CAIE IGCSE Prepared for Sedo taeco dak ooed 1. Nuclear Physics 1.1, Nuclear model of the atom Current atomic model “+ Electrons orbit a positively charged nucleus. “+ Mostly empty space between the orbits and the nucleus. Scattering experiments by Ernest Rutherford + ceparticles directed at thin gold fol ‘+ Observations of -particles: Dqumanraive Saean Bezipion Frat mic mode onoparwes | PARSER ERECT | nem amon enema reer of ei, peste Sereapiniee | oufenedsiemages, cupejeartineta “eden Rutherford’s nuclear model ‘+ Positive charge and most mass are concentrated in a small, dense nucleus. ‘+ Electrons orbit the nucleus at a large distance away, ‘+ Nucleus and electrons occupy about one-million: millionth of the atom’s volume. The nucleus WW\X/ZNOTES. + The nucleus of an atom consists of protons and neutrons. + Three basic particles in an atom include protons, neutrons, and electrons. ‘+ Proton = a hydrogen atom minus an electron charge +1, mass about 2000 times that of an electron, ‘+ Neutron: Uncharged and with a mass almost equal to that of a proton ‘+ Relative charges: Proton = +1 and neutron = electron ‘+ Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus and are together called nucleons. {oa Biectononite while ere i a Silden ‘+ Inaneutral atom the number of protons equals the number of electrons. ‘+ Atomic number (2): Number of protons in the nucleus {it also equals the number of electrons). ‘+ Mass number (A): Total number of nucleons (protons + neutrons) in the nucleus. ‘+ Relationship: Number of neutrons = A — Z. + Nuclide notation: Atorn X is represented as 4X, where Ais the nucleon number and Z is the proton number. + Relative charge: Product of proton number (Z) and the charge of a proton. + Relative mass: Total mass of neutrons and protons; approximately A times the mass of a proton Isotopes copy 9 2005 te Caton & Founda. AIR Reserved. Thi docu ‘thanse for perma on yea ab at MSD on PTeco dak ooed + Forms ofthe same element with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons. ‘+ Example: Chlorine has isotopes Cl and 3701 while Hydrogen has isotopes |H, deuterium 3H, and tritium iH. Isotopes have identical chemical properties but different physical properties. Nuclides ‘+ Radioactive isotopes are called radioisotopes or radionuclides and have unstable nuclei Nuclear Energy + Einstein’ equation: B= me, where E is energy, mis mass, and c is the speed of light. + ass los in nuclear reactions results in energy release + Nuclear reactions involve large energy changes compared to other physical and chemical changes. Nuclear fission + Uranium-235 is an isotope that undergoes fission when, struck by neutrons. ‘+ Fission breaks the nucleus into smaller radioactive nuclei, releasing additional neutrons and energy. ‘+ Mass loss is converted into kinetic energy of fission products, ‘+ Neutrons from fission can trigger further fission reactions, Nuclear fusion ‘+ Nuclear Fusion is the joining of light nuclei to form a heavy nucleus and releases energy Nuclear Reactor WW\X/ZNOTES. + Reactors use controlled chain reactions to produce energy. + Control rods absorb neutrons to regulate the reaction. + Graphite moderates neutrons to slow down fission. Je — outon e— *eneray eton = NS > lanier element 1.2. Types of Radioactivity Natural Background Radiation Radiation sources include: + Cosmic rays (high-energy particles from the Sun) are mostly absorbed by the atmosphere, but some reach the Earth's surface. + Radon gas presentin the air. + Granite rocks in homes, particularly in Scotland, emit radioactive radon gas that can accumulate in poorly ventilated areas, + Radioactive potassium-40 is present in food and absorbed by our bodies, * Various radioisotopes are used in medical procedures. + Radiation from nuclear power stations and fallout from nuclear bomb testing lonising Effect of Radiation + The ability of radiation to make atoms lose or gain ‘electrons and become charged. + A charged electroscope discharges when a lighted match or a radium source is brought near the cap, Electroscope Discharge: Neutral Atom — Positive Ion + Electron opp 9 2005 2s Caton & Foundation. AIR Reserve. The docu ‘thanse for perma on yea ab at MSD on PTeco dak ooed ‘+ Alighted match knocks electrons out of air molecules, creating positive ions. ‘+ Radiation causes ionisation by neutralising the charge on the electroscope. Tonisation: Neutral Atom + Electron ~> Negative Ion Geiger-Milller (GM) Tube ‘+ The ionising effect of radiation is used to detect radiation. “+ Radiation entering a GM tube creates argon ions and electrons, which then cause more ionisation. Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Radiation + Alpha Particles (a) + The nucleus with two protons and two neutrons + Stopped by thick paper; range in ar isa few centimetres. + The high ionising power of alpha particles is due to their increased mass (compared to gamma and beta), so t's more likely to ionise an atom + Defected by electric and magnetic fields + Represented as helium ions with @ double postive charge * Beta Particles (3) «+ fastemoving electron + Stopped by a few millimetres of aluminium; range in airis several metres, + Lower ionising power than alpha particles + Deflected by electric and magnetic fields + Streams of high-energy electrons + Gamma Radiation (7) + Electromagnetic radiation having high frequency + Most penetrating + Stopped only by many centimetres of lead. + Least ionising power. + Not deflected by electric and magnetic field. + Electromagnetic radiation, W\W/\W.ZNOTES.O Paper Aluminium — Load | tom ‘hogs! Penwtngroner | 'SSSDE Aetie | Mg inies) |_| Lon epoey ope) | nen cea) | tonerann) | a [SRSea are vase ‘sagen rma [Reet HORonty esl y Particle Tracks + loud chambers reveal the tracks of particles based on the ionisation they produce. ‘+ Alpha Particles: Straight, thick tracks. + Beta Particles: Thin, straight or twisted tracks. + Gamma Rays: sect electrons which then produce tracks similar to 8 particles. Electric deflection + The positive alpha particles are heavier and slowly deflect towards the negative plate. + The negative beta particles are lighter and quickly deflect towards the positive plate. + The neutral electromagnetic gamma radiation remains undeflected. tee eest ii copy 9 2005 2s Caton & Foundation. AIR Reserved. Th docu ‘thanse for pera on by yea ab st MSD on PTeco idaho) ‘= Alpha particles follow the rule of positive conventional ‘+ Fleming's left-hand rule is used with the middle finger pointing in the direction of alpha particles. ‘+ Beta particles are shown in the direction opposite to the middle finger, as they represent electron flow, which is the opposite of conventional current, ‘+ Gamma radiation is not deflected, ee ee ee Mite Ee =n eS soe Se % Se se es q + oF oF + 1,3. Radioactive decay and half-life Radioactive Decay ‘+ Radioactive decay is the emission of an a-particle or a. particle from an unstable nucleus. ‘+ This changes the nucleus into that of a different element. until a stable element is formed. ‘+ These changes are spontaneous and random Alpha Decay (a-decay) + An axparticie is a helium nucleus with two protons and two neutrons. + When an ator undergoes a-decay, its nucleon number ecreases by 4 and its proton number decreases by 2. ‘+ Example: When radium @2°Ra) emits and alpha particle, it becomes radon (2?Rn), ‘+ The equation for this decay is: 2"Ra 22? Rn +4 He Beta Decay (B-decay) W\W/\W.ZNOTES.O + In B-decay, a neutron changes into @ proton and an electron +The proton remains inthe nucleus, while the electron is emitted as a particle +The nucleon number stays the same, but the proton number increases by 1 + Example: Radioactive carbon }4C decays into nitrogen ( IAN) by B-emission, +The equation for this decay i: #C 914 N + Gamma Emission (y-emission) + After a- or B-decay, some nuclel are left in an excited or ‘energetic state, ‘+ Rearrangement of protons and neutrons releases energy in the form of y-emissions. ‘+ y-emissions are high-energy electromagnetic waves with no mass or charge. Nuclear Stability + Stability ofa nucleus depends on the number of protons (Z) and neutrons (N). + Stable nuclides fall within a specific stability level called the stabil line + Forlight nuclides, N = * For heavier nuclides, N > Z. + Unstable nuclides decay to move towards the stability line * Nuclides above the stability line decay by B-emission to decrease the * ratio, + Nuclides below the stability line decay by beta emission (Gr w increase the % ratio. + Nuclei with more than 82 protons usually decay by a- opyiht 9 2025 2NeesCaucaton baundaton,ARghis Resened, Thi demeeco dak ooed “+The half-life of an isotope is the time taken for half the nuclel in a sample to decay. ‘+ Itis a measure of the rate at which a radioactive substance decays. ‘+ Each isotope has its own special halle. ‘+ Tecan be from fractions of a second to millions of years. ‘+ Adecay curve plots the activity of a sample aver time, showing the exponential decrease in activity. ‘+ The activity decreases by half in each halflife period from the previous half-e period ‘+ Example: Ifa sample's activity is 80 decays per second, it will reduce t0 49 in one halflife, then to 20 in the next, and so on. ‘+ Radioactive decay is random and unpredictable; the ‘exact time when a particular nucleus will decay cannot be determined, ‘+ The overall decay rate of a sample follows a predictable pattern, called its hall-ife, 1.4. Safety precautions Dangers of Nuclear Radiation W\W/\W.ZNOTES.O + Exposure to small doses of radiation is not damaging, but large doses are harmful to health, + Nuclear radiation’s ionising effect damages cells and tissues, it can lead to gene mutations. + Damage can cause cell death and cancers. + aparticles are less dangerous unless the source is ingested or inhaled + Band y-radiation can cause radiation burns, eye cataracts, and cancer. + Radiation hazard signs warn of the presence of radioactive material Safety Precautions + Minimize exposure time to radiation, + Keep a large distance between the radiation source and individuals. ‘Use shielding materials that absorb radiation to protect people. + In industry, sources are handled with long tongs and transported in thick lead containers. + Workers are protected by lead and concrete walls and wear radiation dose badges, + Radiation dose badges track the amount of radiation exposure over a period, typically one month, + The badge has windows that allow different types of radiation to expose photographic film, indicating exposure levels when developed. opyiht 9 2025 2NeesCaucaton baundaton,ARghis Resened, Thi demeCAIE IGCSE Physics > ZNotes Education Ltd. & ZNotes Foundation 2025. 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