Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter provides the fundamental concepts, theories and studies that directly impact

the present study, which is about the viability of hydrated lime coagulant with HPHT filter press

in dewatering water based drilling fluids without the addition of a dedicated flocculant. Citations

will enrich the chapter, including foreign-related literature and studies.

Foreign Literatures and Studies

Companies that practice Dewatering Drilling Fluids

Dewatering drilling fluids is a common practice in the oil and gas industry, and

numerous companies, both domestic and international, are involved in this process.

Companies like Halliburton practice dewatering drilling fluids using ENVIRO-FLOC

dewatering systems. Accordingly, “The ENVIRO-FLOC Drilling Fluid Dewatering

System uses flocculation and coagulation to remove suspended solids and fluid additives

from water-based fluids, allowing the treated water to be recycled at the rig site as drill

water or wash water.” (Eco-Logic Environmental Engineering Incorporated, 2017).

Another company that practices dewatering is M-I SWACO and EcoArctic (A

Schlumberger Company). Accordingly, “M-I SWACO and EcoArctica developed an

integrated technical solution that focused on liquid-waste reduction, based on 15 years of

work experience in the region. After detailed technical discussions and analysis, it was
decided to install a dewatering unit as the first part of the waste minimization initiative.”

(SLB, 2010).

Dewatering is an efficient method for minimizing waste volume and facilitating

water recycling due to its ability to reduce waste volume and enable resource recovery.

Baker Hughes is a company that also practices dewatering techniques and provides fluid

environmental services. Accordingly, “FES dewatering units are designed to minimize

waste volumes and allow maximum recycling of the water phase back into the drilling

operation.” (Baker Hughes, 2020).

Dewatering is also quite an efficient process to facilitate as it removes colloidal

particles in the drilling mud; as too many colloidal particles tend to reduce penetration

rates, reduce filter cake quality, cause the drill string to stick, and eventually lead to

troublesome downhole in situ by increasing torque and drag. Accordingly, “NOV

FluidControl provides dewatering equipment and services which can remove almost all

colloidal particles, producing nearly clear water by using chemical treatment (polymer), a

manifold system and a centrifuge.” (NOV, 2015)

For particles less than 5 microns (µm), dewatering is a common consideration as

chemically configured dewatering systems have proved to be efficient in the task of

removing colloidal particles less than 5 µm. Accordingly, “Drilling Mud Dewatering Unit

provides a process of chemically enhanced configuration to remove the fine solids less

than 5 microns from the water based drilling fluids.” (GN Solids Control, 2023)
 Dewatering systems are often viewed as a cost-effective solution for separating

solids and liquids, specifically separating solid wastes from water in drilling mud waste.

Accordingly, “The Derrick HI-G® Dewatering Machine provides the most cost-effective

solution to handling fine solids separation. Derrick’s HI-G Dewatering Machine consists

of a cluster of 4″ hydrocyclones mounted over a high G performance linear motion

screening unit.” (Derrick Corporation, 2023).

Local Literature and Studies

Dewatering drilling fluids were also being practiced in the Philippines, companies such

as (1) GTI Consultancy Services and (2) SGS Philippines Incorporated. GTI Consultancy

Services provides R&D (Research and Development) for Integrated Fluids services particularly

in the Oil and Gas Industry (GTI Services, 2020). Additionally, SGS Philippines Incorporated

provides services on advanced process control and developed MET (Modular Expert

Technology) that applies dewatering that is beneficial to the Oil and Gas Industry. (SGS, 2023).

Dewatering Process

In the research of dewatering drilling fluids that aims to separate the solids and

liquids from the drilling fluid that has been used in drilling operations using chemical

reagents and mechanical separation have led to a patented invention on dewatering

systems; by the applicant Hruskoci (2006); coagulation, flocculation, and/or mechanical

separation are frequently used in dewatering waste management systems to clean drilling

fluid. Furthermore, the addition of chemical reagents such as (1) coagulant and (2)

flocculant are necessary to separate the colloidal particles from the drilling fluid.
 According to ECO – LOGIC (2017), "Coagulation and flocculation are processes

used to remove suspended and fluid additives from water-based drilling fluids. Finely

dispersed solids – colloids – suspended in water are stabilized by negative electric

charges on their surfaces, causing them to repel each other. Since this prevents these

charged particles from colliding to form larger masses, called flocs, they do not settle. To

assist in the removal of colloidal particles from suspension, chemical coagulation and

flocculation are required. These processes are a combination of physical and chemical

procedures. Chemicals are mixed with water to promote the aggregation of the suspended

solids into particles large enough to be settled or be removed".

Coagulation

Coagulation is generally the first stage in the dewatering process (Emery et al.,

2018). This involves the addition of chemicals to water causing colloidal particles within

the water to stick or bond together when contact is made. Mixing is utilized during

coagulation to provide a rapid and uniform dispersion of the chemicals and also increase

the opportunity for particle to particle contact . Additionally, Coagulation emerges as a

key solution to these challenges. By introducing coagulants into drilling fluids, the

destabilization of colloidal particles and the formation of micro flocs occur (Northcott et

al., 2003).

Coagulation has long been used in the industry, an oil field “Htaukshabin-Kanni

Petroleum Oil-Field, Central Myanmar Basin (Minbu Basin), Magway Region, middle

Myanmar” has been around since 1978 with its economic limit estimated at 2038 - and is
no exception. Lwin et al. acquired samples of the drilling fluids in the field for

coagulation treatment. The fluid was diluted with water (H2O), its pH neutralized with a

hydrochloric acid solution, then it was fed into a stirred-tank reactor (STR), next a

coagulant solution (poly-aluminum chloride PAC) was added into the mixture, that

mixture was then stirred at 348 rpm for 12 minutes with a flocculator inside of the STR

then left to sediment for 3 days at which the solids were coagulated and the water

decanted. (Myint et al., 2014)

Coagulation is most often accomplished with alum (aluminum sulfate

Al₂(SO₄)₃), ferric chloride (FeCl3), ferric sulfate (Fe2(SO4)3), lime (Ca(OH)2) or a liquid

polymer coagulant, organic and /or inorganic, according to Emery et al. (2018). However,

Besides the large amount of sludge produced, high levels of aluminum remaining in the

treated water has raised concern on public health (Driscoll et al., 1995). McLachlan

(1995) discovered that intake of large quantities of alum salt may cause Alzheimer

disease.

Advancements in coagulating drilling fluids have led to the development of the

application of chitosan as a potent coagulant for bentonite suspension. Furthermore, the

application of chitosan in different conditions is also conducted in kaolinite suspension.

However, chitosan failed to form aggregation with kaolinite. Additionally, bentonite

particles were added to aid the coagulation effects of the kaolinite suspension (Huang et

al., 1995).
 As a pretreatment (coagulant) for polyacrylamide flocculant for dewatering oil

sand tailings, Hydrated Lime demonstrated significant improvements when compared to

none at all, with significant benefits such as improved filtrate water quality, enhanced

solids capture, and nearly eliminating turbidity at low soluble calcium concentrations.

Additionally, the lime coagulant outperformed alum and gypsum coagulants by showing

faster solids settings rate and achieving higher solids capture volume. Looking at the

numbers; with the variables: low absorbance at 750nm (turbidity, AU, lower is better),

solid settling rate at 0.7 normalized height (faster time is better, s); both lime and alum

coagulants achieve less than 0.1 AU while gypsum only achieved about 0.2 AU at most.

Regarding solids settling rate, both gypsum and alum had poor rates at about 270 seconds

and 84 seconds respectively to reach 0.7 normalized height, while lime only needed about

4 seconds to reach that height.

Coagulation has been a staple among dewatering techniques in the petroleum

engineering industry. Dozens of companies utilize this method for separating solids from

liquids for its efficiency in its primary function. Ergo, as coagulation received widespread

recognition in the industry, one would not be surprised that there would be emerging

technologies for maximizing optimal efficiency.

Flocculation

Dewatering drilling fluids using flocculation is an essential process in the field of

drilling operations, particularly in the oil and gas industry. This part of the process

involves the application of chemical agents, known as flocculants, to promote the

aggregation of fine solid particles suspended in the drilling fluid, thereby facilitating their

separation from the liquid phase. Flocculation generally follows coagulation and can be

described as a chemical and physical bridging or agglomeration of the coagulated

particles.

Accordingly the flocculation process involves gently mixing the particles until

distinct, suspended flocs are formed (Emery et al., 2018); if centrifuges are used, it is

possible to remove solid particles greater than 2 μm (Liu, 2006; Wang et al., 1998).

However, centrifuges do not only remove useless solid contaminants but also useful solid

components such as barite and mud-forming clays. Hence centrifuges are not used

frequently on site (Mitchell, 1995). Since useless clay particles smaller than 2–8 μm

cannot be efficiently removed from drilling fluids by mechanical methods, operators have

turned to chemical methods. (Hart and Snyder, 2006) developed a mobile treatment

process and apparatus that provides chemical precipitation and filtration to treat the

drilling fluid waste for reuse.

Flocculation, as a key component of the dewatering process, has emerged as an

ideal and indispensable technique in various industries, particularly within the context of

wastewater treatment, environmental conservation, and resource optimization. The

ongoing quest for enhanced efficiency and sustainability has driven continuous

advancements in flocculation methods and technology, making it a cornerstone of

modern dewatering processes.

 The Authors (Landis et al., 2013) introduces a flocculation and dewatering system

for recycling and reconditioning drilling fluids. In the same way, this invention involves

additional equipment and modification of the DFCS (Drilling Fluids Circulating System)

involving considerable cost and time. Although many technologies and additives have

been developed to remove unwanted materials, including nanoparticles in wastewater,

such as chitosan (Divakaran and Pillai, 2004; Zeng et al., 2008), polyacrylamide-acrylate

copolymer (PAM) and polyethylene oxide (PEO) (Mpofu et al., 2004), the DNA-

Chitosan complex (Zinchenko et al., 2013), and others (Du et al., 2017; Popowich et al.,

2015; Yang et al., 2013; Zhu et al., 2015), few of these additives can be used to treat

drilling fluids because most can only be used in a certain pH range and do not resist

alkalis, salts, and other additives in drilling fluids.

Thus, there is a need to develop an economical method for on-site treatment of

drilling fluids that would allow the recirculation or reuse of these fluids after treatment.

To address the above-mentioned issues associated with the removal of solid particles

from drilling fluids, especially submicron particles, in this study, a cationic

polyelectrolyte flocculant, CMC-g-DMDAAC was prepared through the grafting reaction

of carboxymethyl chitosan (CMC) with diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride

(DMDAAC).

The authors (Peng, Shuanglei et al., 2017) found that a prior study by Huang et al.

(1995), which applied Chitosan to dewater kaolinite mud, was unsuccessful in achieving
desired results. To compensate for the inadequacy of the previous study the novel

flocculant CMC-g-DMDAAC was synthesized by grafting diallyl dimethyl ammonium

chloride (DMDAAC) onto carboxymethyl chitosan (CMC). CMC-g DMDAAC was

tested on different drilling fluids such as (1) Bentonite and (2) Kaolinite. CMC-g-

DMDAAC shows remarkable flocculation performance for the removal of useless solids

from drilling fluids and exhibits a low optimal dosage, a wide flocculation window, and

low pH sensitivity.

Hydrated Lime was used as a flocculating agent in wastewater treatment by the

authors (Awodiji & Onyechere, 2020). In this study two water samples were used;

Sample A was obtained from domestic sewage and Sample B was sourced from

stormwater runoff from drains. However, the coagulants used was Aluminum sulphate

(Al2SO4)3 is very acidic and lowers the pH.

The inclusion of Hydrated Lime, as a flocculating agent significantly increased

the pH of the wastewater, sample A and B. It was observed that the use of hydrated lime

as a flocculant in treating wastewater sample A produced significantly better results in

terms of turbidity when compared to water in sample B. Treating water using alum and

hydrated lime proved to be more effective than using alum and sodium hydroxide.

Dewatering using filtration (Filter Press) method

The oil and gas sector relies on drilling mud treatment to ensure that drilling mud

can be properly reused or disposed of by removing solids and contaminants.

 A crucial component of a drilling fluid is filtration control, particularly when

drilling into permeable formations when the hydrostatic pressure is higher than the

formation pressure. A drilling fluid must generate a filter cake as soon as possible in

order to effectively reduce fluid loss while being thin and erodible enough to let product

flow into the wellbore during production (Jarrett and Clapper 2010).

Fluid loss to the formation occurs when the mud's permeability allows fluid to

enter via the pore spaces (usually water and soluble chemicals). Mud solids build up on

the wellbore's face when fluid is lost. The visible filter cake made from the drilling fluid's

solid components reduces the amount of liquid lost as a result of filtering. Both dynamic

and static filtrations take place while the mud is moving, respectively. When the rate of

filter cake degradation from cycling matches the rate of filter cake deposition, dynamic

filtration approaches a constant rate. On the other hand, static filtering leads to a

thickening of the cake over time, which reduces fluid loss over time (Bakhtiar M., 2015).

A filter press is a type of industrial filtration equipment that is widely used for

drilling mud filtering in a variety of industries, including the oil and gas industry. One of

its primary roles is to separate solid from liquid; in this case, it does so to remove

impurities and solid particles from drilling mud, a crucial step in the drilling process.

Mechanical pressure is used to push the drilling mud through the filter plates and cloths.

As the mud passes through the filter cloths, it is cleaned up and left behind by pollutants

and solid particles. Solids in the mud form a filter cake on the filter cloth that keeps

accumulating as additional mud is pushed through the filter press.

 An essential component of keeping drilling mud efficient is the removal of solid

particles and contaminants that build up throughout the drilling operation. Diverse

filtering systems are used for this, each designed to assure the drilling mud's

performance, quality, and environmental compliance.

The viscosity of the filtrate, filter cloth resistance, and cake resistance (thickness

and area) are some variables that may have an impact on the filtration rate ( Li et al.,

2019; Mamghaderi et al., 2018). Low moisture filter cake would result from high applied

pressure. The flow rate of filtration is decreased by an increase in filtrate viscosity, filter

cloth resistance, and cake thickness, which may result in a high-moisture filter cake (Doi

et al., 2023).

LPLT Filter Press with Hydrated Lime

In the research of Li et al. (2018), a modified Standard Resistance to Filtration

(SRF) test was used to assess the filtration resistance of treated fluid fine tailings (FFT).

The main purpose of the modification was to eliminate, or at least limit the cracking of

the filter cake, in which that cracking results in an abrupt interruption of the filtration

process, which proves as a detriment to optimal filtration. The modification entailed a

teflon cylindrical piston to press the FFT, drived by the pressurized gas in the LPLT filter

press. The modified filter press indeed resulted in the elimination of the cracking

phenomenon of the filter cake.

 Among lime, gypsum and polymer-treated FFT samples, the lime-treated sample

proved to give the best filtration performance, with 150mL at 90 minutes, with a more

compact filter cake; compared to gypsum, with 70mL at 90 minutes; and poly-treated,

with 130mL at 90 minutes. Thus, the paper concluded the addition of hydrated lime

would be a potential benefit in fluid fine tailings (drilling fluid to be dewatered)

applications.

Effects of waste discharge of drilling fluids on the environment

According to the API (American Petroleum Institute) Survey of Onshore and

Coastal Exploration and Production Operations for 1995, only onshore wells in the

United States produced roughly 150 million barrels of drilling waste (ICF Consulting,

2000). The amount of waste created by the oil and gas exploration and production

business in terms of volume, after producing water, is dominated by drilling wastes

(Ismail et al., 2017). The impact of hazardous components released by oil well drill

cuttings on soil and aquatic ecosystems has not received much attention in research

(Magalhes et al., 2014; Purser and Thomsen, 2012), the subject however, drilling waste

discharge – may potentially have an impact on the marine life; the environmental effects

from drilling operations are also a possibility such as the release of drilling waste,

especially drill cuttings, to the seabed, has the most negative effect on the environment

from drilling operations (Ismail et al., 2017).

 Drilling cuttings and drilling fluid waste are the two main byproducts of the

drilling process, and they can be disposed of in one of three ways: offshore disposal,

onshore disposal, or drill cutting re-injections (Onwukwe and Nwakaudu, 2012). Both the

land and aquatic habitats are contaminated by the discharge of oil and gas drilling fluids

generated water and cutting. These waste products may include trace levels of

contaminants that, if bio-accumulated or -concentrated, might harm organisms that come

into contact with them.

There are studies showing that discharged heavy metals (i.e. antimony, arsenic,

barium, lead, mercury, nickel, and vanadium) contaminate the environment and heavily

affect the growth rate of flora and fauna in affected regions (Sil et al., 2012). Adverse

environmental effects can potentially be a result from improper drilling waste

management, especially from the discharging sector of the operation. The scale of the

damage however depends on the type, dosage, and exposure duration of the harmful

chemicals on the environment (Sil et al., 2012). According to Nediljka et al. (2013),

drilling fluid discharge directly can have three negative consequences. (a) direct toxic

effects of drilling waste; (b) suffocating creatures; and (c) anoxic conditions brought on

by microbial breakdown of the waste's organic components.

There are case studies conducted regarding the demonstrated toxicity of drilling

waste to the marine fauna (Gbadebo et al., 2010). A laboratory experiment was done for a

case study on the aquatic fish population to determine the drilling fluid and base oil

hazardous concentration for fish throughout a 4-day period. With rising chemical
concentrations, mortality rates rose confirming that the compounds in drilling fluids are

poisonous to the fish population (Sil et al., 2012). A study by Soegianto et al. (2008) also

demonstrates how drilling fluid affects tiger prawns. The outcomes showed that the

employed drilling fluids' 96-hour LC50 ranged between 30,740 and 78,271 ppm SPP, is

excessive by Indonesian standards for toxicity limits. The conclusion is that mortality

generally rose as drilling waste concentrations increased.

Based on prior experience and advancements in drilling technology and

operations in the region, each host country's and convention's requirements are unique.

Additionally, global and regional drilling activities are covered by conventions like:

Malaysian Regulation and Guidelines, OSPAR Convention, MEMAC Convention, and

Barcelona Convention. In a study by Ismail, et al. (2017), the researchers compiled and

tabulated the guidelines of each convention which indicated that amongst OBDF, SBDF,

and WBDF – only WBDF is allowed for reuse and sea discharge, albeit in a regulated

manner.

According to current regulatory requirements, wastes, including spent drilling

fluids, are intended to be managed, collected, processed, stored, transported, and disposed

of in a safe and acceptable environment. According to Siddique et al. (2017), after being

dumped on the ground, the liquid portion of seeps through the soil, killing all living

things inside and contaminating groundwater. For drilling waste cleanup and

management, a variety of waste management techniques are utilized, including

subsurface injection, land application, biological processes, and thermal treatment

(Furukawa et al., 2017). For appropriate waste management to occur, API (American

Petroleum Institute) advises that a system and strategy be provided (API, 1997): A waste

management strategy should offer a region-specific solid waste plan; for any waste

produced during E&P activities, provide appropriate management advice; 3 be prepared

for fieldwork in writing; be utilized to guarantee adherence to regulations and trash

management that is ecologically responsible; create a framework for training,

assessment, monitoring, and pollution prevention initiatives; lastly, be examined and

updated when new procedures and choices are found on a regular basis.

Chloride discharge limits

Chloride (Cl) exists in natural water as salts of sodium, calcium, and

magnesium. Cl− is prevalent in natural water sources, being found in nearly all

surface waters. The International Lake and Marsh Institute defines water with a

salinity level surpassing 500 mg/L (0.5‰) as semi-saline. In freshwater, chloride

concentrations, measured as Cl−, are generally regarded as high when they exceed

200 mg/L (0.2‰). Its concentration varies significantly, ranging from 10 to 20

mg/L in river water to as high as 19,000 mg/L in seawater (Hong, Y. et al., 2023).

Excessive concentration causes bad impact on the environment, harmful effects of

chloride ions particularly in freshwater ecosystems, are widely recognized by

international organizations; this includes harming aquatic life, disrupting aquatic

ecosystems, and contaminating drinking water sources.

 According to World Health Organization (WHO), there is no specific

separate guideline value for chloride ions but recommends a guideline value of

250 mg/L for total dissolved solids (TDS) in drinking water. In this 1993

assessment by WHO, Chloride ions contribute to TDS, and their levels should be

monitored in the context of overall water quality. While these international

guidelines provide general context, specific regulations and permissible levels for

chloride ions in the environment can vary by country and region. It's essential to

consult local environmental agencies and regulatory bodies for precise

information on acceptable chloride levels in specific locations. (2003)

Calcium hydroxide discharge limits

Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2, on the other hand, has an acceptable

concentration in treated water for human consumption and is regulated by

different countries and organizations. In the United States, the Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA) has set a Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) of 75

milligrams per liter (mg/L) for total calcium, which includes calcium hydroxide

(1986). The World Health Organization (WHO) does not specify a separate

guideline value for calcium hydroxide but recommends a guideline value of 200

mg/L for total calcium in drinking water (2006).

 It's important to note that the potential harm of calcium hydroxide in

treated water depends on various factors, including the individual's overall diet,

health condition, and exposure duration. Always follow local regulations and

guidelines to ensure the safety of drinking water.

Local Regulatory Standards

The Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) of the

Philippines, pursuant to the Clean Water Act of 2004 and Executive Order 192,

established the Water Quality Guidelines (WQG) and General Effluent Standards (EGS).

According to this Administrative Order, Drilling Fluid is classified as Water Body Class

A, which is a source of water that require conventional chemical treatment like

coagulation, sedimentation, filtration and disinfection to meet the latest Philippine

National Standards for Drinking Water (PNSDW). In Table 3, DENR indicated that the

PNSDW for Class A has to have no more than 250 mg/L of Chloride and a pH 6.5-8.5.

Due to this, the proponents