BIology

Movement of Substances - Diffusion & Osmosis

● Define diffusion, osmosis and active transport.
- Diffusion: The net movement of a substance from a region of higher concentration to a
region of a lower concentration down a concentration gradient.
- Osmosis: The net movement of water molecules from a solution of higher water
potential to a solution of lower water potential down a water potential gradient through a
partially permeable membrane.
- Active Transport: The movement of the ions or molecules across a membrane from a
region of lower concentration to a region of higher (against a concentration gradient) with
the use of energy from the ATP.

● Describe and explain the processes of diffusion, osmosis and active transport.
- Diffusion: The molecules move down a concentration gradient and it is caused by the
random constant motion of the particles. This energy of motion is called kinetic energy.
- Osmosis: The water molecules move down a water potential gradient and the more
concentrated the solution, the lower its water potential.
- Active Transport: The molecules move against a concentration gradient and it allows a
cell to maintain its internal concentration of solutes that is different from the
concentration in its surroundings.

● Discuss the importance of diffusion in nutrient uptake and gaseous exchange in

plants and humans.
- Diffusion allows absorption of mineral salts by the root hair cells, gaseous exchange for
photosynthesis, gaseous exchange for respiration and gaseous exchange at the alveoli.

● Discuss the effects of osmosis on plant and animal cells and tissues.
- Plant Cells: When a plant cell is placed in a solution of higher water potential, the cell
sap has lower water potential than that of the solution outside the cell, so water enters
the cell by osmosis and it becomes turgid. When a plant cell is placed in a solution of
lower water potential, the cell sap has higher water potential than that of the solution
outside the cell, so water leaves the cell by osmosis and it is plasmolysed/ flaccid.
- Animal Cells: When an animal cell is placed in a solution of higher water potential, the
cell has lower water potential than that of the solution outside the cell, so water enters
the cell by osmosis and it will burst/ become lysis. When an animal cell is placed in a
solution of lower water potential, the cell has higher water potential than that of the
solution outside the cell, so water leaves the cell by osmosis and it shrinks and shrivel/
becomes crenated.
 ● Discuss the importance of active transport as an energy-consuming process by
which substances are transported against a concentration gradient (eg. in ion
uptake by root hairs and uptake of glucose by cells in the villi).
- Active transport allows a cell to maintain its internal concentration of solutes that is
different from the concentration in its surroundings.
- It allows cells to take up nutrients even when their concentrations outside the cells are
lower than inside of the cells.
- It enables cells to remove waste products when their concentrations outside the cell are
higher than those inside the cells.

Cells - Structure & Function

● Identify organelles and cell structures of typical plant and animal cells from
diagrams, photomicrographs and as seen under the microscope using prepared
slides and fresh materials:
a. cell wall
b. cell membrane
c. nucleus
d. cytoplasm
e. chloroplast
f. vacuole
g. mitochondrion
h. endoplasmic reticulum*
i. golgi apparatus*
j. ribosome*

● State the functions of the membrane systems and organelles identified above.
- Cell Wall: To provide mechanical support for plant cell.
- Cell Membrane: Separates and protects a cell from it surrounding environment.
- Cytoplasm: It is the site of cellular activities and chemical reactions.
- Nucleus: Controls the activities of the cell.
- Mitochondria: Carries out cellular respiration to release energy for the cell.
- Chloroplasts: Sites of photosynthesis.
- Plant Vacuoles: Contain cell sap which is a solution of sugars and dissolved minerals.
- Animal Vacuoles: Store water and food substances.

● Relate the correlation of structure to function of a cell and understand that in life,
all structures exist for a function or purpose.
- Root Hair Cell: Absorbs water and mineral salts
a. The surface area to volume ratio is increased due to the presence of long, narrow
extension, which increases the rate of absorption of water and mineral salts.
b. Thin cell wall reduces the distance for diffusion of water and mineral salts.
c. Large central vacuole is present for water storage of the cell.
- Red Blood Cell: Transport oxygen to other body cells
a. Haemoglobin combines with oxygen.
b. Absence of nucleus will allow more haemoglobin to be packed in the cell and hence
more oxygen.
c. Biconcave shape increases surface area to volume ratio to increase rate of diffusion of
oxygen.

● State that a cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life.

● Compare the visible differences in structure of the animal and plant cells.
- Similarities: Both cells contain cell membrane, mitochondria, nucleus and cytoplasm.
- Differences: Plant cell has a cell wall while animal cell does not have a cell wall. Plant
cell has chloroplasts while animal cell does not have chloroplasts. Plant cell consists of a
large, central vacuole while animals cells consists of smaller vacuoles and more
numerous than those in a plant cell.

● Describe the structure of a prokaryotic cell.

- It has DNA as its genetic material.
- It has a cell membrane.
- It has ribosomes.
- It has a cytoplasm.

● Compare the structure of prokaryotic cells with eukaryotic cells.

- Prokaryotic cells lack membrane-bound nuclei and other membrane-bound organelles
while eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound nuclei and other membrane-bound
organelles.
- Prokaryotic cells do not have nucleus while eukaryotic cells have nucleus.
- The size of prokaryotic cells is usually smaller while the size of eukaryotic cells is usually
larger.
- The cell wall in prokaryotic cells is made up of peptidoglycan while the cell wall in
eukaryotic cells is made up of cellulose (for plants) and chitin (for fungi).
- In prokaryotic cells, the location of DNA is present in nucleoid region while in eukaryotic
cells, the location of DNA is held within the nucleus.

● State and explain the importance of surface area to volume ratio in simple
organisms and specialized cells (eg. red blood cells, root hair cells).
- Cells depend on the surface area of the cell membrane for diffusion of materials such as
food, oxygen and waste. If cells cannot move materials quickly enough, they will die.
Cells need to maintain a high surface area to volume ratio to ensure materials move
across the cell membrane efficiently.
● Understand that in multicellular organisms (both plants and animals), cells of
similar structures are organised into tissues; several tissues make up an organ;
several organs are organised into systems for performing specialized functions.

● Explain that the significance of the division of labour, even at the cellular level is
to increase efficiency.

● State, in simple terms, the relationship between cell function and cell structure for
the following:
a. Absorption - root hair cells
b. Transport of oxygen - red blood cells
- They are similar as both of them have different structures to help increase their surface
area to volume ratio to allow them to function better.

● Label and state the functions of various parts of the microscope.

- Ocular Lens: Magnifies the object 10 times.

- Body Tube: Allows the light to travel to the eyepiece lens.
- Arm and Base: Used for holding the microscope.
- Revolving Nosepiece: Rotates to change the objective lens.
- Objective Lens: Magnify the object 4X, 10X and 40X (varies for different microscopes).
- Stage: Supports the glass slide and specimen.
- Diaphragm: Can be adjusted to control the amount of light passing through the
specimen.
- Coarse Adjustment Knob: For focusing under low power (4X).
 - Fine Adjustment Knob: For focusing under medium and high power (10X, 40X).
- Light Source: Emits a beam of white light used for viewing.

● Make clear line drawings of the specimens provided, indicate magnification and
label familiar structures.

Ecology
● Define ecosystem as the habitat together with the organisms living in it.

● Explain the effects (distribution and abundance of organisms) of various physical

(abiotic) factors like air, water, temperature, light, minerals and acidity/ alkalinity,
on species in terms of adaptations and tolerance range.
- Light Intensity: Affects the distribution and growth of both plants and animals.
- Temperature: Affects the rate of metabolic reactions in plants and animals.
- Water Availability: Affects the number and location of plants and animals.
- Oxygen Content: Most organisms cannot survive in environments with low oxygen
content unless they have special adaptations to obtain sufficient oxygen for metabolic
processes.
- Salinity: Aquatic organisms are affected by the concentration of salt in the water due to
the osmotic difference between the animal cells and the aquatic environment.
- pH: Acidity or alkalinity of soil water or aquatic habitats influences the types of
organisms living in the environment.

● Describe the interrelationship among the various organisms in a community (eg.

predator-prey relationship, mutualism, parasitism and commensalism).

● State the consequences of selective addition or removal of an organism from an

ecosystem.

● State that the sun is the principal source of energy in a food chain.

● State the word equation and sites of occurrence for photosynthesis and
respiration.
- Photosynthesis: Takes place in the chloroplasts and organelles of a plant cell.
carbon dioxide + water → light + chlorophyll → oxygen + glucose + water

- Respiration: Takes place in the cytoplasm and mitochondria in the cell of a living
organism.
glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy

● Relate photosynthesis and respiration to the food chain and the carbon cycle.
● Describe the process of energy flow through the food chain in a named
ecosystem starting with the green plant as a producer.
- Light energy is captured by the producers or photoautotrophs (eg. green plants, algae
and photosynthetic bacteria) and converted to organic compounds (eg. chemical energy)
during photosynthesis.
- Other organisms or heterotrophs in the ecosystems obtain chemical energy by feeding
on another organism. They are also known as consumers.
- Only a small amount of chemical energy (~10%) is passed on from one trophic level to
the next. About 90% of the energy is lost to the environment as heat during respiration,
uneaten body parts, undigested matter or excretory products.
- Dead organisms, undigested products (faeces) and excretory products contain trapped
chemical energy. This energy is released when decomposers (eg. bacteria and fungi)
break down the organic materials to inorganic materials. Decomposers use some of the
trapped chemical energy for their needs and the rest is lost as heat. The inorganic
materials are returned to the physical environment and are used again by green plants.

● State that energy flow is non-cyclical (cannot be recycled).

● Infer that energy taken in is stored or used for cellular activities and state how the
rest of the energy is lost as heat, waste etc.
- About 90% of the energy is lost to the environment as:
a. heat during respiration
b. uneaten body parts
c. undigested matter
d. excretory products

● Explain why food chains should be short with relation to energy transfer.
- There is inadequate amount of energy in the ecosystems to support more than 5 trophic
levels. Only 1% of the light energy from the sun is trapped by producers and only 10% of
the energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next trophic level.

● Describe how nutrients trapped in living organisms are recycled by decomposers.

- Decomposers such as bacteria and fungi feed on decaying organic matters. They break
down dead bodies of organisms and faeces and decomposers’ activities return to the
environment.

● Describe how carbon is cycled within the ecosystem and outline the roles of
forests and oceans as carbon sinks.
- Oceans as Carbon Sinks:
a. Oceans are the largest carbon sinks on Earth.
b. About one third of the carbon dioxide released by human activities is absorbed by
oceans.
c. Driven by two processes: solubility and photosynthesis.
d. Carbon dioxide dissolved in the ocean’s water is absorbed and used by phytoplankton
and algae in photosynthesis.
e. Some carbon compounds are buried in the seabed in the form of fossil fuels.

- Forests as Carbon Sinks:

a. Atmospheric carbon dioxide is absorbed by plants and used in photosynthesis.
b. Large amount of carbon compounds is stored in trees.
c. When trees die, their remains may be buried deep in the ground.
d. After millions of years, these remains form coal.

● Relate carbon cycle to climate change (greenhouse effect).

- From the onset of the industrial revolution, the combustion of fossil fuels has released a
large amount of carbon into the atmosphere. Since carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas,
the increased amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere traps more heat, aggravating
the greenhouse effect. This has resulted in an increase in global temperature over a
short period of time, thus contributing to climate change.

● Describe the effects of water pollution by sewage and inorganic waste

(eutrophication); chemical insecticides on crops; bioaccumulation up the food
chains; deforestation.
- Sewage:
a. When untreated sewage containing bacteria is discharged into the rivers and lakes, the
bacteria will use the organic wastes in sewage to grow and multiply. The bacteria will
increase in numbers rapidly, using up the oxygen in the water.
b. Due to a lack of oxygen, other aquatic organisms such as fishes will die off.
c. Anaerobic bacteria which do not require oxygen for respiration will continue to survive
and break down the organic wastes.
d. Furthermore, sewage can contain disease-causing bacteria that cause cholera or
typhoid.

- Inorganic Waste and Insecticides:

a. Some industries will discharge untreated inorganic waste containing heavy metals into
the rivers and lakes.
b. The heavy metals such as lead, zinc, arsenic, mercury and cadmium, are harmful to the
aquatic organisms.
c. Non-biodegradable insecticides such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) that are
washed into the rivers and lakes are also toxic to the aquatic organisms.
d. This is because heavy metals and DDT can accumulate in the bodies of organisms.
e. As the toxins are passed on from one contaminated organism to another, the top
consumer of the food chain will eventually suffer severely from the toxic effects due to
biomagnification.

- Chemical Fertilizers:
a. Excess chemical fertilizers not absorbed by the crops may be washed away by rainwater
into river and lakes.
b. Fertilizers are rich in nitrates and phosphates, which will promote the growth of algae
and water plants. This process is known as eutrophication.
c. The large amount of algae (algae bloom) and water plants growing on the surface of the
water will block off the sunlight, causing the death of submerged algae and water plants.
d. The dead algae and water plants are decomposed by bacteria, which will multiply in
numbers and deplete the oxygen content in the water. Thereby, causing the death of
other aquatic organisms due to a lack of oxygen in the water.

- Deforestation:
a. With the removal of the trees, the soil is no longer protected by the canopy of the trees.
The soil is directly exposed to the impact of the rain.
b. Also, without the roots of the trees to hold the soil and absorb rainwater, the topsoil
(most fertile layer) gets washed away or eroded during heavy rain.
c. The soil will then be washed into the rivers and lakes, and it may contain chemicals that
pollute the water.

● Explain the importance of conserving the environment, in particular ecosystem

services, and suggest some ways it can be done.
- Conservation is necessary for the protection and preservation of the natural resources in
the environment.
- Conservation of Forest Ecosystem
a. Reforestation to replace trees that have been removed or destroyed.
b. Governments designate some land as forest reserves (eg. Bukit Timah Nature Reserve).
c. Strict forest conservation laws prohibiting tree felling, hunting and other human activities.

- Conservation of Marine Environment Ecosystem

a. Designating biodiversity rich areas as marine reserves and protected areas.
b. Enforcement of laws to protect marine species and environment.
c. Regulating entry of fishing ships into fishing grounds.
d. Raising endangered species of fish in hatcheries and releasing them into fishing grounds
where the fish population is decreasing.
e. Restricting the dumping of garbage, untreated sewage and chemicals into rivers and
seas.
f. Banning destructive methods of fishing.
g. Mangrove reforestation
h. Practice safe and responsible snorkelling and diving.
i. Clean-ups of beaches, mangroves and coral reefs.

- Conservation via Environmental Biotechnology

a. Use of DNA bank to conserve genetic resources for biodiversity.
b. Use of biodegradable materials instead of plastic.
c. Use of alternative fuels instead of fossil fuels (eg. biofuels made from corn husks).
d. Use of microbes as a remedy to oil spills (bioremediation).

- Reducing the Impacts of Climate Change

a. Reducing carbon emissions.
 PHYSICS
Laboratory Safety, Scientific Method & Graphical Representation
-Benefits of science and technology to society
Science
Science and technology are not the same
=Discoveries made by Scientist are used to build machines and make our lives more comfortable
=Technology is an APPLICATION of scientific knowledge
=A scientist can wo
rk in and out of a laboratory and he or she can sometimes do fieldwork which is going outdoors, away
from a laboratory to collect data
=Doing research and conducting experiments allow scientist to make new and exciting discoveries.
= Three main studies of science---Physics ---Chemistry---Biology
=A good scientist should have the spirit of inquiry
= Positive attitudes a good scientist should possess include having keen observation, patience,
perseverance and integrity etc.
Technology
Technology is the application of science for practical purposes
Benefits of technology
=invention of medicines such as antibiotics to fight diseases
=Invention of bicycles and automobile such as bicycles, cars etc.
=Invention of early-warning systems to protect people from natural or man-made disasters
Abuses
Technology is use to invent weapons and these weapons by be used wrongly or for wrong purposes
Can technology or science solve all problems
NOOOO
=Technology cannot stop natural disasters
=It can’t solve problems between people
=It cannot forecast future events
etc.
Laboratory rules:
During experiment:
1 ) Handle all apparatus and chemicals carefully; we should check the labels to verify the chemicals they
contain.
2 ) Never smell or taste chemicals unless your teacher gives you permission.
3 )Never point your test tubes at your laboratory mates while heating liquids ;extremely hot liquids
sometimes shoot out of test tubes
4 ) Wipe all spills; Ask your teacher if you need to dilute the spills if it involves chemicals like acids, with
water before wiping.
5 )Wear goggles when heating or mixing reactive chemicals.
6 ) Never try to second-guess your way through an experiment ; ask your teacher if you are unsure.
After experiment:
1 ) Wash all apparatus after use and return it to their proper places
2 ) Dispose waste materials in proper waste bins not in sinks if the chemicals are corrosive.
3 ) Wash your hands thoroughly before leaving the science laboratory
4 ) Do not remove chemicals and app
aratus from the laboratory
If you are using electrical appliances:
Do not use them in damp conditions
Check for damaged insulation
Ensure no overloading of powerpoints.
Apparatus and equipment:
bunsen burner - to lift a flame above table surface high enough for heating
retort stand - For supporting apparatus during experiments
tripod stand - For supporting apparatus during heating
test tube - for containing small amounts of chemicals for heating for mixing solutions
boiling tube- For containing chemicals or liquids
conical flask - For containing chemicals or liquids to produce a gas when heating is not
required
round-bottomed flask - for containing chemicals when preparing gases in a process that
requires heating
Flat-bottomed flask - To contain chemicals when preparing gases in a process that
requires no heating
Filter funnel - For transferring liquids into containers with small openings
- For separating solids from liquids by the use of filter paper
Thistle funnel - To add reagents to reactive vessels
Beaker - For containing and holding chemicals or liquids
evaporating dish - To evaporate the liquid in a solution over a bunsen burner
pipette - To transport or measure a specific volume of liquid.
burette - To measure precisely how much liquid is used in a chemical reaction
measuring cylinder - to measure the volume of liquids precise to 1cm3
Displacement can - To collect water in a beaker to see how much water was displaced
when an object is placed in
crucible - To hold small amounts of chemicals during heating at high temperatures
-Lid ensures nothing escapes or keep oxygen out of reaction
gas jar - For collecting gas
Belljar - to separate the set-up for an experiment from the suroundings

HAZARD SYMBOLS:
corrosive- Substance will eat away other substances
- hand
flammable- Substance catches fire easily
- Fire
Radioactive- Substance emits radiation
- fan-like symbol

● Draw cross-sectional diagram of each of the common laboratory apparatus.

● Set up the apparatus according to the diagram given.

● Use the Bunsen burner safely.
- Wear personal protective equipment (PPE): wearing goggles, covered footwear, hair tied
up etc.
- Ensure tables are clear of flammable materials (eg. paper, worksheet).
- Do not leave the Bunsen burner unsupervised.
- When the Bunsen burner is not in use, turn it off.

- Steps in using Bunsen burner:

a. Ensure air holes are closed.
b. Turn on the gas tap and simultaneously ignite the gas (take note of the correct
technique).
c. Open the air hole to obtain a non-luminous flame.
d. Turn off Bunsen burner by turning off the gas tap.

● Use appropriate safety procedures when heating.

- Heat substances with non-luminous flame only.
- Use the hottest part of the flame to heat (when using test tube only).
- Use the test tube holder to hold the test tube when heating substances in the test tube.
- Position the test tube holder below the mouth of the test tube, above the middle of the
test tube.
- Do not point the mouth of the test tube at anybody.
- Hold the test tube at an angle to the flame when heating.
- Move the test tube slightly to prevent overheating of the substances.
- When you observe bubbling in the fluid, stop heating immediately.
- Using the test tube holder to place the test tube back in the test tube rack.

● Know the steps in the scientific method.

- Step 1: Make observations.
- Step 2: Analyse, infer and predict.
- Step 3: Plan experiments to test your hypothesis.
- Step 4: Record and analyse your results.
- Step 5: Discuss with others.
- Step 6: Summarise your results and draw conclusions.
- Step 7: Communicate your findings with others.

● Use the scientific method as an approach to solving problems in science.

● Define variables and constants.

- Variables: Physical quantities (quantitative) or attributes (qualitative) and have an effect
on an experiment.
- Constants: Physical quantities which do not change.

● Identify the variables in an experiment.

 ● State the dependent and independent variables of an experiment.

● Represent data using simple line graphs.

● Interpret charts and graphs.

● Read scientific publications.

● Develop experimental procedures and scientific problems.

● Communicate results.
Physical Quantities & Measurements
● Acquire and use the following skills during appropriate activities throughout the
course:
a. Use of common laboratory apparatus such as Bunsen burner and thermometer.
b. Use of the following measuring instruments: metre rule and measuring tape,
vernier calipers, measuring cylinder, pipettes, electronic balance, spring balance,
stopwatch, thermometers and data-loggers.
c. Estimation and/ or measurement of length, area, volume, mass and time
(included are the area of irregular two-dimensional figures, volume and mass of
liquids and solids but not of gases).
d. Take measurements and record readings to correct precision when using the
above instruments.
e. Identify possible sources of errors in using the above instruments.

● Understand that all quantities consist of a numerical magnitude and a unit.

● Identify and use the appropriate units for physical quantities: length (𝑚), mass
(𝑘𝑔), time (𝑠), area (𝑚2 ), volume (𝑚3 ), density (𝑘𝑔 𝑚−3), speed (𝑚𝑠 −1) and
temperature (°𝐶).
Instrument Smallest Record To Precision Examples Average
Division of Value
Readings
Metre Rule 0.1cm or Smallest 0.1cm or 12.0cm, 12.1cm
0.001m division 0.001m 12.1cm,
12.2cm

Vernier 0.01cm Smallest 0.01cm 3.08cm, 3.10cm

Calipers division 3.10cm,
3.11cm
 Electronic 0.1g Smallest 0.1g 121.0g, 121.1g
Balance division 121.1g,
121.1g

Thermometer 1°C Half of 0.5°C 23.0°C, 23.5°C

smallest 23.5°C,
division 24.5°C

Measuring 1𝑐𝑚3 Half of 0.5𝑐𝑚3 18.0𝑐𝑚3, 18.5𝑐𝑚3

Cylinder smallest 18.5𝑐𝑚3,
(100𝑐𝑚3 ) division 19.0𝑐𝑚3

Measuring 2𝑐𝑚3 Half of 1𝑐𝑚3 75𝑐𝑚3, 77𝑐𝑚3

Cylinder smallest 77𝑐𝑚3,
(250𝑐𝑚3 ) division 78𝑐𝑚3

Stopwatch 0.01s *Due to 0.1s 28.0s, 28.1s

human 28.2s, 28.2s
reaction
time

● Interpret and use the appropriate prefixes, micro (m), milli (m), centi (c), kilo (k),
mega (M) in relation to the units of length and mass.
Prefix Value Number Symbol
Giga One billion 109 G

Mega One million 106 M

Kilo One thousand 103 k

Deci One tenth 10−1 d

Centi One hundredth 10−2 c

Milli One thousandth 10−3 m

Micro One millionth 10−6 μ

Nano One billionth 10−9 n

● Describe how to measure time intervals by means of clocks and stopwatches;

and how to measure lengths with appropriate precision by means of tapes, rulers
and vernier calipers.
- Metre Rule:
a. When incorrect positioning of the eye occurs when making a measurement, parallax
error occurs.
 b. We can avoid parallax error by placing the ruler perpendicular to the surface of
measurement.
c. We can also avoid parallax error by placing our eyes directly and perpendicularly over
the point of measurement.
d. Parallax error is not considered a source of error in scientific experiments as it can be
avoided. It is henceforth considered a precaution.
e. A measuring tape is used for measurements above 1cm.
f. The measuring tape does not have the same range as the metre rule.
g. Internal and external calipers can measure the length of round objects.

- Vernier Calipers:
a. Vernier calipers are able to measure short lengths and diameters of objects up to 10cm.
b. They are more accurate than the metre rule since the smallest division on the vernier
scale is 0.01cm as compared to 0.1cm on the metre rule.
c. The outer jaws are used to measure the outer diameter of an object which can be
clamped between the outer jaws.
d. The inner jaws are used to measure the inner diameter or the width of an object.
e. The stem is used to measure the depth of an object.
f. Using the Vernier calipers:
→ Close the jaws of the Vernier calipers completely.
→ Read off the zero-error (if any).
→ Open up the jaws and place the object within the jaws of the Vernier calipers and

clamp it firmly in place.

→ Read the main scale reading.
→ Read the Vernier scale reading.
→ Add the Vernier scale reading to the main scale reading to obtain the observed reading.
→ Compensate for zero-error (if any) to get the actual reading.

- Measuring Time:
a. Time is the duration of an event.
b. The S.I. unit for time is second and is represented by the symbol s.
c. The electronic stopwatch is more accurate than a mechanical stopwatch, and can
measure time intervals accurate to 0.01s.
d. However, due to human reaction time in starting and stopping the stopwatch, the
precision of the electronic stopwatch is limited to 0.01s.

● State that mass is a measure of the amount of substance in a body.

● Explain what is meant by density.

- Density is a property of a substance and is defined as mass per unit volume of that
substance.

● Apply the relationship between mass, volume and density to solve related
problems.

● Predict whether objects sink or float using the concept of density.

- If the density of an object is higher than the density of the liquid it is being placed in, it
will sink.
- Conversely, if the density of an object is lower than the density of the liquid it is being
place in, it will float.

● Explain what is meant by average speed.

- Most objects do not travel at constant speed. Hence it is common to derive the average
speed of a moving body.
Average Speed = Total Distance Travelled ÷ Total Time Taken

● Solve problems of objects in motion using the concept of speed.

 CHEMISTRY
Elements, Compounds and Mixtures
● Recognise that materials can be classified as elements, compounds and mixtures.
● Distinguish among elements, compound and mixtures in terms of composition,
properties, appearance and ease of separation. (Physical means)
 Solution and Suspensions
● Recognise that mixture can be further separated into
● is a substance which cannot be broken down into two or more simpler substances by
chemical methods.
● we can classify them into metals and non-metals by physical properties
eneral properties etals -metals

earance ny (Lustrous) l (Non-lustrous)

sical state at room

ostly solids (except mercury) sually gases or liquids
emperature and pressure

lting points and boiling points

h (except for sodium, potassium and(except for carbon in the form
ercury) diaand silicon)

t and electrical conductivity

ood -conductor (except for carbon
he form of graphite)

uctility and Malleability ● Ductile (can be drawn into wires) tle of solid
● Malleable (can be hammered into
different shapes without breaking)
● Sonorous (Makes ringing sound when
struck)
a. Atoms and Molecules
i. Elements can exist as atoms or molecules
ii. Atoms are the smallest particles of an element that have the chemical
properties of that element
iii. The atoms of one element is different from that of others’
iv. Molecules is a group of two or more atoms that are chemically combined
together
v. Diatomic and polyatomic molecules
vi. Molecules of these elements are made up of the same type of atoms

1. Compound
a. has fixed proportion of fixed elements it contains
b. has different properties from its constituent elements
 c. cannot be broken down into its constituent elements by physical methods but
only by chemical methods
d. exist as molecules
2. Mixture
a. made up of two or more substances that are mixed but are not chemically
combined
b. ratio of the components of a mixture are no fixed

●
Mixture Compound

Separation

Properties

Energy Changes
●
Mixture Compound

Separation The components of a mixture can A compound can only be broken down
be separated by physical into its elements or into simple
processes such as magnetic compounds by chemical methods (e.g.
separation, filtration or distillation. thermal decomposition or electrolysis)

Properties The chemical properties of a The physical and chemical properties of

mixture are the same as those of a compound are different from those of
its components. its constituent elements.

Energy No chemical reactions takes place A chemical reaction takes place when a
Changes when a mixture is formed ---- compound is formed --- usually there is
usually there is little or no change. an energy change, e.g. the reactants get
hot or cold.

Composition The components of a mixture can The elements in a compound are always
be mixed in any proportion. combined in a fixed proportion.

● To differentiate between a compound and a mixture, the substance can be melted or

boiled. If it has a fixed melting point and boiling point, it is an element or a compound. If
it melts and boils over a range of temperature, it is a mixture.

● Know the chemical symbols and names for common elements (1st 20 elements,
Fe, Cu, Zn, Br, Ag, I, Hg, Pb).
- Hydrogen (H)
- Helium (He)
- Carbon (C)
- Nitrogen (N)
- Oxygen (O)
- Fluorine (F)
- Neon (Ne)
- Sodium (Na)
- Magnesium (Mg)
- Aluminium (Al)
- Sulfur (S)
- Chlorine (Cl)
- Argon (Ar)
- Potassium (K)
- Calcium (Ca)
- Iron (Fe)
- Copper (Cu)
- Zinc (Zn)
- Bromine (Br)
- Silver (Ag)
- Iodine (I)
- Gold (Au)
- Mercury (Hg)
- Lead (Pb)

● Know the definition of atoms and molecules.

- Atoms: Atoms are the smallest particles of an element that have the chemical properties
of that element.
- Molecules: A molecule is a group of two or more atoms that are chemically combined
together.

● Know what is meant by diatomic and polyatomic molecules.

- Diatomic Molecules:
a. A diatomic molecule consists of two atoms that are chemically combined together.

- Polyatomic Molecules:
a. A polyatomic molecules consists of three or more atoms that are chemically combined
together.