the vehicle is ready to use.
 Battery technology has improved hugely in recent years. Current EV batteries are
lithium based. These have a very low rate of discharge. This means an EV should not
lose charge if it isn't driven for a few days, or even
weeks.

 Battery charger
 The battery charger converts the AC power available on our electricity network to DC
power stored in a battery. It controls the voltage level of the battery cells by adjusting
the rate of charge. It will also monitor the cell temperatures and control the charge to
help keep the battery healthy.
 Controller
 The controller is like the brain of a vehicle, managing all of its parameters. It controls
the rate of charge using information from the battery. It also translates pressure on the
accelerator pedal to adjust speed in the motor inverter.

Charging cable
 A charging cable for standard charging is supplied with and stored in the vehicle. It's
used for charging at home or at standard public charge points. A fast charge point will
have its own cable.
Working
Electric cars function by plugging into a charge point and taking electricity from the
grid. They store the electricity in rechargeable batteries that power an electric motor,
which turns the wheels. Electric cars accelerate faster than vehicles with traditional
fuel engines – so they feel lighter to drive

Advantages and Disadvantages of Hybrid Cars

Advantages
1. Fuel Economy
Hybrid cars are proven to be more fuel efficient than conventional petrol/diesel vehicles due
to improvements in weight reduction, aerodynamics and a smaller engine. Hybrid cars will
also run purely on the electric motor whenever possible, which makes a large impact on the
car‘s fuel economy.

2. Require Less Maintenance

Hybrid cars require less maintenance than traditional gas-powered cars, as hybrids are
designed to last longer and run better than gas-powered cars. They have fewer parts, which
means they require less maintenance than a traditional car.

3. Light Materials
Hybrid cars are made up of lighter materials and the engine is significantly smaller and
lighter so that less energy is required to run the vehicle.
The petrol engine used in hybrid cars is smaller and lighter as they aren‘t solely responsible
for powering the car because there‘s an electric motor to support powering the car.

4. A More Reliable Fuel Type

In a recent Which? Car Survey on Hybrid Car Reliability, Hybrid cars were found to be the
most reliable by fuel type by having fewer faults. This is because hybrid models are
mechanically simpler and have fewer parts than other car types, which keeps their fault
percentage much lower.

5. Good Resale Value

Hybrid cars often have a higher resale value compared to petrol/diesel cars because they
achieve a higher gas mileage.
Similarly to petrol/diesel cars, the value of a hybrid car will depreciate, but its resale value
will typically be higher because of less maintenance being required and its higher gas mileage

 Disadvantages of Hybrid Cars

1. Higher Insurance
Hybrid cars usually have a higher insurance cost than petrol or diesel cars because the
technology used inside them is much more expensive to repair or replace.
Some insurance companies offer discounts on insuring hybrid vehicles as an incentive to
drive one because hybrid cars are much better for the environment than regular petrol or
diesel cars.

2. Higher Upfront Cost

Electric and hybrid cars are more expensive than traditional petrol/diesel cars, and with this
will come a higher upfront cost.
Once you start driving your hybrid car, the running costs will be considerably lower, so the
savings on this will make the higher upfront cost worth it in the long run.

3. Performance
Hybrid cars are often manufactured with the goal of improving fuel efficiency and being
better for the environment. This means the car is often designed with this in mind, fuel
efficiency is improved at the sacrifice of performance.A fully hybrid car will be slower in
speed compared to its counterparts.

4. Poorer Handling
Hybrids are built with two engines into one car, and this weight affects the handling of the
car. This is important to keep in mind when looking to either purchase or lease a hybrid car.

5. Battery Replacement Can Be Expensive

A lot of hybrid cars and electric vehicles use a battery that uses specific rare-earth materials
that can only be mined in certain areas of the world. Due to the rarity of these materials, the
batteries in hybrid cars are quite expensive when it comes to replacing them
 UNIT-III
A power plant is an industrial facility that generates electricity from primary energy sources,
such as coal, natural gas, nuclear, solar, or wind energy. Most power plants use one or more
generators that convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. The relative motion between
a magnetic field and a conductor creates an electric current.
Power plants are a major source of greenhouse gas emissions, mainly carbon
dioxide. Conventional power plants based on fossil fuels are unsustainable due to the scarcity
of fossil resources and environmental issues.
A conventional thermal power plant has three main parts: Fuel storage, Turbine,
Generator. Other components include:
 Boiler
 Condenser
 Drum
 Draft
 Cooling tower
 Circulating water pump
 Re-heater
 Economizer
 Water treatment unit

All power plants have three basic components:

1. Energy source: Such as burning coal with heat energy
2. Converter to mechanical energy: Such as a stream engine or a water turbine
3. Converter to electrical energy: Such as a dynamo
For example, a thermal power plant has the following components:
 Boiler: Heats water to produce steam
 Turbine: Expands the steam to produce mechanical energy
 Generator: Converts the mechanical energy from the turbine into electrical energy
Other components of a steam power plant include:
 High pressure boiler
 Prime mover
 Condensers and cooling towers
 Fuel (coal) handling system
 Ash and dust handling system
 Draught system
 Feed water purification plant
 Pumping system
 Air preheater, economizer, super heater, feed heaters
Layout of Steam power plant :

The layout of a modern steam power plant

comprises of the following four circuits :
1. Coal and ash circuit.
2. Air and gas circuit.
3. Feed water and steam flow circuit.
4. Cooling water circuit.

Coal and ash circuit. Coal arrives at the storage yard and after necessary handling, passes on to the furnaces
through the fuel feeding device. Ash resulting from combustion of coal collects at the back of the boiler and is
removed to the ash storage yard through ash handling
equipment.
Air and gas circuit. Air is taken in from atmosphere through the action of a forced or induced draught fan and
passes on to the furnace through the air preheater, where it has been heated by the heat of flue gases which pass
to the chimney via the preheater. The flue gases
after passing around boiler tubes and superheater tubes in the furnace pass through a dust catching device or
precipitator, then through the economiser, and finally through the air preheater before being exhausted to the
atmosphere.
Feed water and steam flow circuit. In the water and steam circuit condensate leaving the condenser goes to
the boiler through economiser. In the boiler water is converted from liquid to vapor. Steam from the drum is
further heated up in the superheater before being supplied to the turbine. From there it is exhausted through the
condenser into the hot well.
Cooling water circuit. The cooling water supply to the condenser helps in maintaining a low pressure in it. The
water may be taken from a natural source such as river, lake or sea or the same water may be cooled and
circulated over again. In the later case the cooling arrangement is made through spray pond or cooling tower.
Hydro – Electric power plant:

The following are the essential elements of hydro-electric power plant :

1. Catchment area
2. Reservoir
3. Dam
4. Spillways
5. Conduits
6. Surge tanks
7. Prime movers
8. Draft tubes
9. Powerhouse and equipment
Catchment Area
The whole area behind the dam draining into a stream or river across which the dam has been built at a suitable
place, is called catchment area.
Reservoir
The water reservoir is the primary requirement of hydroelectric plant. A reservoir is employed to store water
which is further utilised to generate power by running the hydraulic turbines. A reservoir may be of the
following two types :
1. Natural
2. Artificial
A natural reservoir is a lake in high mountains. An artificial reservoir is built by erecting a dam across the river.
Water held in upstream reservoir is called storage whereas water behind the dam at the plant is called pondage.
Dam
A dam is a barrier to confine or raise water for storage or diversion to create a hydraulic head. An hydro-
electric dam diverts the flow from the river to the turbines and usually increases the head. A reservoir dam
stores water by raising its level. Dams are built of concrete or stone masonry, earth or rock fill, or timber.
Spillways
When the water enters the reservoir basin, the level of water in basin rises. This rise is arranged to be of
temporary nature because excess accumulation of water endangers the stability of dam structure. To relieve
reservoir of this excess water contribution, a structure is provided in the body of a dam or near the dam or on
the periphery of a basin. This safeguarding structure is called a spillway. A spillway should fulfil9 the
following requirements:
1. It should provide structural stability to the dam under all conditions of floods.
2. It should be able to pass the designed flood without raising reservoir level above H.F.L. (high flood level).
3. It should have an efficient operation.
4. It should have an economical section.
Conduits
A headrace is a channel which leads water to a turbine and a tailrace is a channel which conducts water from
the wheels. The conduit may be open or close.
Open conduits ...... Canals and flumes
Close conduits ...... Tunnels, pipelines and
Penstocks:
It is a closed conduit for supplying water under pressure to a turbine.
Surge Tanks
A surge tank is a small reservoir or tank in which the water level rises or falls to reduce the pressure swings so
that they are not transmitted in full to a closed circuit. In general a surge tank serves the following purposes :
1. To reduce the distance between the free water surface and turbine thereby reducing the water-hammer
effect (the water hammer is defined as the change in pressure rapidly above or below normal pressure
caused by sudden changes in the rate of water flow through the pipe according to the demand of prime
mover) on penstock and also protect upstream tunnel from high pressure rises.
2. To serve as a supply tank to the turbine when the water in the pipe is accelerating during increased load
conditions and as a storage tank when the water is decelerating during reduced load conditions.
Prime Movers: are the turbines to develop electric power. Ex: Pelton wheel, Kaplan turbine and fransis
turbines are used based on the head available.
Draft tubes: It is a tube of varying cross-section and Employed to increase the power output and efficiency of
the turbine.

Nuclear Power plant:

The main components of a nuclear power plant are :
1. Nuclear reactor
2. Heat exchanger (steam generator)
3. Steam turbine
4. Condenser
5. Electric generator.
In a nuclear power plant the reactor performs the same function as that of the furnace of steam power plant
(i.e., produces heat). The heat liberated in the reactor as a result of the nuclear fission of the fuel is taken up by
the coolant circulating through the reactor core. Hot coolant leaves the reactor at the top and then flows through
the tubes of steam generator and passes on it heat to the feed water. The steam so produced expands in the
steam turbine, producing work and thereafter is condensed in the condenser. The steam turbine in turn runs an
electric generator thereby producing electrical energy. In order to maintain the flow of coolant, condensate and
feed water pumps are provided as shown in Fig.

Diesel Power Plant:

A diesel power plant is a type of power plant that uses a diesel engine as the prime mover to drive an alternator
and generate electricity. Diesel power plants are mainly used for small-scale power generation or as backup
sources of electricity in remote areas or during emergencies.
A diesel power plant is defined as a power plant that uses a diesel engine as the prime mover to drive an
alternator and generate electricity. A diesel engine is an internal combustion engine that converts the chemical
energy of diesel fuel into mechanical energy. The mechanical energy is then used to rotate the shaft of an
alternator, which converts it into electrical energy.
The working principle of a diesel power plant is based on the four-stroke cycle of a diesel engine. The
four strokes are:
  Intake stroke: The air intake system draws fresh air from the atmosphere and filters it to remove dust and
dirt. The filtered air is then compressed by the piston in the cylinder.
 Compression stroke: The piston moves up and compresses the air in the cylinder to high pressure and
temperature.
 Power stroke: The fuel supply system injects a measured amount of diesel fuel into the cylinder through
a fuel injector. The fuel mixes with the compressed air and ignites spontaneously due to the high
temperature. The combustion of fuel releases a large amount of energy, which pushes the piston down
and creates a power stroke.
 Exhaust stroke: The piston moves up again and expels the exhaust gases from the cylinder through the
exhaust valve. The exhaust system removes the exhaust gases from the engine and reduces the noise
level.
The above cycle is repeated for each cylinder of the engine. The power strokes of different cylinders are
synchronized to produce a smooth and continuous rotation of the crankshaft. The crankshaft is connected to the
alternator by a coupling or a belt. The alternator converts the mechanical energy of the crankshaft into electrical
energy. The electrical energy is then delivered to the load or the grid through a control panel.
The cooling system circulates water or air through the engine to remove excess heat and maintain an optimal
temperature. The lubrication system supplies oil to the moving parts of the engine to reduce friction and wear.
The starting system provides compressed air or electricity to start the engine initially.

Advantages of Diesel Power Plant

Some of the advantages of diesel power plants are:

 They are simple in design and easy to install.

 They require less space and can be designed for portable use.
 They have quick starting and stopping capabilities, which reduce standby losses.
 They have high thermal efficiency and low fuel consumption compared to coal-fired plants.
 They can operate independently of external sources of water or coal.
 They can provide a reliable and flexible power supply for peak load or emergency situations.
Disadvantages of Diesel Power Plant
Some of the disadvantages of diesel power plants are:

 They have high operating and maintenance costs due to the high price of diesel fuel and lubricants.
 They have limited capacity and are not suitable for large-scale power generation.
 They produce noise and air pollution due to exhaust emissions.
 They cannot operate under overload conditions for long periods.
Applications of Diesel Power Plants
Some of the applications of diesel power plants are:

 They are used as standby or backup sources of electricity for industries, commercial complexes,
hospitals, etc., during power outages or grid failures.
 They are used as mobile or portable sources of electricity for remote areas, construction sites, military
camps, etc., where the grid connection is not available or feasible.
 They are used as peak load plants to supplement other types of power plants during periods of high
demand or low supply.
 They are used as emergency plants for essential services such as communication, water supply, etc.,
during natural disasters or wars.
 They are used as starting plants for large steam or hydroelectric plants that require the initial rotation of
their turbines.
 Mechanical Power Transmission
Mechanical transmission can refer to the transfer of mechanical energy from one
component to another in machines. It can also refer to the transfer of power and rotation
from one place to another using mechanical elements.
Mechanical power transmission involves using different types of systems to transfer energy
from one component to another without changing its nature. For example, electric shavers,
water pumps, turbines, and automobiles all use mechanical power transmission.
Mechanical transmission can also refer to the transmission of pathogens from mechanical
vectors, such as flies, to new hosts through physical contact. For example, filth flies can
transfer pathogens from their contaminated bodies to our food, eyes, noses, mouths, and open
wounds.
Belt drives:

A belt drive is a transmission system that uses a flexible strip to transfer power. The turning
disk is connected by a belt drive to the electric motor. A rubber belt drive is used to transfer
power from one pulley to another. A belt drive is a transmission system that uses a flexible
strip to transfer power.

Types of Belts:
  Flat belt. It is mostly used in the factories and workshops, where a moderate amount
of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another when the two pulleys are not
more than 8 metres apart.
 V- belt. It is mostly used in the factories and workshops, where a great amount of
power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another, when the two pulleys are very
near to each other.

Material used for Belts

The material used for belts and ropes must be strong, flexible, and durable. It must have a
high
Coefficient of friction.
1. Leather belts
2. Cotton or fabric belts
3. Rubber belt.
4. Balata belts

Belt Joints
When the endless belts are not available, then the belts are cut from big rolls and the ends are
joined together by fasteners. The various types of joints are
1.Cemented joint, 2. Laced joint, and 3. Hinged joint.

Advantages of Belt drive:

1. Belt drive has Greater reliability.
2. It has less maintenance compared to chain and shaft drives.
3. Less noise compared to chain drives.
 4. Better performance in dusty environments.
5. No oiling or greasing is required.
6. Higher torque capacity than chain drives (especially for heavy loads)
7. Excellent bearing life.
8. Belt drives are more flexible and easy to replace.
9. Lubrication is eliminated as the only maintenance needed is periodic cleaning of the
teeth on the gears or shafts.

Disadvantages of Belt drive:

1. The main disadvantage of belt drives is that they are susceptible to contamination by
dirt, lubricants, oil, water, etc., which can cause problems with operation.
2. Belt drive requires filter elements that help reduce contaminants from entering the
system during operation.
3. The belt drive requires regular replacement due to wear and tear on the pulleys and
bearings.
4. Life span is less compared to shaft and gearbox system.

Applications of Belt-Drive:
 The belt drive is used in the Mill industry.
 The belt drive is used in Conveyor.
 Power transmission in industrial machinery and equipment
 Automotive applications, in different types of engines and transmissions
 Agricultural machinery, such as tractors and harvesters
 Conveyor systems in manufacturing and distribution facilities
 HVAC systems in buildings, such as fans and air handling units
 Exercise equipment, such as treadmills and stationary bikes
 Office equipment, such as printers and copiers
 Power tools, such as table saws and drill presses.

Chain Drives:
The chains are made up of number of rigid links which are hinged together by pin joints in
order to provide the necessary flexibility for wraping round the driving and driven wheels.
  These wheels have projecting teeth of special profile and fit into the corresponding
recesses
 A mechanical Drive with intermediate link
 These are suitable for long and short drive. But most suited to short drive
 Bicycles, motor cycles, agricultural machinery, conveyors, rolling mills, road rollers.
 The chains may also be used for long centre distance of upto 8Mts

A chain drive is a Mechanical operating system where we use different types of chains to
transmit power. Generally, a chain drive is used where the distance between the power source
and where it is to be transferred is less, however, this is not applicable for all. In some cases,
we can use a chain drive for longer distances of power transfer. In belt or rope drive we see
some percent of slip occurs, but in the chain, there will be no slip. But this does not mean that
100% power is transmitted from one device to another. Due to friction loss some amount of
power loss can be generally seen.
In chain drives, the speed ratio remains constant which is a major advantage of chain drives.
Here there is no slippage and in the case of belt drive, there is slippage so the speed ratio
changes as per slippage. A chain is made with several numbers of links and those are
connected with the help of a pin. Chains runs over a wheel named sprocket which has several
number of teeth’s around the circumference to grip the chain, however, not all the chains
need a sprocket to run over.

Classification of Chains
 Hoisting and hauling (or crane) chains
 These chains are used for hoisting and hauling purposes and operate at a maximum velocity
of 0.25 m / s.
Conveyor (or tractive) chains
These chains are used for elevating and conveying the materials continuously at a speed upto
2 m / s.

Power transmitting (or driving) chains.

 Chains are used for transmission of power, when the distance between the centres of
shafts is short.
 These chains have provision for efficient lubrication.
A. Block or bush chain

B. Bush roller chain.

 A bush roller chain is extremely strong and simple in construction.
 It gives good service under severe conditions
 There is a little noise with this chain which is due to impact of the rollers on the sprocket
wheel teeth
Components of Chain Drive
 Chains:
 Any one of the above chain, which may be single of more.
 Material:
 Plates-Cold rolled brand of Medium carbon / alloy steels.
 Bend plates- alloy steel
 Chain-pins, bushing and inserts-Carburizing steel and are hardened to
50-65RC.
 Sprockets

 Chain housing
 Slack adjusters.

Advantages of Chain drive

A chain drive has several advantages which are listed below:
 Low maintenance.
 Greater efficiency up to 97%.
 Slipping is negligible
 Chain drives can operate in wet conditions too.
 It can withstand abrasive conditions.
 The chain drives is easy to install.
 Initial tension is not required in chain drives.
 Even in fire hazards it does not faces any problem.
 Multiple shafts can be driven from a single chain drive.
 Chain drives require less space and are more compact as compared to belt drive.
 It produces less stress on the shaft because the sprockets are lighter than pulleys.
 Transmit higher power as compared to belt drive.
 The speed ratio is good as compared to belt drive.
 It can be used in reversing drives.
 It can be operated at a high temperature like a belt which cannot operate at high
temperatures.
 Chain drives can be used up to 3m in distances between small and large centers.

Disadvantages of Chain drive

A chain drive has several disadvantages which are listed below:
 The major disadvantage is that it requires more frequent lubrication otherwise rusting
problems can arise.
  It cannot be used where there is a requirement of slips.
 We can’t keep chain drives in open. It needs housing or covering.
 It cannot be used for applications that require precise motion requirements.
 It is noisy and therefore there is a problem of vibration too.
 The installation or initial cost is more.
 The velocity fluctuation is more.

Application of chain drive

A chain drive has several applications which are listed below:
 Chain drive is used for high transmission of power.
 It is used for lifting loads and also used to carry heavy materials.
 This is also used in woodworking machinery.
They are used in several industries for several purposes:
 Transportation Industry.
 Agriculture Machinery.
 Material Handling Equipment.
 Building construction.

Rope drives:
  The rope drives are widely used where a large amount of power is to be transmitted,
from one pulley to another, over a considerable distance.
 It may be noted that the use of flat belts is limited for the transmission of moderate
power from one pulley to another when the two pulleys are not more than 8 metres
apart.
 If large amounts of power are to be transmitted, by the flat belt, then it would result
in excessive belt cross-section.
Rope drive is referred to as a simplified form of a belt drive, which is most commonly found
having the application of power transmission mechanically. Rope drives are found
performing multiple use of circular section ropes instead of the single flats or V-belts. The
rope drives are the ones which are widely used where ever there seems to be a large amount
of power that needs to be transmitted, from one pulley to another for any particular
considerable distance.
It can be noted that the use of belts like flat belts is found to be limited for the purpose of
transmission of any medium power considered from one pulley to any another wherever the
two pulleys are found not exceeding the distance of minimum 8 m. If there is any large
amount of power is found being then it can be transmitted by the flat belt which can result in
an excessive belt cross-section.
The ropes which are used for the purpose of transmitting power are the ones which are
usually made from the fibrous materials like hemp, manila and cotton.
Types of ropes:
 Fibre ropes: The fibre ropes operate successfully when the pulleys are about 60
metres apart
 Wire ropes. The wire ropes are used when the pulleys are upto 150 metres apart

Classification of Wire Ropes

1. Cross or regular lay ropes 2. Parallel or lang lay ropes
 Designation of Wire Ropes
 The wire ropes are designated by the number of strands and the number of wires in
each strand. For example, a wire rope having six strands and seven wires in each
strand is designated by 6 × 7 rope.

Advantages of Wire Rope

The advantages of a wire rope are that they are most commonly found to be more resistant to
wear as they are found having better crushing resistance along with higher strength as
compared to a round strand wire rope of equal diameter as well as classification. Whereas, a
swaged wire rope is referred to as the one which might have less bending fatigue resistance.
 High flexibility and Wear resistance.
 Better crushing resistance.
 Higher strength as compared to round strand.
 Less resistance of the bending fatigue.
 Reduction of mechanical stress on the rope as well as the sheave
 Less damages
 Significant Cost Reduction.

Application of Rope Drive:

Rope drive is found having various applications which can be used for several purposes like
hunting, pulling, carrying purposes, lifting purposes, as well as climbing activities in the
ancient era.
Power transmission over long distances is found to be the main application of a rope drive.
Rope drives are usually found being used in order to drive the systems that are usually found
to be more than 8 meters in distance along with using a distance power transmission system.
Metal ropes are the ones which are found being used for all the distances beyond 60 meters.
These types of ropes are found to be seen commonly in the elevators as well as the cranes.

Gear drives:

The motion and power transmitted by gears is kinematically equivalent to that transmitted by
frictional wheels or discs. In order to understand how the motion can be transmitted by two
toothed wheels, consider two plain circular wheels A and B mounted on shafts. The wheels
have sufficient rough surfaces and press against each other as shown in Fig
 Let the wheel A is keyed to the rotating shaft and the wheel B to the shaft to be
rotated. A little consideration will show that when the wheel A is rotated by a rotating shaft,
it will rotate the wheel B in the opposite direction as shown in Fig.. The wheel B will be
rotated by the wheel A so long as the tangential force exerted by the wheel A does not exceed
the maximum frictional resistance between the two wheels. But when the tangential force (P)
exceeds the *frictional resistance (F), slipping will take place between the two wheels.
In order to avoid the slipping, a number of projections (called teeth) as shown in Fig.
are provided on the periphery of the wheel A which will fit into the corresponding recesses
on the periphery of the wheel B. A friction wheel with the teeth cut on it is known as gear or
toothed wheel. The usual connection to show the toothed wheels is by their pitch circles.
Gear drives, sometimes referred to as gear trains and gearboxes, are mechanisms consisting
of an assembly of gears, shafts, and other machine elements for mounting the rotating parts.
They form a mechanical system used for transmitting shaft power from a driver such as an
engine, turbine, or motor to a driven piece of machinery. Gear drives can alter the transmitted
power by using different configurations of gears.
Gear drives can increase or decrease the rotational speed of the output shaft. A common use
of gear drives is for reducing speeds of motors and engines that typically run at thousands of
revolutions per minute (rpm). These are known as speed reducers. By reducing the speed,
torque is increased. This force amplification characteristic is one of the main functions of
speed reducers.
Gears are the main components of gear drives. Gears are toothed rolling elements which
mesh with one another by engaging their teeth. Because of the large dynamic forces involved,
gears are made with alloyed steel. The properties of these metals are also modified by heat
treatment to reach the right toughness and rigidity required for its application.

Classification of Gears

The gears or toothed wheels may be classified as follows:

 1. According to the position of axes of the shafts. The axes of the two shafts
betweenwhich the motion is to be transmitted, may be
(a) Parallel, (b) Intersecting, and (c) Non-intersecting and non-parallel.
The two parallel and co-planar shafts connected by the gears is shown in Fig. These
gears are called spur gears and the arrangement is known as spur gearing. These gears have
teeth parallel to the axis of the wheel as shown in Fig. Another name given to the spur
gearing is helical gearing, in which the teeth are inclined to the axis. The single and
double helical gears connecting parallel shafts are shown in Fig. (a) and (b) respectively.
The object of the double helical gear is to balance out the end thrusts that
are induced in single helical gears when transmitting load. The double helical gears are
known as herringbone gears. A pair of spur gears are kinematically equivalent to a pair of
cylindrical discs, keyed to a parallel shaft having line contact.
The two non-parallel or intersecting, but coplanar shafts connected by gears is
shown in Fig.(c). These gears are called bevel gears and the arrangement is known as
bevel gearing. The bevel gears, like spur gears may also have their teeth inclined to the
face of the bevel, in which case they are known as helical bevel gears.

The two non-intersecting and non-parallel i.e. non-coplanar shafts connected by

gears is shown in Fig.(d). These gears are called skew bevel gears or spiral gears and the
arrangement is known as skew bevel gearing or spiral gearing. This type of gearing also
have a line contact, the rotation of which about the axes generates the two pitch surfaces
known as hyperboloids.
Notes: (i) When equal bevel gears (having equal teeth) connect two shafts whose axes are
mutually perpendicular, then the bevel gears are known as mitres.
(ii) A hyperboloid is the solid formed by revolving a straight line about an axis (not
in the same plane), such that every point on the line remains at a constant distance from
the axis.
(iii) The worm gearing is essentially a form of spiral gearing in which the shafts
are usually at right angles.
2. According to the peripheral velocity of the gears. The gears, according to the
peripheral velocity of the gears, may be classified as:
(a) Low velocity, (b) Medium velocity, and (c) High velocity.
The gears having velocity less than 3 m/s are termed as low velocity gears and gears
having velocity between 3 and 15 m / s are known as medium velocity gears. If the
velocity of gears is more than 15 m / s, then these are called high speed gears.
3. According to the type of gearing. The gears, according to the type of gearing,
maybe classified as :
(a) External gearing, (b) Internal gearing, and (c) Rack and pinion.

In external gearing, the gears of the two shafts mesh externally with each other as
shown in Fig. (a). The larger of these two wheels is called spur wheel or gear and the
smaller wheel is called pinion. In an external gearing, the motion of the two wheels is
always unlike, as shown in Fig. (a). In internal gearing, the gears of the two shafts mesh
internally with each other as shown in Fig. (b). The larger of these two wheels is called
annular wheel and the smaller wheel is called pinion. In an internal gearing, the motion of
the wheels is always like as shown in Fig.(b). Sometimes, the gear of a shaft meshes
externally and internally with the
gears in a straight line, as shown in Fig. Such a type of gear is called rack and pinion. The
straight line gear is called rack and the circular wheel is called pinion. A little
consideration will show that with the help of a rack and pinion, we can convert linear
motion into rotary motion and vice-versa as shown in Fig.

4. According to the position of teeth on the gear surface. The teeth on the gear
surface may be (a) Straight, (b) Inclined, and (c) Curved. We have discussed earlier that
the spur gears have straight teeth whereas helical gears have their teeth inclined to the
wheel rim. In case of spiral gears, the teeth are curved over the rim surface.
 Gear Materials
The material used for the manufacture of gears depends upon the strength and service
conditions like wear, noise etc. The gears may be manufactured from metallic or non-
metallic materials. The metallic gears with cut teeth are commercially obtainable in cast
iron, steel and bronze. The nonmetallic materials like wood, rawhide, compressed paper and
synthetic resins like nylon are used for gears, especially for reducing noise.
The cast iron is widely used for the manufacture of gears due to its good wearing
properties, excellent machinability and ease of producing complicated shapes by casting
method. The cast iron gears with cut teeth may be employed, where smooth action is not
important.
The steel is used for high strength gears and steel may be plain carbon steel or alloy
steel. The steel gears are usually heat treated in order to combine properly the toughness
and tooth hardness.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Gear Drives

The following are the advantages and disadvantages of the gear drive as
compared to other drives, i.e. belt, rope and chain drives :
Advantages
1. It transmits exact velocity ratio.

2. It may be used to transmit large power.

3. It may be used for small centre distances of shafts.

4. It has high efficiency.

5. It has reliable service.

6. It has compact layout.

Disadvantages
1. Since the manufacture of gears require special tools and equipment, therefore it
is costlier than other drives.
2. The error in cutting teeth may cause vibrations and noise during operation.

It requires suitable lubricant and reliable method of applying it, for the proper
operation of gear drives
Applications of Gear Drives:
1. Gear box of vehicles
2. Machine Tools
3. Dial indicator
4. Gear mechanism in wrist watches
5. Differential mechanism in automobile
6. Cement mixing units
 ROBOTICS
Robotics: Structure of a Robot, Classification of a Robot, End Effectors – Classification,
Applications of Robots.
An industrial robot is a general purpose programmable machine that possesses certain
anthropomorphic features
 The most apparent anthropomorphic feature is the robot’s mechanical arm, or
manipulator
 Robots can perform a variety of tasks such as loading and unloading machine tools,
spot welding automobile bodies, and spray painting
 Robots are typically used as substitutes for human workers in these tasks
Robotics Industries Association offers following definition for robot:
• A robot is a reprogrammable multifunctional manipulator designed to move material
parts, tools, or special devices through variable programmed motions for the
performance of variety of tasks

Robot Anatomy or Structure:

An industrial robot consists of
 Mechanical manipulator : A set of joints and links to position and orient the
end of the manipulator relative to its base
 Controller : Operates the joints in a coordinated fashion to execute a
programmed work cycle
 End effector:Special tooling that connects to the robot's wrist to perform the
specific task. They are classified into two types, tools and grippers.
o Tools - used for a processing operation: Applications: spot welding guns,
spray painting nozzles, rotating spindles, heating torches, assembly tools
o Grippers - designed to grasp and move objects (usually parts):Applications:
part placement, machine loading and unloading, and palletizing

Classification of Robots:
Classification of Robots based on co-ordinate system
• Spherical co-ordinate robot.
• Cylindrical co-ordinate robot.
• Rectangular co-ordinate or Cartesian co-ordinate robot.
• Jointed arm robot.
• Selective Compliance Assembly Robotic Arm (SCARA)
Spherical co-ordinate robot: Joint notation-TRL
 • It consists of a telescopic arm that can be raised or lowered about a horizontal pivot.
The pivot is mounted on a rotating base.
• These various joints (T, R and L) provide the robot with the capability to move its
arm within a spherical space, and hence the name “spherical coordinate robot”. It has
a better reach (ability to extend the arm significantly beyond the base) and ability to
reach into small openings without much interference to sides as in the case of machine
loading applications.

Figure-1.6: Polar coordinate body and arm assembly

Cylindrical co-ordinate robot: Joint notation-TLL
o It uses a vertical column and a slide that can be moved up or down along the column.
o The robot arm is attached to the slide so that it can be moved radially with respect to
the column.
o By rotating the column, the robot is capable of achieving a work space that
approximates a cylinder
o It possesses better rigidity and load carrying capacity.

Figure-1.7: Cylindrical coordinate robot

Rectangular co-ordinate or Cartesian co-ordinate robot: Joint notation-LLL
o It uses three perpendicular slides to construct x, y, and z axes.
o By moving the three slides relative to one another, the robot is capable of operating
within a rectangular work envelope.
o By virtue of inherent rigidity, this configuration exhibits better repeatability and high
load carrying capacity.
 Figure-1.8: Cartesian coordinate robot

Jointed arm robot: Joint notation-TRR

o It is made up of three rotary joints. Twisted joint at the base followed by two rotary
joints.
o This robot configuration is also known as anthropomorphic as its anatomy is similar
to the human arm. Another name for this configuration is articulated robot.
o It will have better reach. Its work volume is also spherical.

Figure-1.9: Jointed arm robot

Selective Compliance Assembly Robotic Arm (SCARA): Joint notation-VRL
• It is similar to jointed-arm robot except that vertical axes are used for shoulder and
elbow joints to be compliant in horizontal direction for vertical insertion tasks.
• Its work volume assume a cylindrical shape

Figure-1.10: SCARA

Controller:
Robot controller performs three functions:
1. They initiate and terminate the motion of the individual components of the
manipulator in a desired sequence and at specified points
2. They store position and sequence data in their memory.
3. They permit the robot to be interfaced to the outside world via sensors.
Classification of robots based on control system
• Limited sequence control – pick-and-place operations using mechanical stops to set
positions
• Playback with point-to-point control – records work cycle as a sequence of points,
then plays back the sequence during program execution
• Playback with continuous path control – greater memory capacity and/or
interpolation capability to execute paths (in addition to points)
• Intelligent control – exhibits behavior that makes it seem intelligent, e.g., responds to
sensor inputs, makes decisions, communicates with humans

End Effectors:
An end effector is a device that attaches to the wrist of the robot arm and enables the general
purpose robot to perform a specific task. They are classified into two types, tools and
grippers.
Grippers
Grippers are end effectors used to grasp and hold objects.
Types of Grippers
o Mechanical
o Vacuum
o Magnetic
o Adhesive
o Miscellaneous(hooks,scoops)

Mechanical Gripper
o A mechanical gripper is an end effector that uses mechanical fingers actuated by a
mechanism to grasp an object.
o The function of the gripper mechanism is to translate some form of power input into
the grasping action of fingers against the part.
o The power input is supplied from the robot and can be pneumatic, hydraulic or
electric.
o The fingers, sometimes called jaws, are the appendages of the gripper that actually
make contact with the object.
o There are two ways of constraining the part in the gripper. One is by physical
constriction of the part within fingers. Second way of holding the part is by friction
between the fingers and the work part.
o In the second method, the fingers must be capable of supplying sufficient force to
hold the work part.The slippage can be avoided by designing the gripper based on the
force exerted.
 (1) (2)
Figure: Two ways of grasping the object. 1. by physical constriction. 2. by friction
Some gripper mechanisms
1. Linkage actuation

Figure- Linkage actuation

1. Gear and rack actuation 3. Cam actuation

Figure- Gear and rack actuation Figure- Cam actuation

4 Screw actuation
 Figure- Screw actuation

Vacuum gripper
o Vacuum cups also called suction cups can be used as gripper devices for handling
certain types of objects.
o The usual requirements on the objects to be handled to form a satisfactory vacuum
with suction cup are that they must be flat, smooth, and clean.
o The vacuum pump and venturi are two common devices used to create the vacuum
required.
o The lift capacity of the suction cup depends on the effective diameter of the cup and
the negative pressure between the cup and the object.

Magnetic grippers
o Magnetic grippers can be a very feasible means of handling ferrous materials.
o They employ electromagnets and permanent magnets for grasping the objects.
o Electromagnetic grippers include a controller unit and a DC power for handling the
materials. This type of grippers is easy to control, and very effective in releasing the
part at the end of the operation than the permanent magnets.
o The permanent magnets do not require any sort of external power as like the
electromagnets for handling the materials. After this gripper grasps a work part, an
additional device called as stripper push – off pin will be required to separate the
work part from the magnet. This device is incorporated at the sides of the gripper.
o The advantage of this permanent magnet gripper is that it can be used in hazardous
applications like explosion-proof apparatus because of no electrical circuit.
Moreover, there is no possibility of spark production as well

Advantages:
• This gripper only requires one surface to grasp the materials.
• The grasping of materials is done very quickly.
• It does not require separate designs for handling different size of materials.
• It is capable of grasping materials with holes, which is unfeasible in the vacuum
grippers.

Adhesive gripper
o Used to handle fabrics and light weight materials
o Adhesive substance can be used for grasping action.
o One contact surface is needed.
o The reliability is diminished with successive operation.
o It is used to lift light weight object.

Miscellaneous grippers
o Hooks can be used as end effectors to handle containers of parts and load and
unload parts hanging from overload conveyors.
 o Scoops and ladles can be used to handle certain materials in liquid or powder
form.
o Inflatable devices in which inflatable bladder or diaphragm is expanded to grasp
the object

Factors to be considered in selection and design of grippers

1. Part to be handled: weight and size, shape, changes in shape during processing,
tolerances on the part size, surface condition, protection of delicate surfaces.
2. Actuation method: Mechanical grasping, vacuum cup, magnet and other methods
(adhesives, scoops etc)
3. Power and signal transmission: Pneumatic, electrical, hydraulic and mechanical.
4. Gripper force: Weight of the object, method of holding (physical constriction or
friction), coefficient of friction between fingers and object, speed and acceleration
during motion cycle.
5. Positioning problems: Length of fingers, inherent accuracy and repeatability of robot,
tolerances on the part size.
6. Service conditions: Number of actuations during lifetime of gripper, replaceability of
wear components, maintenance and serviceability.
7. Operating environment: Heat and temperature, humidity, moisture, dirt, chemicals.
8. Temperature protection: Heat shields, long fingers, forced cooling(compressed air,
water cooling etc)
9. Fabrication materials: Strength, rigidity, durability, fatigue strength, cost and ease of
fabrication, friction properties for finger surfaces, compatibility with operating
environment.
10. Other considerations: Use of interchangeable fingers, design standards, mounting
connections and interfacing with robot, risk of product design changes and their effect
on the gripper design, lead time for design and fabrication, spare parts, maintenance
and service.

Tools as end effectors

In many applications, the robot is required to manipulate a tool rather than a work part. Some
examples of tools used as end effectors in robot applications include:
Spot welding tool, arc welding torch, spray painting nozzle, rotating spindles for operations
such as drilling, routing, wire brushing, grinding, heating torches, water jet cutting tool etc.

Applications of a Robot:
General considerations in Robot Material handling
• Part positioning and orientation: In material handling applications the parts must be
presented to the robot in a known position and orientation.
• Gripper Design: Special end effectors must be designed for the robot to grasp and
hold the work part during handling operation.
• Minimum distances moved: By proper design of the work cell layout, by proper
gripper design, and by careful study of the robot motion cycle, the material handling
application should be planned to minimize the distances that the parts must be moved.
 • Robot work volume: The cell layout must be designed keeping in view the work
volume of the robot.
• Robot weight carrying capacity: A robot with sufficient load carrying capacity must
be specified for the application.
• Accuracy and repeatability: The robot must be specified according to the
requirements of accuracy and repeatability of the application.
• Robot configuration, degrees of freedom and control: Depending on the application,
suitable robot configuration with desired degrees of freedom and appropriate control
must be chosen. For example machine loading applications require more degrees of
freedom whereas part transfer operations are simple enough that they can be
accomplished by a robot having two to four joints of motion.
• Machine utilization problem: It is important for the application to effectively utilize
all pieces of equipment in the cell. To increase the utilization of the robot,
consideration should be given to the possibility for the robot to service more than a
single machine.

1. Material Transfer Applications

• Pick and place operations: They involve tasks in which the robot picks up the part at
one location and moves it to another location. The part is presented to the robot by
some mechanical feeding device or conveyor in a known location and orientation. The
known location is a stationary location, achieved either by stopping the conveyor at
the appropriate position or by using a mechanical stop to hold the part at the
stationary location. One complication encountered in material transfer operations is
when the robot is required to track a moving pick up point. In this case a sophisticated
sensor-interlock system is required to determine the presence and location of the parts
in the robot’s tracking window.

• Palletizing and related operations: The use of pallets for material handling and
storage in industry is widespread. Instead of handling individual cartons or other
 containers, a large number of these containers are placed on a pallet, and the pallet is
then handled. The pallets can be moved mechanically within the plant or warehouse
by fork lift trucks or conveyors.

Palletization involves picking a carton at one location

and putting it at another location on the pallet and this
deposit location changes from carton to carton
resulting in stack of three dimensional array as shown
in the figure-1. Robots can be programmed to perform
this type of repetitive work. As the motion pattern
varies in palletization operation, a computer-
controlled robot using a high level programming
language is convenient.

Figure: Palletization
• Depalletizing: This task is exactly reverse of palletization, in which the robot
removes cartons from a pallet and places them onto a conveyor or other location. The
difficulty for the robot controller in this task is pick up point changes for every cycle.
• Inserting parts into cartons from conveyor:
• Removing parts from cartons
• Stacking and unstacking operations (metal sheets are kept one over another).
2. Machine loading and unloading
These applications are material handling operations in which the robot is used to
service a production machine by transferring parts to and/or from the machine. There are
three cases that fit into this application category:
1. Machine load/unload: the robot loads a raw work part into the process and unloads a
finished part. A machining operation is an example of this case.
2. Machine loading: the robot must load the raw work part or materials into the machine
but the part is ejected from the machine by some other means. In a press working
operation, the robot may be programmed to load sheet metal blanks into the press, but
the finished parts are allowed to drop out of the press by gravity.
3. Machine unloading: the machine produces finished parts from raw materials that are
loaded directly into the machine without robot assistance. The robot unloads the part
from the machine. Examples in this category include die casting and plastic injection
molding.
3. Processing operations
Processing operations are those in which the robot performs a processing operation on a work
part. Examples of industrial robot applications in the processing category include spot
welding, continuous arc welding, spray painting and various machining and other rotating
spindle processes.

Spot Welding
Spot welding is a metal joining process in which two sheet metal parts are fused
together at localized points of contact. Two copper-based electrodes are used to squeeze the
metal parts together and then apply a large electrical current across the contact point to cause
fusion to occur. The electrodes, together with the mechanism that actuates them, constitutes
the welding gun in spot welding. Because of its widespread use in the automobile industry for
car body fabrication, spot welding represents one of the most common applications of
industrial robots.

Difficulties in manual spot welding

The portable spot welding gun is heavy of the order of 100lb in weight which is very difficult
to manipulate. Continuous usage of this tool resulted in fatigue among human workers.
Because of poor maneuverability of spot welding gun, there were many instances of missed
welds, poorly located welds and other defects, resulting in overall low quality of the finished
product.
Robotic Spot welding
o Robots used for spot welding are usually large, with sufficient payload capacity to
wield the heavy welding gun.
o Five or six axes are generally required to achieve the required positioning and
orientation of the welding gun.
o Play back robots with point-to-point control are used.
 o Jointed arm coordinates robots are the most common anatomies in automobile spot
welding lines.
Benefits of robotic spot welding
o Improved product quality in the form of more consistent welds and better repeatability
in the location of welds.
o Improved safety results simply because the human is removed from a work
environment where there are hazards from electrical shocks and burns.
o Improvements in production scheduling and in process inventory control.

Continuous Arc Welding :

The working conditions for human who performs arc welding are not good. The welder must
wear a face helmet for eyes protection against the ultraviolet radiation emitted by the arc
welding process. The helmet window must be dark enough to mask the ultraviolet .However,
the window is so dark that the worker cannot see through it unless the arc is on. High
electrical current is used in the welding process , and this create a hazard for welder. Finally ,
there is the obvious danger from the high temperature in the process, high enough to melt the
steel, aluminium, or other metal that is being welded. A significant amount of hand –eye
coordination is required by human welders to make sure that the arc follows the desired path
with sufficient accuracy to make a good weld. This, together with the conditions described
above, results in a high level of worker fatigue. Consequently, the welder is only
accomplishing the welding process for perhaps 20-30% of the time. This percentage is called
the arc-on time, defined as the proportion of time during the shift when the welding arc is on
and performing the process.
Then robot used in arc welding jobs must be capable of continuous path control. Jointed arm
robots consisting of five or six joints are frequently used .In addition, a fixture consisting of
one or two more degree of freedom is often used to hold the parts during welding. The fixture
must be designed specifically for the job, Programming for arc welding is usually costly.
Therefore most applications require a large batch size to justify the robot cell .
Spray Coating:
Spray coating makes use of spray of a spray gun directed at the object to be coated. Fluid (i.e
paint) flows through the nozzle of the spray gun to be dispersed and applied over the surface
of the object. Spray painting is most common application in the category. The term spray
coating indicates a broader range of applications that includes painting.
The worker environment for humans who perform this process is filled with health hazards
.These hazards include noxious fumes in the air, risk of flash fires, and noise from the spray
gunnozzle. The environment is also believed to pose a carcinogenic risk for workers. Largely
because of these hazards, robots are being used with increasing frequency for spray coating
tasks.
Robot applications include spray coating of appliances, automobile car bodies, engines, and
other parts, spray staining of wood products and spraying of porcelain coatings on bathroom
fixtures. The robot must be capable of continuous path control to accomplish the smooth
motion sequences required in spray painting .The most convenient programming method is
manual leadthrough. Jointed arm robots seem to be the most common anatomy for this
application. The robot must possess a long reach to access the areas of the workpart to be
coated in the application.
The use of industrial robots for spray coating applications offers a number of benefits in
addition to protecting workers from a hazardous environment. These other benefits include
greater uniformity in applying the coating than humans can accomplish, reduced use of paint,
lower needs for ventilating the work area since humans are not present during the process,
and greater productivity.
Other processing Applications:
The list of industrial processes that ate being performed by robots is continually growing.
Among these processes are the following:
Drilling, routing, and other machining processes: These applications use a rotating spindle
as the end effector. Mounted in the spindle chuck is the particular cutting tool. One of the
problems with this application is the high cutting forces encountered in machining. The robot
must be strong enough to withstand these cutting forces and maintain the required accuracy
of the cut.
Grinding, wire brushing, and similar operations: these operations also use a rotating
spindle to drive the tool (grinding wheel, wire brush, polishing wheel etc) at high rotational
speed to accomplish finishing and deburring operations on the work.
Waterjet cutting: This is process in which a high pressure stream of water in forced through
a small nozzle at high speed to cut plastic sheets, fabrics, cardboard, and other materials with
precision. The end effector is the waterjet nozzle that is directed over the desired cutting path
by the robot.
Laser cutting : The function of the robot in this application is similar to its function in
waterjet cutting. The laser tool is attached to the robot as its end enffector. Laser beam
welding is a similar application.
Riveting: Some work has been done in using robots to perform riveting operations in sheet
metal fabrication. A riveting tool with a feed mechanism for feeding the rivets in mounted on
the robot’s wrist. The function of the robot is to place the riveting tool at the proper hole and
actuate the device.

4. Assembly and inspection :

Assembly:
Assembly involves the addition of two or more parts to form a new entity ,called a
subassembly (or assembly). The new subassembly is made secure by fastening two or
more parts together using mechanical fastening techniques ( such as screws, nuts, and
rivets ) or joining process (e.g. welding, brazing ,soldering. Or adhesive bonding).

The most appealing application of industrial robots for assembly is where a mixture of
similar products or models are produced in the same work cell or assembly line.
Examples of these kinds of products include electric motors, small appliances, and
various other small mechanical and electrical products. In these instances, the basic
configuration of the different models is the same, but there are variations in size,
geometry, options, and other features. Such products are often made in batches on manual
assembly lines. However, the pressure to reduce inventories makes mixed model
assembly lines more attractive. Robots can be used to substitute for some or all of the
manual stations on these lines. What makes robots viable in mixed models assembly is
their capability to execute programmed variations in the work cycle to accommodate
different products configurations.
Industrial robots used for the types of assembly operations described here are typically
small, with light load capacities. An internal study at general Motors revealed that a large
proportion of assembly tasks requires a robot capable of lifting parts weighing 5 lb or
less. The most common configurations are jointed arm, SCARA, and Cartesian
coordinate. Accuracy requirements in assembly works are often more demanding than in
other robot applications, and some of the more-precise robots in this category have
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repeatabilities as close as −0.05 mm. In addition to the robot itself, the requirements of
the end effector are often demanding. The end effector may have to perform multiple
functions at a single workstation to reduce the number of robots required in cell. These
multiple functions can include handling more than one part geometry and performing
both as a gripper and an automatic assembly tool.

Inspection:

Inspection tasks performed by robots can be divided into following two cases:

1. The robot performs loading and unloading tasks to support an inspection or testing
machine. This case is really machine loading and unloading, where the machine is an
inspection machine. The robot picks parts (or assembly) that enters the cell, loads and
unload them to carry out the inspection process, and places them at the cell output. In
some cases, the inspection may result in parts sortation that must be accomplished by
the robot. Depending on the quality level, the robot places the parts in different
containers or on different exits conveyors.
2. The robot manipulates an inspection device, such as mechanical probe, to test the
product. This case is similar to a processing operation in which the end effector
attached to the robot’s wrist is the inspection probe. To perform the process, the part
must be presented at the workstation in the correct position and orientation, and the
robot manipulates the inspection device as required.