MODULE IN MODERN PHYSICS

Chapter 5: Nuclear Transformation

NUCLEAR COMPOSITION

The atomic nucleus is the central part of the atom. It is composed of two kinds of
subatomic particles, protons, and neutrons. The number of protons and neutrons in the atom
defines what type of atom or element it is. An element is a bunch of atoms that all have the
same type of atomic structure. For example, it makes a hydrogen atom up to 1 proton, 0
neutrons, and 1 electron. So that the proton and the neutron are constituents of the nucleus
and electron revolves around the nucleus. The constituents of nucleus give the lots of
information about the elements.

 Atomic nuclei are build up of protons and neutrons.

 Nucleus of hydrogen atom contains only single
proton.
 Charge on a proton is +1.6x10-19 C and its mass is
1836 times greater than that of electron.
 Neutrons are uncharged particles and mass of a
neutron is slightly greater than that of a proton.
 Neutrons and protons are jointly called nucleons.
 Number of protons in nuclei of an element is equal to the number of electrons in
neutral atom of that element.
 All nuclei of a given element does not have equal number of neutrons for example
99.9 percent of hydrogen nuclei contains only one proton , some contain one proton
and one neutron and a very little fraction contains one proton and two neutrons.
 Elements that have same number of protons but differ in number of neutrons in their
nucleus are called ISOTOPES.
 Hydrogen isotope deuterium is stable but tritium is radioactive and it decays to
changes into an isotope of helium.
 In heavy water instead of ordinary hydrogen deuterium combines with oxygen.

MODERN PHYSICS (Module in SCI 116) emds2020 | 1

Where X = chemical symbol of an element
Z = atomic number of the element
= number of protons in the nucleus
A = mass number of nuclide
=number of nucleons in the nucleus

The number of protons inside the nucleus gives us the atomic number. The protons
have a positive charge. In order for the atom to have a neutral charge, the electrons (-) need to
balance it out. Therefore, in a neutral atom, there are just as many protons as electrons. So, if
you know the atomic number and know the charge of the atom then the number of electrons
is easy to find; because the number of electrons equals the number of protons. If the number
of electrons does not equal the number of protons in the nucleus then the atom is an ion.

MODERN PHYSICS (Module in SCI 116) emds2020 | 2

 RADIOACTIVE DECAY

Radioactivity refers to the particles which are emitted from nuclei as a result of
nuclear instability. Because the nucleus experiences the intense conflict between the two
strongest forces in nature, it should not be surprising that there are many
nuclear isotopes which are unstable and emit some kind of radiation. The most common types
of radiation are called alpha, beta, and gamma radiation, but there are several other
varieties of radioactive decay.
Radioactive decay rates are normally stated in terms of their half-lives, and the half-
life of a given nuclear species is related to its radiation risk. The different types of
radioactivity lead to different decay paths which transmute the nuclei into other chemical
elements. Examining the amounts of the decay products makes possible radioactive dating.
A measure of radioactivity (activity) is based on counting of disintegrations per
second. The SI unit of activity is the becquerel (Bq), equal to one reciprocal second.
No single phenomenon has played so significant a role in the development of nuclear
physics as radioactivity, which was discovered by Antoine Becquerel in 1896. 3 features of
radioactivity are extraordinary from the perspective of classical physics:

MODERN PHYSICS (Module in SCI 116) emds2020 | 3

MODERN PHYSICS (Module in SCI 116) emds2020 | 4
Five kinds of radioactive decay:

MODERN PHYSICS (Module in SCI 116) emds2020 | 5

 Many nuclei are radioactive; that is, they decompose by emitting particles and in
doing so, become a different nucleus. In our studies up to this point, atoms of one element
were unable to change into different elements. That is because in all other types of changes
discussed, only the electrons were changing. In these changes, the nucleus, which contains
the protons that dictate which element an atom is, is changing. All nuclei with 84 or more
protons are radioactive, and elements with less than 84 protons have both stable and unstable
isotopes. All of these elements can go through nuclear changes and turn into different
elements.
These particles were named using the first three letters of the Greek alphabet. Some
later time, alpha particles were identified as helium-4 nuclei, beta particles were identified as
electrons, and gamma rays as a form of electromagnetic radiation like x-rays, except much
higher in energy and even more dangerous to living systems.

There are three basic modes of radioactive decay:

 Alpha decay (α).

Alpha decay represents the
disintegration of a parent nucleus to a
daughter through the emission of the
nucleus of a helium atom. Alpha
particles consist of two protons and
two neutrons bound together into a
particle identical to a helium nucleus.
Because of its very large mass (more than
7000 times the mass of the beta particle)
and its charge, it heavy ionizes material
and has a very short range.
Comparing only the three common types of ionizing radiation, alpha particles
have the greatest mass. Alpha particles have approximately four times the mass of a
proton or neutron and approximately 8,000 times the mass of a beta particle.
Because of the large mass of the alpha particle, it has the highest ionizing power and
the greatest ability to damage tissue. That same large size of alpha particles,
however, makes them less able to penetrate matter. They collide with molecules
very quickly when striking matter, add two electrons, and become a harmless helium
atom. Alpha particles have the least penetration power and can be stopped by a thick
sheet of paper or even a layer of clothes. They are also stopped by the outer layer of
dead skin on people. This may seem to remove the threat from alpha particles, but it is
only from external sources. In a nuclear explosion or some sort of nuclear accident,
where radioactive emitters are spread around in the environment, the emitters can be
inhaled or taken in with food or water and once the alpha emitter is inside you, you
have no protection at all.
The nuclear disintegration process that emits alpha particles is called
alpha decay. An example of a nucleus that undergoes alpha decay is uranium-238.
The alpha decay of U-238 is

MODERN PHYSICS (Module in SCI 116) emds2020 | 6

 Beta decay (β).
Beta decay or β
decay represents the disintegration of a
parent nucleus to a daughter through the
emission of the beta particle. Beta
particles are high-energy, high-speed
electrons or positrons emitted by certain
types of radioactive nuclei such as
potassium-40. The beta particles
have greater range of penetration than
alpha particles, but still much less than
gamma rays. The beta particles emitted
are a form of ionizing radiation also
known as beta rays. The production of
beta particles is termed beta decay.
Beta particles are much smaller than alpha particles and therefore, have much
less ionizing power (less ability to damage tissue), but their small size gives them
much greater penetration power. Most resources say that beta particles can be stopped
by a one-quarter inch thick sheet of aluminum. Once again, however, the greatest
danger occurs when the beta emitting source gets inside of you.
Another common decay process is beta particle emission, or beta decay. A
beta particle is simply a high energy electron that is emitted from the nucleus. It may
occur to you that we have a logically difficult situation here. Nuclei do not contain
electrons and yet during beta decay, an electron is emitted from a nucleus. At the
same time that the electron is being ejected from the nucleus, a neutron is becoming a
proton. It is tempting to picture this as a neutron breaking into two pieces with the
pieces being a proton and an electron. That would be convenient for simplicity, but
unfortunately that is not what happens. For convenience, we will treat beta decay as
a neutron splitting into a proton and an electron. The proton stays in the nucleus,
increasing the atomic number of the atom by one. The electron is ejected from the
nucleus and is the particle of radiation called beta.
To insert an electron into a nuclear equation and have the numbers add up
properly, an atomic number and a mass number had to be assigned to an electron. The
mass number assigned to an electron is zero (0), which is reasonable since the mass
number is the number of protons plus neutrons, and an electron contains no protons
and no neutrons. The atomic number assigned to an electron is negative one (-1),
because that allows a nuclear equation containing an electron to balance atomic
numbers. Therefore, the nuclear symbol representing an electron (beta particle) is

Thorium-234 is a nucleus that undergoes beta decay. Here is the nuclear

equation for this beta decay:

MODERN PHYSICS (Module in SCI 116) emds2020 | 7

  Gamma decay (γ).
Gamma decay or γ decay represents the
disintegration of a parent nucleus to a daughter through
the emission of gamma rays (high energy
photons). Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation
(high energy photons) of an very high frequency and of
a high energy. They are produced by the decay of
nuclei as they transition from a high energy state to a
lower state known as gamma decay. Most of nuclear
reactions are accompanied by gamma emission.
Gamma rays are not particles, but a high energy form of electromagnetic
radiation (like x-rays, except more powerful). Gamma rays are energy that has no
mass or charge. Gamma rays have tremendous penetration power and require several
inches of dense material (like lead) to shield them. Gamma rays may pass all the way
through a human body without striking anything. They are considered to have the
least ionizing power and the greatest penetration power.
Frequently, gamma ray production accompanies nuclear reactions of all types.
In the alpha decay of U-238, two gamma rays of different energies are emitted in
addition to the alpha particle.

Virtually all of the nuclear reactions in this chapter also emit gamma rays, but
for simplicity the gamma rays are generally not shown. Nuclear reactions produce a
great deal more energy than chemical reactions.

Additional important decay modes:

 Electron capture. Electron capture is a process, in which a parent nucleus captures
one of its orbital electrons and emits a neutrino. Electron capture, known also

MODERN PHYSICS (Module in SCI 116) emds2020 | 8

 as inverse beta decay is sometimes included as a type of beta decay, because the
basic nuclear process, mediated by the weak interaction, is the same.
 Positron emission or beta plus decay (β+ decay) is a subtype of
radioactive decay called beta decay, in which a proton inside a radionuclide nucleus
is converted into a neutron while releasing a positron and an electron neutrino
(νe). Positron emission is mediated by the weak force.

HALF-LIFE

Unstable nuclei decay. However, some nuclides decay faster than others. For
example, radium and polonium, discovered by the Curies, decay faster than uranium. This
means they have shorter lifetimes, producing a greater rate of decay. In this section we
explore half-life and activity, the quantitative terms for lifetime and rate of decay.
Why use a term like half-life rather than lifetime? The answer can be found by
examining Figure 1, which shows how the number of radioactive nuclei in a sample
decreases with time. The time in which half of the original number of nuclei decay is defined
as the half-life, t1/2. Half of the remaining nuclei decay in the next half-life. Further, half of
that amount decays in the following half-life. Therefore, the number of radioactive nuclei
decreases from N to

N/2
in one half-life, then to

N/4
in the next, and to

N/8
in the next, and so on. If N is a large number, then many half-lives (not just two) pass before
all of the nuclei decay. Nuclear decay is an example of a purely statistical process. A more
precise definition of half-life is that each nucleus has a 50% chance of living for a time equal
to one half-life t1/2.
Thus, if N is reasonably large, half of the original nuclei decay in a time of one half-
life. If an individual nucleus makes it through that time, it still has a 50% chance of surviving
through another half-life. Even if it happens to make it through hundreds of half-lives, it still
has a 50% chance of surviving through one more. The probability of decay is the same no
matter when you start counting. This is like random coin flipping. The chance of heads is
50%, no matter what has happened before.

MODERN PHYSICS (Module in SCI 116) emds2020 | 9

 Radioactive dating is a clever use of naturally occurring radioactivity. Its most
famous application is carbon-14 dating. Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5730 years and is
produced in a nuclear reaction induced when solar neutrinos strike 14N in the atmosphere.
Radioactive carbon has the same chemistry as stable carbon, and so it mixes into the

MODERN PHYSICS (Module in SCI 116) emds2020 | 10

ecosphere, where it is consumed and becomes part of every living organism. Carbon-14 has
an abundance of 1.3 parts per trillion of normal carbon. Thus, if you know the number of
carbon nuclei in an object (perhaps determined by mass and Avogadro‟s number), you
multiply that number by 1.3 × 10−12 to find the number of 14C nuclei in the object. When an
organism dies, carbon exchange with the environment ceases, and 14C is not replenished as it
decays. By comparing the abundance of 14C in an artifact, such as mummy wrappings, with
the normal abundance in living tissue, it is possible to determine the artifact‟s age (or time
since death). Carbon-14 dating can be used for biological tissues as old as 50 or 60 thousand
years, but is most accurate for younger samples, since the abundance of 14C nuclei in them is
greater.
Very old biological materials contain no 14C at all. There are instances in which the
date of an artifact can be determined by other means, such as historical knowledge or tree-
ring counting. These cross-references have confirmed the validity of carbon-14 dating and
permitted us to calibrate the technique as well. Carbon-14 dating revolutionized parts of
archaeology and is of such importance that it earned the 1960 Nobel Prize in chemistry for its
developer, the American chemist Willard Libby (1908–1980).
One of the most famous cases of carbon-14 dating involves the Shroud of Turin, a
long piece of fabric purported to be the burial shroud of Jesus (see Figure 2). This relic was
first displayed in Turin in 1354 and was denounced as a fraud at that time by a French bishop.
Its remarkable negative imprint of an apparently crucified body resembles the then-accepted
image of Jesus, and so the shroud was never disregarded completely and remained
controversial over the centuries. Carbon-14 dating was not performed on the shroud until
1988, when the process had been refined to the point where only a small amount of material
needed to be destroyed. Samples were tested at three independent laboratories, each being
given four pieces of cloth, with only one unidentified piece from the shroud, to avoid
prejudice. All three laboratories found samples of the shroud contain 92% of the 14C found in
living tissues, allowing the shroud to be dated (see Example 1).

Figure 2. Part of the Shroud of Turin, which shows a remarkable negative imprint likeness of Jesus
complete with evidence of crucifixion wounds. The shroud first surfaced in the 14th century and was only
recently carbon-14 dated. It has not been determined how the image was placed on the material. (credit:
Butko, Wikimedia Commons)

MODERN PHYSICS (Module in SCI 116) emds2020 | 11

 There are other forms of radioactive dating. Rocks, for example, can sometimes be
dated based on the decay of 238U. The decay series for 238U ends with 206Pb, so that the ratio
of these nuclides in a rock is an indication of how long it has been since the rock solidified.
The original composition of the rock, such as the absence of lead, must be known with some
confidence. However, as with carbon-14 dating, the technique can be verified by a consistent
body of knowledge. Since 238U has a half-life of 4.5 × 109 y, it is useful for dating only very
old materials, showing, for example, that the oldest rocks on Earth solidified about 3.5 ×
109 years ago.

NOTE:
Half-life t1/2 is the time in which there is a 50% chance that a nucleus will decay. The number
of nuclei N as a function of time is N =N0e−λt, where N0 is the number present at t = 0,
and λ is the decay constant, related to the half-life by

MODERN PHYSICS (Module in SCI 116) emds2020 | 12

 NUCLEAR REACTIONS

When two nuclei come close together, a nuclear reaction can occur that results in
new nuclei being formed. Nuclei are positively charged and the repulsion between them
keeps them beyond the range where they can interact unless they are moving very fast to
begin with. In the sun and other stars, whose internal temperatures range up to millions of
Kelvins, many nuclei present have high enough speeds for reactions to be frequent. Indeed,
reactions provide the energy that maintains these temperatures.

NUCLEAR FISSION
In nuclear fission, atoms are split apart, which releases energy. All nuclear power
plants use nuclear fission, and most nuclear power plants use uranium atoms. During
nuclear fission, a neutron collides with a uranium atom and splits it, releasing a large amount
of energy in the form of heat and radiation. More neutrons are also released when a uranium
atom splits. These neutrons continue to collide with other uranium atoms, and the process
repeats itself over and over again. This process is called a nuclear chain reaction. This
reaction is controlled in nuclear power plant reactors to produce a desired amount of heat.

In a nuclear reactor, a neutron is

absorbed into a nucleus (typically
uranium-235). This causes the nucleus
to become uranium-236, which is
violently unstable.

The entire nucleus splits into two large

fragments called 'daughter nuclei'. In
addition to the 'daughter' products, two
or three neutrons also explode out of
the fission reaction and these can
collide with other uranium nuclei to
cause further fission reactions. This is
known as a chain reaction.

MODERN PHYSICS (Module in SCI 116) emds2020 | 13

 Enrico Fermi originally split the uranium nuclei in 1934. He
believed that certain elements could be produced by bombarding
uranium with neutrons. Although he expected the new nuclei to have
larger atomic numbers than the original uranium, he found that the
formed nuclei were radioisotopes of lighter elements. These results
were correctly interpreted by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch over
Christmas vacation.

Fission Reactors

A fission reactor contains a number of

different parts:
 nuclear fuel (the uranium isotope that
will split when triggered by an
incoming neutron) - the fuel is held in
rods so that the neutrons released will fly
out and cause nuclear fission in other
rods
 graphite core - graphite slows the
neutrons down so that they are more
likely to be absorbed into a nearby fuel
rod
 control rods - these are raised and
lowered to stop neutrons from travelling
between fuel rods and therefore change
the speed of the chain reaction
 coolant - this is heated up by the energy
released from the fission reactions and is
used to boil water to drive turbines in the
power station
 concrete shield - the daughter products
of the fission reaction are radioactive and
can be a hazard

Many of the features of the reactor are designed to control the speed of the reaction
and the temperature inside the shielding. An uncontrolled fission reaction is the basis of
an atomic bomb.

MODERN PHYSICS (Module in SCI 116) emds2020 | 14

NUCLEAR FUSION
Nuclear energy can also be released in nuclear fusion, where atoms are combined or
fused together to form a larger atom. Fusion is the source of energy in the sun and stars.
Developing technology to harness nuclear fusion as a source of energy for heat and electricity
generation is the subject of ongoing research, but whether or not it will be a commercially
viable technology is not yet clear because of the difficulty in controlling a fusion reaction.

Nuclear fusion is a reaction in which two nuclei are combined to form a larger
nucleus. It releases energy when light nuclei are fused to form medium-mass nuclei.

It‟s most easily achieved on Earth by combining two isotopes of hydrogen: deuterium
and tritium. Hydrogen is the lightest of all the elements, being made up of a single proton and
a electron. Deuterium has an extra neutron in its nucleus; it can replace one of the hydrogen
atoms in H20 to make what is called “heavy water.” Tritium has two extra neutrons, and is
therefore three times as heavy as hydrogen. In a fusion cycle, tritium and deuterium are
combined and result in the formation of helium, the next heaviest element in the Periodic
Table, and the release of a free neutron.
Deuterium is found one part per 6,500 in ordinary seawater, and is therefore globally
available, eliminating the problem of unequal geographical distribution of fuel resources.
This means that there will be fuel for fusion as long as there is water on the planet.

What is Fusion Power?

Let‟s take look at a fusion reaction. You can see that as deuterium and tritium fuse
together, their component parts are recombined into a helium atom and a fast neutron. As the
two heavy isotopes are reassembled into a helium atom, you have „extra‟ mass leftover which
is converted into the kinetic energy of the neutron, according to Einstein’s formula: E=mc2.

MODERN PHYSICS (Module in SCI 116) emds2020 | 15

 For a nuclear fusion reaction to occur, it is necessary to bring two nuclei so close that
nuclear forces become active and glue the nuclei together. Nuclear forces are small-distance
forces and have to act against the electrostatic forces where positively charged nuclei repel
each other. This is the reason nuclear fusion reactions occur mostly in high density, high
temperature environment.

Three main conditions are necessary for a controlled thermonuclear fusion:

1. The temperature must be hot enough to allow the ions of deuterium and tritium to
have enough kinetic energy to overcome the Coulomb barrier and fuse together.
2. The ions must be confined with a high ion density to achieve a suitable fusion
reaction rate.
3. The ions must be held together in close proximity at high temperature with a
confinement time long enough to avoid cooling.

MODERN PHYSICS (Module in SCI 116) emds2020 | 16