4.

0 Protective Relays

4.1 Remember the need for protective relay in power systems

The IEEE defines a protective relay as ‘‘a relay whose function is to detect defective lines or
apparatus or other power system conditions of an abnormal or dangerous nature and to
initiate appropriate control circuit action’’ (IEEE 100)

Why do we need to control?

• Control actions needed
• Automatic
– Equipment Protection: Disconnection at fault
– Voltage control: Move a tapchanger in a transformer
• Human intervention
– Frequency control: Increase output in hydro plant
– Voltage control: Connect capacitor bank
Faults cannot be avoided completely. They can be minimized. Protective relaying plays
an important role in minimizing the faults, and also in minimizing the damage in the event of
faults.

4.1.1 Describe the purpose of protective relay

Relaying is the branch of electric power engineering concerned with the principles of design
and operation of equipment (called ‘relays’ or ‘protective relays’) that detects abnormal power
system conditions, and initiates corrective action as quickly as possible in order to
return the power system to its normal state

The protective relaying of a power system is planned along with the system design. Protective
relaying senses the abnormal condition in a part of power system and gives an alarm or
isolates that part from healthy system. Protective relaying is a team work of CT, PT, protective
relays, time delay relays, trip circuits, circuit breakers etc. Protective relaying plays an
important role in minimizing the faults and also in minimizing the damage in the event of faults.

Functions of protective relaying:-

A) To sound an alarm or to close the trip circuit of a circuit breaker so as to disconnect a

component during an abnormal condition in the component.

B) To disconnect the abnormally operating part so as to prevent subsequent faults. For

e.g. Overload protection of a machine not only protects the machine but also prevents
insulation failure.

C) To disconnect the faulty part quickly so as to minimize the damage to the faulty part.
For example - If machine is disconnected immediately after a winding fault, only a few coils
may need replacement. But if the fault is sustained, the entire winding may get damaged and
machine may be beyond repairs.

D) To localize the effect of fault by disconnecting the faulty part from healthy part,
causing least disturbance to the healthy system.
E) To disconnect the faulty part quickly so as to improve system stability, service
continuity and system performance. Transient stability can be improved by means of
improved protective relaying.

4.1.2 Identify the protection relay requirement

The five basic facts are:

1) Reliability: assurance that the protection will perform correctly.
2) Selectivity: maximum continuity of service with minimum system disconnection.
3) Speed of operation: minimum fault duration and consequent equipment
damage and system instability.
4) Simplicity: minimum protective equipment and associated circuitry to
achieve the protection objectives.
5) Economics: maximum protection at minimal total cost.

4.1.3 State the classification of protective relay based on technology, duty and
operation

Relays are generally specified according to the duty they are required to perform, for
example, overcurrent relays or impedance relays. For a detailed study of properties as
distinct from scheme applications they can be classified according to their
constructional types. The same basic construction may be used in different schemes
and applications. The fewer basic design elements used the better; this simplifies stocking
spare components and reduces the range of fundamental response characteristics with
which the maintenance staff must be familiar. The following types of relays have been
constructed: attracted armature, moving coil, induction, motor operated, magnetic
amplifier, thermionic, semiconductor, mechanical and photoelectric. Many variations of
most types of element have been applied in protective relays. Their generalised
characteristics are described below, followed by the application of typical elements to
specific protective relay schemes.

The relay classification as follows;

1. General function
a. As a supporting device c. To monitoring a system
b. To control other system d. As protective device

2. Relay construction
a. Electromagnetic type d. Microprocessor type
b. Solid state type e. Computerized type
f. Non-electric type (i.e. thermal, pressure)

3. Types of input signal

a. Current c. Thermal e. Pressure g. Velocity
b. Voltage d. power f. frequency
 4. Types of protection

a. Over – current protection d. Over-voltage protection

b. Distance protection e. Differential protection
c. Inverse – time power protection

5. Identifications on instruments in power system

a. Distance relay f. Delay-time over current relay
b. Earth protection relay g. Circuit breaker
c. Under-voltage relay h. Power factor relay
d. Inverse time power relay i. Over-voltage relay
e. Instantaneous over current relay

4.1.4 Describe with the aid of diagram the basic schematic relay protection circuit
connection

Figure 1: Typical relay circuit.

Usually the relay circuit is a three phase circuit and the contact circuit of relays is very
much complicated. The Figure 1 shows a single phase simplified circuit to explain the basic
action of a relay. Let part A is the circuit to be protected. The current transformer CT is
connected with its primary in series with the line to be protected. The secondary of CT is
connected in series with the relay coil. The relay contacts are the part of a trip circuit of a circuit
breaker. The trip circuit consist of a trip coil and a battery, in addition to relay contact. The trip
contact can operate on AC or DC.
If the fault occurs as shown in figure 1, then current through the line connected to A
increase to a very high value. The current transformer senses this current. Accordingly it
secondary current increase which is nothing but the current through a relay coil. Thus the relay
contacts get closed mechanically under the influence of such a high fault current. Thus the trip
circuit of a circuit breaker gets closed and current start flowing from battery, through trip coil,
in a trip circuit. Thus a trip coil of a circuit breaker get energized. This activates the circuit
breaker opening mechanism, making the circuit breaker open. This isolates the faulty part
from rest of the healthy system
 Figure 2: Basic Connection diagram of protection relay

In the picture the basic connection of protection relay has been shown. It is quite simple. The
secondary of current transformer is connected to the current coil of relay. And secondary of
voltage transformer is connected to the voltage coil of the relay. Whenever any fault occurs in
the feeder circuit, proportionate secondary current of the CT will flow through the current coil
of the relay due to which mmf of that coil is increased. This increased mmf is sufficient to
mechanically close the normally open contact of the relay. This relay contact actually closes
and completes the DC trip coil circuit and hence the trip coil is energized. The mmf of the trip
coil initiates the mechanical movement of the tripping mechanism of the circuit breaker and
ultimately the circuit breaker is tripped to isolate the fault.
CTs CB

Protected
Control Equipment

Relay

VTs

Figure 3: Typical 3 phase AC connection of a set of phase and ground relays for the
protection of an AC power system

4.2 Understand Differential Relay

4.2.1 Describe types of differential relay

A differential relay is defined as the relay that operates when the phasor difference of two or
more similar electrical quantities exceeds a predetermined value.

Thus a current differential relay operates on the result of comparison between the phase angle
and magnitudes of the currents entering and leaving the system to be protected. Under normal
conditions, the two current are equal in the phase and magnitude hence the relay inoperative.
But under faults conditions, this condition no longer exist. The relay is connected in such a
manner that the difference between current entering and current leaving flows through the
operating coil. If the difference current exceed a pre-set value then the relay operates and
opens the circuit breaker.

Almost any type of relay when connected in a certain way can be made to operate as
differential relay.

There are two fundamental systems of differential or balanced protection

i. Current balance differential relay protection
ii. Voltage balance differential relay protection

4.2.2 Explain the operating principle of differential relay

a. Current differential relay

a) Justify basic structure

Figure 4: current balance protection

a) Explain the operation principle

Under normal operation, the alternator winding carries a normal current of 1000A.
Then the current in the two secondary of current transformer (CT) are equal. These
current merely circulate between the two CT’s and no current will flow through
differential relays. Relay remains inoperative. If a ground fault occurs on the
alternator winding as shown in figure X, the two secondary current will not be equal
and the currents flows through the operating coil of the relay, causing the relay to
operate. The amount of current flow through the relay will depends upon the way
the fault is being fed.

Figure 5: Amount of current flow through the relay will depend depend the way the
fault is being fed
b. Voltage differential relay

a) Justify basic structure

Figure 6: voltage balance protection

b) Explain the operation principle

Under healthy condition, equal current (I1=I2) in both primary windings. Therefore,
the secondary voltages of the two transformers are balance against each other and
no current will follow through the relay operating coil. When a fault occurs in the
protected zone, the currents in the two primaries will differ from another i.e. (I1≠I2)
and their secondary voltage will no longer be in balance. This voltage difference will
cause a current to flow through the operating coil of the relay which closes the trip
circuit.

4.3 Understand Static Relay

4.3.1 Explain the basic and requirement of static relay

The conventional relay type of electromagnet relays been be replaced by static relay
which essentially consists of electronic circuitry to develop all those characteristic which
are achieved by moving parts in an electromagnetic relay. It is a relay in which
measurement or comparison of electrical quantities is made in a static network which is
designed to give an output signal when a threshold condition is passed which operates
a tripping device.

4.3.2 Discuss the advantages of static relay

Advantages of static relay:

 Low weigh
 Arc less switching
 Static relay burden is less than electromagnetic type of relays. Hence error is
less
 Fast response
 Long life
 Less power consumption: the burden on the measuring instruments
decreases and their accuracy increase
 More accurate compared to electromechanical relay.
 The sensitivity is high: the relay amplifies the input signal
 The moving parts are absent, maintenance less
 The testing and servicing required is less
4.3.3 Explain the static relay circuit connection using a suitable diagram

Figure 7: Static Relay Circuit Connection

 The essential components of static relays are shown in figure .the output of the CT
and PT are not suitable for static components so they are brought down to suitable
level by auxiliary CT and PT. then auxiliary CT output is given to rectifier.
 Rectifier the relaying quantity ie, the output from a CT or PT or a transducer.
 The rectified output is supplied to measuring unit comprising of comparators, level
detectors, filters, Logic circuits.
 The output is actuated when the dynamic input (i.e the relaying quantity) attains the
threshold value. This output of the measuring unit is amplified by amplifier and fed to
the output unit device, which is usually an electromagnetic one.
 The output unit energizes the trip coil only when relay operates.

The input of the current transformer is connected to the transmission line, and their output is
given to the rectifier. The rectifier was rectifying the input signal and pass it to the relaying
measuring unit.
The rectifying measuring unit has the comparators, level detector and the logic circuit. The
output signal from relaying unit obtains only when the signal reaches the threshold value. The
output of the relaying measuring unit acts as an input to the amplifier.
The amplifier amplifies the signal and gives the output to the output devices. The output device
activates the trip coil only when the relay operates. The output is obtained from the output
devices only when the measured has the well-defined value. The output device is activated
and gives the tripping command to the trip circuit.
The static relay only gives the response to the electrical signal. The other physical quantities
like heat temperature etc. is first converted into the analogue and digital electrical signal and
then act as an input for the relay.

Working of Static Relay

 The output of CTs/PTs/Transducers is rectified in rectifier.
 The rectified output is fed into the relay measuring unit
 The output of measuring unit is then amplified in amplifier
 The amplified output is given ti the output device, which energizes the trip-coil, when
the relay operates.
4.4 Understand Distance Protection
4.4.1 Explain basic principle of distance protection

A distance or impedance relay is operates whenever the impedance of the protected

zone falls below a pre-determined value. The relay will operate when the ratio V/I is
less than a pre-determined value.

Figure 8: Basic principle of impedance relay

The voltage element of the relay is excited through a potential transformer (PT) from the line
to be protected. The current element of the relay is excited from a current transformer (CT) in
series with the line. The portion AB of the line is the protected zone. Under normal operating
condition, the impedance of the protected zone is Z L. The relay is so designed that is closes it
contact whenever impedance of the protected section falls below pre-determined value.

Fault occurs at point F1 in the protected zone. The impedance Z will be less than ZL and hence
the relay operates. Fault occur beyond the protected zone, F2, the impedance Z will be greater
than ZL and the relay does not operate.

There are two types of distance relays in use for the protection of power supply
a) Definite-distance relay which operates instantaneously for fault up to a pre-
determined distance from the relay
b) Time-distance relay which the time of operation is proportional to the distance of
fault from the relay point. A fault nearer to the relay will operate it earlier than a fault
farther away from the relay.

4.4.2 Discuss definite – distance type impedance relay

It consists of a pivoted beam F and two electromagnets energised respectively by a current

and voltage transformer in the protected circuit. The armature of the two electromagnets are
mechanically couple to the beam on the opposite sides of the fulcrum. The beam is provided
with a bridging piece for the trip contacts. The relay is so designed that the torque produced
by the two electromagnets are in the opposite direction.
 Figure 9: Construction of a define-distance type impedance relay

Operation principle
Under normal operation conditions, the pull due to the voltage element is greater than that of
the current element. Therefore, the relay contacts remain open. When a fault occurs in the
protected zone, the applied voltage to the relay decreases whereas the current increases. The
ratio of voltage to current i.e. impedance falls below the pre-determined value. Therefore, the
pull of the current element will exceed than due to the voltage element and this causes the
beam to tilt in a direction to close the trip contacts. The pull of the current elements is
proportional to the voltage element.

4.5 Analyze related formula in calculation for relay operating time

4.5.1 Determine protection relay important terms (Pick-up current, Current setting,
Plug-Setting Multiplier/P.S.M, Time Setting Multiplier/T.S.M)

i. Pick-up current – minimum current in the relay coil at which the relay starts to operate
ii. Current setting – value of current relay start to operate
iii. Plug-Setting Multiplier/P.S.M – the ratio of fault current in relay coil to pick-up current
iv. Time Setting Multiplier/T.M.S – provided with control to adjust the time of operation

4.5.2 Find the relay operating time by using graph or formula

Pick-up current = Rated secondary current x Current setting

Pick-up current in relay coil

P.S.M = ---------------------------------
Pick-up current

= Fault current in relay coil

----------------------------------------
Rated secondary current CT x Current setting
 Figure 10: Curve between time operation and plug setting multiplier

Related formula in solving calculation of operating time relay using graph.

Example 1:
Determine the time of operating of overcurrent relay having a current setting of 125% and a
time multiplier of 0.6 connected to supply circuit through a 400 / 5 current transformer when
the circuit carries a fault current of 4000A.

Solution:
Rated secondary current of CT = 5A

Pick-up current = 125% x 5 = 6.25A

4 000 x 5
Fault current in relay coil = ----------
400
= 50A
50
PSM = -------- =8
6.25
From graf ( Figure 10) , the time operation is 3.5s

Actual operating time = time x TMS

= 3.5 x 0.6
= 2.1 sec

Related formula in solving calculation of operating time relay using formula.

𝐾
t = (𝑃𝑆𝑀 )−1

Where :- K= 0.14 and  = 0.02.

If this relay have current setting of 150% and a time multiplier setting (TMS) of 0.6 which are
connected to a supply circuit which flows through a 500/5A current transformer when the
circuit carries a fault current of 4000A, calculate the actual operating time of this relay.

Minimum relay coil current/ pickup current = 5 x 150% = 7.50A

4000 5
Fault current in relay coil = 500 = 4000 x 500 = 40 A
5
40
PSM = = 5.33
7.5
[0.14]
Characteristic time relay = = 4.12𝑠 where K= 0.14 and  = 0.02.
𝑃𝑆𝑀 0.02−1

Actual operating time = 4.12 x 0.6 = 2.47s

4.5.3 Determine relay settings to protect various system configuration

Determine TSM (Time Setting Multiple) at A and B by taking the discrimination time (DT)
equal to 0.6 second and TSM at C is already set equals to 0.06. The characteristics of the
relays are as given below. Use the relay characteristic equation, where k=014 and =0.02.

At C
Zc = j1.64 + j 2.4 +j3 = j7.04
IF=220/7.04= 31.25A
I2 = 220/110 x 31.25 = 62.5A
RSI = CT x PS/100 = 7.5 * 100/100 = 7.5
PSM = FC / RSI = 62.5/7.5 = 8.33
t = K / ((PSM) - 1) = 0.14 / (( 8.33)0.02 -1) = 3.23
ROT = RCOT x TSM = 3.23 x 0.06 = 0.194s

At B
ROTB = ROTC + DT = 0.6+0.194 = 0.794 s
RSI = CT x PS/100 = 7.5 * 100/100 = 7.5
IF = 31.25A
PSM = FC / RSI = 31.25/7.5 = 4.17
t = K / ((PSM) - 1) = 0.14 / (( 4.17)0.02 -1) = 4.833
TSM = ROT/RCOT = 0.794/4.833 = 0.164
ZB = j 1.64 + j 2.4 = j 4.04
I1=220/4.04= 54.455A
PSM = FC / RSI = 54.455/7.5 = 7.26
t = K / ((PSM) - 1) = 0.14 / (( 7.26)0.02 -1) = 3.462
ROT = RCOT x TSM = 3.462 x 0.06 = 0.208s
At A
ROTA = ROTB + DT = 0.6+0.208 = 0.808 s
RSI = CT x PS/100 = 10 * 125/100 = 12.5
IF = 54.455A
PSM = FC / RSI = 54.455/12.5 = 4.356
t = K / ((PSM) - 1) = 0.14 / ((4.356)0.02 -1) = 4.69
TSM = ROT/RCOT = 0.808/4.69 = 0.172s