Page |1

Q 2). Discuss the protection employed against loss of excitation of an Q 3) A star connected 3 phase, 12MVA, 11 kV alternator has a phase
alternator. reactance of 10%. It is protected by Merz-Price circulating current scheme
Loss of field or excitation can be caused in the generator due to excitation which is set to operate for fault current not less than 200A. Calculate the
failure. In larger sized generator, energy for excitation is often taken from a value of earthing resistance to be provided to ensure that only 15% of the
separate auxiliary source or from a separately driven DC generator. The alternator winding remains unprotected.
failure of auxiliary supply or failure of driving motor can also cause the loss
of excitation in a generator. Failure of excitation that is failure of field system
in the generator makes the generator run at a speed above the synchronous
speed.
In that situation the generator or alternator becomes an induction
generator which draws magnetizing current from the system. Although this
situation does not create any problem in the system immediately but over
loading of the stator and overheating of the rotor due to continuous
operation of the machine in this mode may create problems in the system
in long-run. Therefore special care should be taken for rectifying the field or
excitation system of the generator immediately after failure of that system.
The generator should be isolated from rest of the system till the field system
is properly restored.
There are mainly two schemes available for protection against loss of
field or excitation of a generator. In 1st scheme, we use an undercurrent
relay connected in shunt with main field winding circuit. This relay will
operate if the excitation current comes below its predetermined value. If the
relay is to operate for complete loss of field along, it must have a setting lies
well below the minimum excitation current value which can be 8% of the
rated full load current.
In this case a setting of 5% of normal of full load current is recommended.
There is a normally closed contact attached with the undercurrent relay. This
normally closed contact remains open as the relay coil is energized by
shunted excitation current during normal operation of the excitation system.
As soon as there is any failure of excitation system, the relay coil becomes

Q 4) Describe with a neat sketch, the percentage differential protection of

a modern alternator.
The Percentage Biased Current Differential Protection is used to protect
power transformers and it is one of the most common transformer
protection schemes that provide the best overall protection. These types of
de-energized and the normally closed contact closes the supply across the
protection are used for transformers of rating exceeding 2 MVA.
coil of timing relay T1.
The transformer is star
As the relay coil is energized, the normally open contact of this relay T 1
connected on one side and
is closed. This contact closes the supply across another timing relay T 2 with
delta connected the other
an adjustable pickup time delay of 2 to 10 seconds. Relay T1 is time delayed
side. The CTs on the star side
on drop off to stabilize scheme again slip frequency effect. Relay T 2 closes its
are delta-connected and
contacts after the prescribed time delay to either shut down the set or
those on the delta-
initiate an alarm. It is time delayed on pickup to prevent spurious operation
connected side are star-
of the scheme during an external fault.
connected. The neutral of
For larger generator or alternator, we use a more sophisticated scheme
both the transformers are
for that purpose. For larger machines, it is recommended to trip the
grounded.
machine after a certain prescribed delay in presence of swing condition
The transformer has two
resulting from loss of field. In addition to that there must be subsequent
coils, one is the operating
load shedding to maintain stability of the system. In this scheme of
coil and the other is
protection, an automatic imposition of load shedding to the system is also
the restraining coil. As the
inherently required if the field is not restored within the described time
name implies, the
delay. The scheme comprises an offset mho relay, and an instantaneous
restraining-coil is used to
under voltage relay. As we have said earlier that it is not always required to
produce the restraining
isolate the generator immediately in the event of loss of field, unless there
force, and the operating-coil
is a significant disturb in system stability.
is used to produce the
We know that system voltage is the main indication of system stability.
operating force. The restraining-coil is connected with the secondary
Therefore the offset mho relay is arranged to shut the machine down
winding of the current transformers, and the operating coil is connected in
instantaneously when operation of generator is accompanied by a system
between the equipotential point of the CT.
voltage collapse. The drop in system voltage is detected by an under voltage
Transformer Differential Protection Working:
relay which is set to approximately 70 % of normal rated system voltage. The
Normally, the operating coil carries no current as the current is matched on
offset mho relay is arranged to initiate load shedding to the system up to a
both sides of the power transformers, when an internal fault occurs in the
safe value and then to initiate a master tripping relay after a predetermined
windings, the balance is altered and the operating coils of the differential
time.
relay start producing differential current among the two sides of the
transformer. Thus, the relay trips the circuit breakers and protects the main
transformer.
 Page |2

Q 5). What type of protective device is used for the protection of an 3. Differential Relay: - A differential relay continuously compares the
alternator against overheating of its (a) stator (b) rotor. Discuss them in currents from the current transformers. If the difference between the
brief. currents exceeds a predefined threshold, the relay operates to trip circuit
breakers and isolate the protected zone.
To protect an alternator against overheating, different protective devices are 4. Applications: - Differential protection is commonly used for the
employed for the stator and rotor. The primary goal of these protection protection of generators, transformers, and motors. It is effective in
schemes is to monitor temperature and respond when it exceeds safe limits. detecting faults within the equipment, such as short circuits and winding
Here's a brief overview of the protective devices for stator and rotor failures.
overheating:
Now, regarding why differential protection is often referred to as "unit
(a) Stator Overheating Protection: protection":
1. **Thermal Image Sensors:**
- Thermal image sensors or infrared thermography cameras can be used to - Differential protection is called "unit protection" because it provides
continuously monitor the temperature of the stator windings. These protection for a specific unit or piece of equipment within the power system.
cameras capture thermal images, allowing operators to identify hotspots or It is designed to protect the internal components of the equipment from
areas with abnormal temperature rises. faults that occur within the protected zone.
2. **Temperature Sensors:** - This term emphasizes that the protection scheme is focused on the
- Temperature sensors, such as resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) or individual unit (e.g., a generator or transformer) rather than the entire
thermocouples, can be embedded in the stator windings at critical locations. system. Each unit is treated as an independent entity, and the differential
These sensors provide direct temperature measurements, and if the protection system is customized for the unique characteristics of that unit.
temperature exceeds a predetermined setpoint, an alarm or protective - Unit protection is often contrasted with other protection schemes, such as
action is initiated. distance protection, which is designed to protect power lines and is not
3. **Stator Winding Temperature Monitoring Relays:** specific to individual units.
- These relays are specifically designed to monitor the temperature of the
stator windings. They receive input from temperature sensors and can be Q 8). Define plug setting multiplier and Time setting multiplier of an IDMT
programmed to trip the generator if the temperature exceeds a predefined relay. Compare the time-current characteristics of inverse, very inverse and
threshold. Some relays may provide additional features such as time delay extremely inverse over-current relays.
and alarms.
4. **Differential Protection:** Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM) and Time Setting Multiplier (TSM) in IDMT
- Differential protection schemes for the stator windings can also indirectly Relays:
detect overheating. By comparing the current entering and leaving the 1. Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM): - The Plug Setting Multiplier is a factor
stator winding, the protection system can identify anomalies caused by applied to the current setting of an Inverse-Time Overcurrent (IDMT) relay.
increased resistance due to overheating. It is used to adjust the pickup current of the relay. The formula for calculating
the pickup current (Ip) is given by:
(b) Rotor Overheating Protection:
1. **Rotor Temperature Indicators:**
- Rotor temperature indicators, often based on resistance temperature where CT is the current transformer ratio.
detectors (RTDs), are placed in critical locations of the rotor. These indicators 2. Time Setting Multiplier (TSM):
provide real-time temperature information, and when the temperature rises - The Time Setting Multiplier is a factor applied to the time setting of the
above a set threshold, an alarm or protective action is triggered. IDMT relay. It is used to adjust the operating time of the relay. The formula
2. **Rotor Earth Fault Protection:** for calculating the operating time T0 is given by:
- Rotor earth fault protection is essential for detecting faults that can lead
to rotor overheating. A sudden increase in current due to a rotor earth fault
can be an indication of potential overheating. Protective relays are used to where f is the system frequency.
detect such faults and initiate appropriate actions.
3. **Cooling System Monitoring:** Comparison of Time-Current Characteristics:
- Monitoring the performance of the rotor's cooling system is crucial. If
there is a failure or reduced efficiency in the cooling mechanism, it can lead Inverse-Time Overcurrent (IDMT) relays exhibit different time-current
to overheating. Sensors and alarms can be used to detect issues with the characteristics, which are represented by curves. The three common types
cooling system and take corrective actions. are Inverse, Very Inverse, and Extremely Inverse.
4. **Thermal Overload Relays:** 1. Inverse-Time Characteristic: - In the inverse-time characteristic, the
- Thermal overload relays can be integrated into the rotor protection operating time decreases as the current increases. The formula for the
scheme. These relays monitor the temperature and, when it exceeds a inverse characteristic is T = K/In, where T is the operating time, I is the
predetermined level, trip the generator to prevent further overheating. current, K is a constant, and n is typically between 0.5 and 1.
2. Very Inverse Characteristic: - The very inverse characteristic provides a
more pronounced inverse relationship between current and operating time.
Q 7). What do you mean by ‘differential protection’? Why differential The formula for the very inverse characteristic is T = K/I(n-1). It exhibits faster
protection is called ‘unit-Protection’? tripping times for higher currents compared to the inverse characteristic.
Differential protection is a protective scheme used in electrical power 3. Extremely Inverse Characteristic: - The extremely inverse characteristic is
systems to detect and respond to internal faults within a protected zone, more sensitive to high currents. The formula for the extremely inverse
such as a generator, motor, or transformer. The primary principle behind characteristic is T = K/I(n-2). It results in even faster tripping times for higher
differential protection is to compare the currents entering and leaving the currents compared to the very inverse characteristic.
protected zone. If there is a significant difference between these currents, it
indicates the presence of a fault within the protected area.
Here's a more detailed explanation:

1. Basic Operation: - Differential protection operates based on the principle

of Kirchhoff's current law. The sum of currents entering a zone should equal
the sum of currents leaving that zone under normal operating conditions.
2. Current Transformers (CTs): - Current transformers are installed at the
entry and exit points of the protected zone. These transformers step down
the currents to levels suitable for protection devices.
 Page |3

Q 9). What are the different types of electromagnetic relays? Discuss their relay have steady non vibrating torque and their parasitic torque due to
field of applications. current or voltage alone are small.
Electromagnetic relays are those relays which are operated by 4. Balanced Beam Relay: Balanced beam type relay can be said a variant of
electromagnetic action. Modern electrical protection relays are mainly attraction armature type relay, but still these are treated as different types
micro processor based, but still electromagnetic relay holds its place. It will of relay as they are employed in different field of application.
take much longer time to replace all electromagnetic relays by micro Balanced beam type relays were used in differential and distance protection
processor based static relays. So before going through detail of protection schemes. The use of these relay becomes absolute as sophisticated
relay system we should review the various types of electromagnetic relays. induction disc type relay and induction cup type relays supersede them.
Electromagnetic Relay Working The working principle of a Balance Beam Relay is quite simple. Here one
Practically all the relaying device is based on either one or more of the beam is supported by one hinge. The hinge supports the beam from
following types of electromagnetic relays. somewhere in the middle of the beam. There are two forces acts on two
Magnitude measurement, Comparison, Ratio measurement. ends of the beams, respectively. The direction of both of the forces is same.
Principle of electromagnetic relay working is on some basic principles. Not only direction, in normal working condition the torque produced by the
Depending upon working principle these can be divided into following types forces in respect of the hinge, are also same. Due to these two same
of electromagnetic relays. directional torques, the beam is held in horizontal position in normal
1. Attracted Armature type relay, working condition. One of these torques is restraining torque and other is
2. Induction Disc type relay, operating torque.
3. Induction Cup type relay, 5.Moving Coil Type Relay: The moving coil relay or polarized DC moving coil
4. Balanced Beam type relay, relay is most sensitive electromagnetic relay. Because of its high sensitive,
5. Moving coil type relay, this relay is used widely for sensitive and accurate measurement for distance
6. Polarized Moving Iron type relay. and differential protection. This type of relays is inherently suitable for DC
1. Attraction Armature Type Relay: Attraction armature type relay is the system. Although this type of relay can be used for A.C system also but
most simple both in construction as well as in its working principle. These necessary rectifier circuit should be provided in current transformer.
types of electromagnetic relays can be utilized as either magnitude relay or In a moving coil relay the movement of the coil may be rotary or axial. Both
ratio relay. These relays are employed as auxiliary relay, control relay, over of them have been perfected to a large extent by the various manufactures
current, under current, over voltage, under voltage and impedance but the inherent limitation of a moving coil relay remains i.e to lead the
measuring relays. current in and out of the moving coil system which, for reasons of sensitivity
Hinged armature and plunger type constructions are most commonly used has to be designed to be very delicate.
for these types of electromagnetic relays. Among the two constructional Between these two types of moving coil relay a axial moving type has twice
design, hinged armature type is more commonly used. sensitivity than that of rotary type. With moving coil relay, sensitivities of
We know that force exerted on an armature is directly proportional to the the order of 0.2 mW to 0.5 mW are typical. Speed of operation depends
square of the magnetic flux in the air gap. If we ignore the effect of upon damping provided in the relay.
saturation, the equation for the force experienced by the armature can be (PART 1 > Pg no 4)
expressed as, Q 10). Define a relay and draw its block diagram. List different components
of a protection scheme and explain their role in a protection system
Where, F is the net force, K’ is constant, I is rms current of armature coil, It works on the principle of an electromagnetic attraction. When the
and K’ is the restraining force. circuit of the relay senses the fault current, it energises the electromagnetic
2. Induction Disc Type Relay: Every induction disc type relay works on the field which produces the temporary magnetic field.
same well known Ferrari’s principle. This principle says, a torque is produced This magnetic
by two phase displaced fluxes, which is proportional to the product of their field moves the
magnitude and phase displacement between them. Mathematically it can relay armature for
opening or closing
be expressed as- the connections.
The induction disc type relay is based on the same principle as that of an The small power
ammeter or a volt meter, or a wattmeter or a watt hour mater. In induction relay has only one
relay the deflecting torque is produced by the eddy currents in an aluminium contacts, and the
or copper disc by the flux of an AC electromagnet. Here, an aluminum (or high power relay
copper) disc is placed between the poles of an AC magnet which produces has two contacts
an alternating flux φ lagging from I by a small angle. As this flux links with for opening the
the disc, there must be an induced emf E2 in the disc, lagging behind the flux switch.
φ by 90o. As the disc is purely resistive, the induced current in the disc I2 will The inner section of the relay is shown in the figure below. It has an iron core
be in phase with E2. As the angle between φ and I2 is 90o, the net torque which is wound by a control coil. The power supply is given to the coil
produced in that case is zero. As, through the contacts of the load and the control switch. The current flows
through the coil produces the magnetic field around it.
In order to obtain torque in induction disc type relay, it is necessary to Due to this magnetic field, the upper arm of the magnet attracts the lower
produce a rotating field. arm. Hence close the circuit, which makes the current flow through the load.
3. Induction Cup Type Relay: Induction cup type relay can be considered If the contact is already closed, then it moves oppositely and hence open
as a different version of induction disc type relay. The working principle of the contacts.
both type of relays are more or less some. Induction cup type relay are used Components of Protection: Some of the commonly used components of
where, very high speed operation along with polarizing and/or differential the protective schemes are described here in brief. Those are 1. Relays 2. CB
winding is requested. Generally four pole and eight pole design are 3. Tripping and Auxiliary Supplies 4. CTs 5. Voltage Transformer
available. The number of poles depends upon the number of winding to be i. Relays: When any abnormal condition develop, the main
accommodated. function of a protective relay is to isolate the faulty section with the least
The inertia of cup type design is much lower than that of disc type design. interruption to the service by controlling or operation the circuit breaker.
Hence very high speed operation is possible in induction cup type relay. The relay may be designed to detect and to measure abnormal condition
Further, the pole system is designed to give maximum torque per KVA input. and close the contacts of the tripping circuit.
In a four pole unit almost all the eddy currents induced in the cup by one The two categories of relay are most used in protective relay
pair of poles appear directly under the other pair of poles – so that a) Secondary indirect acting relays: Example: Current, Voltage, Power,
torque/VA is about three times that of an induction disc with a c-shaped Impedance, Reactance, and frequency whether minimum or maximum
electromagnet. b) Secondary directing acting relay: A group of over current and under
Induction cup type relay is practically suited as directional or phase voltage relays designed to operate immediately or with time lag. These are
comparison units. This is because, besides their sensitivity, induction cup relays of the electromagnetic type which are built into circuit breaker
operating mechanism.
 Page |4

ii. Circuit Breakers: It is desirable to switch on or off the various Types of Distance Relay
circuits like transmission line, distributors generating plants under both As the distance relay depends on the ratio of voltage and current values,
normal and abnormal condition. This can be done by a switch and a fuse but they are classified into 3 types. They are
the limitations are Impedance Relay: This type of relay depends on the impedance Z suitable
1. It take some time to replace for phase fault protection of transmission line at a moderate length
2. It cannot successfully interrupt heavy fault current. Reactance Relay: This type of relay depends on the value of reactance X
So, we use CB, it can make or break a circuit either manually or suitable for ground-fault protection of the line.
automatically under all conditions (no load, full load, and fault) i.e. Admittance or MHO Relay: This type of relay depends on the value of
a) It can make or break a circuit manually or by remote under normal admittance Y suitable for phase fault protection of long transmission line,
condition used where severe power surges occur and also of distance measurements.
b) Break a circuit automatically under fault condition If any fault occurs, then the distance relay starts working depends on the
c) Make a circuit either manually or by remote under fault condition values of impedance or admittance, or reactance.
iii. Tripping and other Auxiliary Supplies: For protective relay and Definite Distance Relays: This type of relay starts working when the value
automatic control scheme in power system uses two kinds of auxiliary of reactance or admittance is below a predetermined impedance value of
supplies: DC and AC the relay. These are impedance, reactance, admittance, or mho type relays.
DC auxiliary power supply is provided from batteries which is maintained Time Distance Relays: The working of this type of relay depends on the
continuously charged. The advantages of storage batteries are their high value of impedance. That means its operation depends on the distance
reliability and independent of power circuit conditions and of existence of between the fault and the relay point. It works more efficiently and earlier
fault. when the fault is nearer to the relay point. These come under impedance,
Usually, the voltage of the auxiliary supplies is maintained at 110 V reactance, or mho type relays.
Mainly the auxiliary supplies power to protective relays, automatic control Advantages
and the circuit breakers tripping circuit. Separate buses may also be The advantages of distance relay over overcurrent relay are given below
provided for supplying power to relays, CB and other indicating circuit such  It replaces the protection of overcurrent transmission lines
as alarm and warning signals.
 Provides protection very fastly
In this scheme the relay has normally closed contacts. During normal
operation the relay contacts continuously shut the circuit breakers trip coil  Coordination and application is very simple
and this keep the breaker closed. When abnormal condition is approached  Available with permanent settings and there is no need to
the relays operates to open its contacts this put the trip. readjust the settings
iv. Current Transformer (CT): High magnitude primary current is  Effect of a generation of fault levels, fault current magnitude is
reduce to a value suitable for relay operation to a value suitable for relay less
operation with the help of current transformers (CTs). (Then CTs provide
 Permits high load lining
current in the relay which are proportional to those in primary.) The primary
Disadvantages
winding of the CTs is connected in series whit the load and carries the actual
The disadvantages of distance relay or impedance relay are shown below
power system current (normal or fault). The secondary is connected to the
measuring circuit or the relay.
 As it operates on both sides faults of a line, then it is said to be
non-directional.
Measuring CTs require comparatively high accuracy over the range of 10%
to 120% of rated.  It fails to recognize between internal and external faults of a line
Grain oriented steels having high saturation level are used as core materials  The resistance of the arc of a fault line affects the function of the
for protective CTs and nickel iron alloys having low exciting ampere turn per distance relay. Since an arc exists when the fault occurs at any
unit length of the core used for measuring CTs. point.
It is common practice to use 1A secondary rating CTs.  The power swings affect the performance of the distance relay
When rated primary currents much more than 1500 A are encountered because the area covered by the circle on the sides of the R-X
then the main bar CTs with rated secondary current of 5A and 10A along plane is large
with auxiliary CTs of 5/1 or 10/1 respectively are used.
v. Voltage Transformers: It is not possible to connect the voltage
 The measurement capacity of fault resistance is limited.
Applications
coils of the protective device directly to the system in case of high voltage
The distance relay applications are
systems. So, it is necessary to step down the voltage, also to insulate the
protective equipment from primary circuit. This is achieved by using a  These are most widely used to protect transmission lines and
voltage transformer. Also known as potential transformer (PTs) which is like distribution lines over high AC voltages
a power transformer. The voltage transformer is rated in terms of the  Provide backup protection of AC voltages against the several
maximum burden (VA) output it delivers without exceeding specified limits faults in 3-phase, phase to phase, and phase to the ground of
of errors. Whereas the power transformer is rated by the secondary output distribution and transmission lines.
it delivers without exceeding a specified temperature rise.  Static distance relays are widely used because it provides
There are two types of Voltage devices distance protection for all types of line faults in transmission lines
a) The conventional wound type voltage transformers up to (132kV) (short, medium, long, and main).
b) Capacitor Voltage Transformer (>132 kV)
When Appreciable current flows in the burden both ratio and phase are Q 12). What is static relay? What are the advantages of static relays over
introduced because of the load current flowing through the capacitor C1. electromechanical relays?
The voltage drop on load due to reluctance of the capacitors can be = Answer is written in hand notes
compensated by inserting an inductance reactance in series with the load.

Q 11). What are different types of distance relays. Compare their merits
and demerits. Discuss their field of applications.

The distance relay is a distance protection element designed to measure

the faulty point. The operation of this relay depends on the value of the
impedance. It trips the circuit breaker and closes the contacts when the
impedance of the faulty point is less than the impedance of the relay. The
voltage and current flowing through the PT and CT are continuously
monitored by the relay and it starts operating only when the ratio of voltage
and current (value of impedance) is less than the predetermined impedance
value of the relay.
 Page |5

Q 13). What is the Various overcurrent protective scheme? Discuss their Merits of Time-Graded Overcurrent System:
merits and demerits of Time-graded overcurrent system. 1. Selective Coordination: - One of the primary advantages of a time-graded
Time Graded Overcurrent Protection, time discrimination is incorporated. overcurrent system is its ability to achieve selective coordination. By
In other words, the time setting of relays is so graded that in the event of employing relays with increasing time delays as distance from the power
fault, the smallest possible part of the system is isolated. We shall discuss a source increases, the system allows for faster tripping of relays closer to the
few important cases. fault and slower tripping for relays farther away. This helps isolate the
faulted section while minimizing the impact on unaffected parts of the
1. Radial feeder: The main characteristic of a radial system is that power can system.
flow only in one direction, from generator or supply end to the load. It has 2. Reduced Nuisance Tripping: - The time-graded system minimizes the
the disadvantage that continuity of supply cannot be maintained at the chances of unnecessary tripping for faults that occur farther away from the
receiving end in the event of fault. Time Graded Overcurrent Protection of a power source. This helps maintain system stability and reliability by avoiding
radial feeder can be achieved by using the disconnection of healthy parts of the system due to remote faults.
(i) Definite time relays and (ii). Inverse time relays. 3. Enhanced Sensitivity to Localized Faults:
- The system is designed to provide fast tripping for localized faults near
2. Parallel feeders: Where continuity of supply is particularly necessary, two the source. This ensures quick response to faults that may have a more
parallel feeders may be installed. If a fault occurs on one feeder, it can be immediate impact on the protected equipment.
disconnected from the system and continuity of supply can be maintained 4. Adaptability to Radial Systems:
from the other feeder. The parallel feeders cannot be protected by non- - Time-graded protection is well-suited for radial power distribution
directional overcurrent relays only. It is necessary to use directional relays systems where power flows in one direction. In such systems, the
also and to grade the time setting of relays for selective trippings. coordination of relays based on time delays can be effectively implemented.

Demerits of Time-Graded Overcurrent System:

1. Complex Coordination: - Achieving effective coordination in a time-
graded system can be complex, especially in systems with multiple sources,
branches, and interconnected networks. Ensuring proper coordination
requires a thorough understanding of the system layout and characteristics.
2. Impact of System Changes: - Changes in the power system configuration
or the addition of new elements may require adjustments to the time delays
in the relays. This makes the system less adaptable to changes and may
Fig. shows the system where two feeders are connected in parallel between
necessitate periodic reassessment and reconfiguration.
the generating station and the sub-station. The protection of this system
3. Limited Applicability to Meshed Systems:* - Time-graded protection may
requires that
be less suitable for meshed power systems where power flows in multiple
 each feeder has a non-directional overcurrent relay at the directions. Achieving effective time grading in such systems can be
generator end. These relays should have inverse-time challenging due to bidirectional power flows.
characteristic. 4. Risk of Overlapping Time Delays:* - Careful coordination is required to
 each feeder has a reverse power or directional relay at the sub- avoid overlapping time delays between adjacent relays. Overlapping delays
station end. These relays should be instantaneous type and can lead to a lack of selectivity, where multiple relays operate
operate only when power flows in the reverse direction e. in simultaneously for the same fault, impacting the effectiveness of the
the direction of arrow at P and Q. protection scheme.

3. Ring main system: In this system, various power stations or sub-stations Q6. Explain Merz-price principle of differential protection.
are interconnected by alternate routes, thus forming a closed ring. In case = The Merz-Price principle is a fundamental concept in the field of
of damage to any section of the ring, that section may be disconnected for differential protection, specifically applied to the protection of power
repairs, and power will be supplied from both ends of the ring, thereby transformers. It is named after the German engineers C. A. Merz and E.
maintaining continuity of supply. Price, who proposed the principle in the early 20th century. The Merz-Price
principle is widely used for the protection of power transformers against
internal faults.
Principle of Operation: The basic idea behind the Merz-Price principle is to
use the summation of currents entering and leaving a transformer to create
a balance during normal operating conditions. When a fault occurs within
the transformer, causing an imbalance in currents, the protective relay
detects this discrepancy and initiates a trip signal to isolate the transformer
from the system.
Fig shows the single line diagram of a typical ring main system consisting of The differential current (Idiff) is calculated as the vector sum of the currents
one generator G supplying four sub-stations S1, S2, S3 and S4. In this entering (Iin)and leaving (Iout) the transformer:
arrangement, power can flow in both directions under fault conditions. (Idiff)= (Iin)- (Iout)
Therefore, it is necessary to grade in both directions round the ring and Under normal operating conditions, when there is no internal fault, the
also to use directional relays. In order that only faulty section of the ring is vector sum of the currents should be zero, indicating a balanced system. If
isolated under fault conditions, the types of relays and their time settings there is an internal fault, such as a short circuit or winding failure, the
should be as follows: differential current will become nonzero, triggering the protective relay to
 The two lines leaving the generating station should be equipped operate and initiate the tripping of the transformer.
with non-directional overcurrent relays (relays at A and J in this case). Advantages:
1. Sensitivity to Internal Faults: - The Merz-Price principle is highly sensitive
 At each sub-station, reverse power or directional relays should
to internal faults within the transformer windings. It can detect faults such
be placed in both incoming and outgoing lines (relays at B, C, D, E, F, G,
as short circuits, turn-to-turn faults, and winding failures.
H and I in this case).
2. Robust Operation:
 There should be proper relative time-setting of the relays. As an - The principle operates independently of the transformer's load current,
example, going round the loop G S1 S2 S3 S4 G ; the outgoing relays (viz making it robust and effective under various load conditions.
at A, C, E, G and I) are set with decreasing time limits e.g. 3. Simplicity: - The concept is relatively simple, making it easy to implement
and understand.
4. Wide Applicability: -The Merz-Price principle is applicable to a wide range
of transformer types, including power transformers and distribution
transformers.
 Page |6

Q 14). Define plug setting multiplier and Time setting multiplier of an IDMT Q 16). Discuss various zones of protection for a modern power system using
relay. A relay is connected to 400/5 C.T and set at 120% and if the fault block diagram.
current on the primary side is 1440 A. Calculate PSM

Q 18). Explain the static instantaneous overcurrent relay and static definite
time overcurrent relay with block diagram.

Q 15). Compare the time-current characteristics of inverse, very inverse

and extremely inverse over-current relays.
The time-current characteristics of overcurrent relays describe how the
operating time of the relay varies with the magnitude of the fault current.
Inverse, very inverse, and extremely inverse characteristics represent three
different types of relationships between time and current in these relays.
Here's a comparison of their time-current characteristics:
1. Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay:
- Characteristics: - Inverse time characteristics are represented by the
equation T = K/In, where T is the operating time, I is the current, K is a
constant, and n is typically between 0.5 and 1.
- Behavior: - As the fault current increases, the operating time of the relay
decreases inversely.
- Application: - Suitable for applications where moderate sensitivity to
low-level faults is required.
2. Very Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay:
- Characteristics: - Very inverse time characteristics are represented by
the equation \(T = K/I(n-1), where \(n\) is typically between 0.5 and 1.
- Behavior: - Similar to inverse characteristics, but with a more
pronounced inverse relationship as \(n\) is reduced to enhance sensitivity to
higher fault currents.
- Application: - Used in systems where increased sensitivity to higher fault
currents is necessary. Provides faster tripping for severe faults.
3. Extremely Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay:
- Characteristics: - Extremely inverse time characteristics are represented
by the equation T = K/I(n-2), where n is typically between 0.5 and 1.
- Behavior: - Exhibits the most pronounced inverse relationship between
operating time and fault current among the three types.
- Application: - Primarily used in systems where the emphasis is on rapid
tripping for high fault currents. Provides the fastest response for severe
faults.

Q 15). Describe the principle and need for protective system. Explain with
diagram for primary protection and back up protection in details.
= Answer in handwritten
 Page |7

Q 19). What is a numerical relay? What are its advantages over

conventional type relays?

Q 20). Discuss the classification of protective relays based on their speed

of operation.

Q 1). Discuss the protection against overload employed in a generator.