Internet

Unit 4
Analog V/S Digital Signal
Analog and digital signals are different
types which are mainly used to carry the
data from one apparatus to another.
Analog signals are continuous wave
signals that change with time period
whereas digital is a discrete signal is a
nature.
The main difference between analog and
digital signals is, analog signals are
represented with the sine waves whereas
digital signals are represented with square
waves.
Analog Signal
An analog signal is one type of continuous
time-varying signals, and these are classified
into composite and simple signals. A simple
type of analog signal is nothing but a sine
wave, and that can’t be decomposed,
whereas a composite type analog signal can
be decomposed into numerous sine waves.
An analog signal can be defined by using
amplitude, time period otherwise frequency,
& phase.
Analog Signal
Digital Signal
digital signals carry the data although it is
a bit different. These signals are discrete or
not continuous. A digital signal carries the
data in the form of binary because it
signifies in the bits. These signals can be
decomposed into sine waves which are
termed as harmonics. Every digital signal
has amplitude, frequency, & phase like
the analog signal.
Digital Signal
Modulations
Modulation is nothing but, a carrier signal
that varies in accordance with the
message signal. Modulation technique is
used to change the signal characteristics.
Modulation is a process of changing the
characteristics of the wave to be
transmitted by superimposing the
message signal on the high frequency
signal.
Basically, the modulation is of following
two types:
Analog Modulation
Amplitude
Frequency
Phase
Digital Modulation
Amplitude
Frequency
Phase
Amplitude Modulation(AM)
It was the earliest modulation technique
used to transmit voice by radio. This type
of modulation technique is used in
electronic communication. In this
modulation, the amplitude of the carrier
signal varies in accordance with the
message signal, and other factors like
phase and frequency remain constant.
Frequency Modulation(FM)
In this type of modulation, the frequency
of the carrier signal varies in accordance
with the message signal, and other
parameters like amplitude and phase
remain constant. Frequency modulation is
used in different applications like radar,
radio and telemetry, seismic prospecting
and monitoring newborns for seizures via
EEG, etc.
Phase Modulation(PM)
In this type of modulation, the phase of
the carrier signal varies in accordance
with the message signal. When the phase
of the signal is changed, then it affects
the frequency. So, for this reason, this
modulation is also comes under the
frequency modulation.
Transmission Media
In data communication terminology, a
transmission medium is a physical path
between the transmitter and the receiver
i.e it is the channel through which data is
sent from one place to another.
Guided Media
It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded
transmission media. Signals being
transmitted are directed and confined in
a narrow pathway by using physical links.
Features:
High Speed
Secure
Used for comparatively shorter distances
There are three types of Guided Media
Twisted Pair Cable
It consists of 2 separately insulated
conductor wires wound about each
other. Generally, several such pairs are
bundled together in a protective sheath.
They are the most widely used
Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two
types:
Unshielded Twisted Pair
Shielded Twisted Pair
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
This type of cable has the ability to block
interference and does not depend on a
physical shield for this purpose. It is used
for telephonic applications.
Advantages:
Least expensive
Easy to install
High speed capacity
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
This type of cable consists of a special jacket
to block external interference. It is used in
fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and
data channels of telephone lines.
Advantages:
Better performance at a higher data rate in
comparison to UTP
Eliminates crosstalk
Comparatively faster
Coaxial Cable
It has an outer plastic covering containing 2
parallel conductors each having a separate
insulated protection cover. Coaxial cable
transmits information in two modes:
Baseband mode(dedicated cable
bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable
bandwidth is split into separate ranges).
Cable TVs and analog television networks
widely use Coaxial cables.
Advantages:
High Bandwidth
Better noise Immunity
Easy to install and expand
Inexpensive
Optical Fibre Cable –
It uses the concept of reflection of light
through a core made up of glass or
plastic. The core is surrounded by a less
dense glass or plastic covering called the
cladding. It is used for transmission of large
volumes of data.
Advantages:
Increased capacity and bandwidth
Light weight
Less signal attenuation
Immunity to electromagnetic interference
Resistance to corrosive materials
Internet
The Internet is a global wide area network that
connects computer systems across the world. It
includes several high-bandwidth data lines that
comprise the Internet "backbone." These lines are
connected to major Internet hubs that distribute
data to other locations, such as web
servers and ISPs.
In order to connect to the Internet, you must have
access to an Internet service provider (ISP), which
acts the middleman between you and the
Internet. Most ISPs offer broadband Internet
access via a cable, DSL, or fiber connection.
Network Topologies
The mapping of a LAN design is called
Topology. There are four categories: Star
topology, Bus topology, Ring topology
and Mesh topology. Hybrid combinations
of these topologies also exist.
Topologies Are:-
Start topology
Bus topology
Ring topology
Mesh topology
Tree topology
Hybrid topology
Bus Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which
every computer and network device is
connected to single cable. When it has
exactly two endpoints, then it is
called Linear Bus topology.
Features of Bus
It transmits data only in one direction
Every device is connected to a single
cable
It’s cost effective
Used in small networks
It’s easy to understand
Ring Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms
a ring as each computer is connected to
another computer, with the last one
connected to the first. Exactly two
neighbors for each device.
Features of Ring
A number of repeaters are used for Ring
topology with large number of nodes,
because if someone wants to send some
data to the last node in the ring topology
with 100 nodes, then the data will have to
pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th
node. Hence to prevent data loss
repeaters are used in the network.
The transmission is unidirectional, but it
can be made bidirectional by having 2
connections between each Network
Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
Star Topology
In this type of topology all the computers
are connected to a single hub through a
cable. This hub is the central node and all
others nodes are connected to the
central node.
Features of Star Topology
Every node has its own dedicated
connection to the hub.
Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
Can be used with twisted pair, Optical
Fiber or coaxial cable.
Fast performance with few nodes and low
network traffic.
Hub can be upgraded easily.
Easy to troubleshoot.
Easy to setup and modify.
Mesh Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other
nodes or devices. All the network nodes
are connected to each other.
Features of Mash
Fully connected.
Robust.
Not flexible.
Each connection can carry its own data
load.
It is robust.
Fault is diagnosed easily.
Provides security and privacy.
Tree Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are
connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is
also called hierarchical topology. It should
at least have three levels to the hierarchy.
Features of Tree
Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
Used in Wide Area Network.
extension of bus and star topologies.
Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
Easily managed and maintained.
Error detection is easily done.
Components of LAN
Bridges
HUB
Routers
Repeater and Gateways
Repeater
A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its
job is to regenerate the signal over the same
network before the signal becomes too weak
or corrupted so as to extend the length to
which the signal can be transmitted over the
same network. An important point to be
noted about repeaters is that they do not
amplify the signal. When the signal becomes
weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and
regenerate it at the original strength. It is a 2
port device.
Hub
A hub is basically a multiport repeater. A
hub connects multiple wires coming from
different branches, for example, the
connector in star topology which
connects different stations. Hubs cannot
filter data, so data packets are sent to all
connected devices.
Bridge
A bridge operates at data link layer. A
bridge is a repeater, with add on the
functionality of filtering content by
reading the MAC addresses of source and
destination. It is also used for
interconnecting two LANs working on the
same protocol.
Switch
A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer
and a design that can boost its efficiency(a
large number of ports imply less traffic) and
performance. A switch is a data link layer
device. The switch can perform error
checking before forwarding data, that
makes it very efficient as it does not forward
packets that have errors and forward good
packets selectively to correct port only. In
other words, switch divides collision domain
of hosts, but broadcast domain remains
same.
Gateways
A gateway, as the name suggests, is a
passage to connect two networks
together that may work upon different
networking models. They basically work as
the messenger agents that take data
from one system, interpret it, and transfer
it to another system.