SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

CHAPTER 1: SOCIAL FORCES AND HOW THEY IMPINGE ON THE WORK OF SCIENTIST
AS SOCIAL ENTITIES

 Any effective urge or impulse that leads to social action. Specifically, a social force is a
consensus on the part of a sufficient number of the members of society to bring about
social action or social change of some sort.
 The social forces - are the typical basic drives, or motives, which lead to the
fundamental types of association and group relationship.
CHAPTER 2: THEORIES & CONCEPTS OF ST
Science - refers to the body of knowledge that has been produced and validated by
systematic process of inquiry.
Technology - is a product of invention.

- Translation of scientific knowledge into machines, tools, designs, methods and

processes that are used by human being in their practical endeavors
Roger Posadas PhD

- Science is concerned with “know why”

o –seeks answer to our questions about the natural world.
- Technology is concerned with “know-how”

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BASIC RESEARCH AND APPLIED RESEARCH

BASIC RESEARCH, OR FUNDAMENTAL APPLIED RESEARCH

RESEARCH
- a type of investigation focused on - refers to scientific study and
improving the understanding of a research that seeks to solve
particular phenomenon, study or practical problems
law of nature. - plays an important role in solving
- examines data to find the everyday problems that can have
unknown and fulfill a sense of an impact on life, work, health,
curiosity and overall well-being.

CHAPTER 3: NATURE OF ST
PRINCIPLES OF PRE-SCIENTIFIC WORLD
ANTHROPOCENTRISM
1. Human beings are at the center of the universe in both physical and spiritual
sense
GEOCENTRISM
2. Earth is the center of the universe.
 3. All beings on earth have their assigned places.
4. Human being is above all other being.
5. Human beings: Special creation of God, lower rank in God
6. The holy is different from the secular and religion has a strong influence on the
minds of human beings.
7. Study of the natural world is not that important
Explanation of the phenomena are based on their causes as well as their effects.

RENAISSANCE

- a period in history and a cultural movement mark in the transition from the Middl e
Ages to modernity, covering the 15th and 16th centuries and characterized by an
effort to revive and surpass the ideas and achievement s of classical antiquity; it
occurred after the crisis of the Late Middle Ages and was associated with great social
change in most fields and disciplines including art , architecture , politics, literature,
exploration and science
Nicolaus Copernicus
The main idea of the solar system was proposed by this Polish astronomer (1473-1543) who
said that " the Sun is the center of the Universe" and made the planets move around it in
perfect circles (in his book entitled, "On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres)
SCIENTIFIC METHOD

- Powerful and most valid mode of discovering truth and knowledge

1. Observation
2. Question
3. Hypothesis
4. Experiment
5. Conclusion
6. Result
MATHEMATICAL

- Its puts value on the quantification as the foundation of analysis.

- Exact science provides certainty, predictability and controlling the natural
phenomena.
- All relationships that exist in the natural world can be presented and abstracted
through a mathematical equation.
ANALYTICAL

- Studying the components and interrelated parts.

- Statistical analysis is the collection and interpretation of data in order to uncover
patterns and trends
- Statistical analysis can be used in situations like gathering research interpretations,
statistical modeling or designing surveys and studies.
EXPERIMENTAL

- Answers to the questions are derived through the practical experiments, where
observations can be made and not through reflections and discussions.
- Established through verification of reality not simply through philosophical
discourses.
- Science has no limits in its scope in the sense that is coverage continues to enlarge
in the course of development.
CHAPTER 4: SCIENCE AS A SOCIAL PRODUCT
1. Entail entrance into a formal system of education.
2. Enters into a post baccalaureate program.
Imbibes the system of values, ethics, rituals and myth that are inherent in particular field.
Scientific knowledge is a product of the work of scientist whose aims to discovers answers to
questions.
CHAPTER 5: THE SCIENTIFIC WORK ETHIC
SCIENTIST

- a person skilled in science and especially natural science

- a scientific investigator

1. Universalism
a. The belief that there is only one truth and there is only one way to establish this
truth is thru scientific method.
2. Member of a community
a. Membership in professional scientific organizations.
3. Strong sense of skepticism
a. They suspend opinion and will only express when all data are collected and
analyzed through neutral and objective process in accordance with the standards
of logic and rationality.
What does scientific detachment mean?

- They uphold the virtue of neutrality and objectiveness in their research

EMPIRICALPOSITIVISM

- Set of rules that define the production of knowledge and truth about human societies.
- Empirical Positivism, also known simply as Positivism, is a philosophical and
scientific approach that emerged in the late 19th century and was particularly
influential in the early 20th century. It emphasizes the importance of empirical
observation and the scientific method in acquiring knowledge about the world.
Key principles and features of Empirical Positivism include:
 1. Empiricism: Positivists assert that the only valid source of knowledge is sensory
experience and empirical observation. They argue that knowledge should be based on
observable facts and evidence rather than abstract or metaphysical concepts.
2. Scientific Method: Positivists advocate for the use of the scientific method in the pursuit
of knowledge. This method involves formulating hypotheses, conducting experiments or
observations, and drawing conclusions based on empirical data. They believe that this
approach ensures objectivity and reliability in acquiring knowledge.
3. Verification Principle: A central tenet of Empirical Positivism is the verification principle,
which asserts that meaningful statements must be empirically verifiable or logically
necessary. Statements that cannot be verified through sensory experience or logical
analysis are considered meaningless.
4. Rejection of Metaphysics: Empirical Positivists are highly critical of metaphysical
claims, religious dogmas, and any form of knowledge that cannot be subjected to
empirical scrutiny. They argue that metaphysical statements lack empirical content and,
therefore, have no place in scientific discourse.
5. Reductionism: Positivists often adopt a reductionist approach, seeking to reduce
complex phenomena to simpler, observable components. This reductionist stance aims
to make scientific theories more precise and empirically testable.
6. Unity of Science: Empirical Positivism promotes the idea of a unity of science,
suggesting that all scientific disciplines should adhere to a common methodological
framework. This interdisciplinary approach aims to create a coherent body of knowledge.
7. Skepticism of Normative Ethics: Positivists are often skeptical of normative ethical
claims, arguing that ethical statements cannot be grounded in empirical facts. Instead,
they advocate for descriptive ethics, which focuses on the empirical study of ethical
behavior. While Empirical Positivism had a significant influence on the development of
logical positivism and the philosophy of science, it also faced criticism and underwent
several modifications over time. Logical positivism, for instance, added the idea of
language analysis and the verification principle in a stricter form.

REALITIES THAT LIMIT/CHALLENGE VALIDITY OF E-P

1. There are hidden structures in society that escape observations. - (influenced by biases
of observer)
2. Is not necessarily neutral.
3. The externality of the expertise may not necessarily lead to a better analysis of a human
condition.
RADICAL EPISTEMOLOGY
1. Radical approach to doing a social science
2. Recognizes the political nature of production of knowledge and considers knowledge
and truth as produced in the context of a relation of domination that exist in society.
3. To produce knowledge and truth not for their own sake but on the context of challenging
established truth and knowledge
Radical epistemology
  a philosophical approach that challenges traditional notions of knowledge and truth. It
seeks to question, deconstruct, and sometimes overthrow established epistemological
frameworks and assumptions.
 This approach is often associated with postmodernism and various critical theories.
Key ideas and characteristics of radical epistemology include:
1. Epistemic Relativism: Radical epistemologists often argue that knowledge and truth
are not objective or universal but are instead socially constructed and context-
dependent. They emphasize the role of power, culture, and language in shaping what is
considered knowledge.
2. Critique of Authority: Radical epistemology challenges traditional sources of authority,
such as experts, institutions, and established knowledge systems. It questions the
legitimacy of these sources and calls for a more democratic and inclusive approach to
knowledge production.
3. Deconstruction: Radical epistemology often involves deconstructing dominant
discourses and narratives to reveal hidden power structures and biases. This process
aims to expose the limitations and contradictions within established knowledge systems.
4. Intersectionality: Radical epistemology frequently incorporates intersectionality, a
concept that recognizes how multiple social categories (e.g., race, gender, class)
intersect to shape one's experiences and knowledge. It highlights the importance of
considering these intersections in understanding epistemic privilege and oppression.
5. Language and Discourse: Language is a central focus of radical epistemology. It
explores how language constructs and conveys knowledge and how it can be a tool for
both liberation and domination. The way we talk about and categorize the world
influences our understanding of it.
6. Social Change: Radical epistemology is often linked to social and political activism. It
seeks to challenge and transform oppressive knowledge structures and promote more
inclusive and equitable ways of knowing.
7. Postmodernism: Many radical epistemologists draw from postmodern philosophy,
which rejects grand narratives and metanarratives. Instead, they emphasize the plurality
of perspectives and the idea that there is no single, overarching truth.
8. Critical Theory: Radical epistemology shares common ground with critical theory, which
examines the role of power and ideology in shaping society and knowledge. It's
important to note that radical epistemology is a broad and diverse field, and different
thinkers within it may have varying approaches and perspectives. While it challenges
traditional epistemological frameworks, it has also faced criticism for being overly
skeptical and for potentially undermining the concept of objective knowledge.
Nevertheless, it remains a significant area of philosophical inquiry, particularly in the
context of contemporary debates about knowledge, power, and social justice.
CHAPTER 6: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES ON THE INTERACTIONS OF STS
APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF HX OF SCIENCE
INTERNALIST

 Holding that a particular mental phenomenon, such as motivation or justification, seen as

autonomous and independent from the forces of society.
  Pursue research for its own sake
EXTERNALIST

 Argues that the devt of ST occurs in the context f society, respond to and shaped by
the social, economic, political and ideological forces in society
THEORIES ON THE NATURE OF THE DEVT OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
Dynamic process
1. Has to do with the goal science.
2. Has to do with the nature of the progress of scientific knowledge.

Historical-dialectical

 The prevailing scientific knowledge evolve out of the contradictions of opposing scientific
claims.
KARL POPPER

 Argues that the prevailing scientific knowledge in a given field should only be given
provisional acceptance.
 scientific knowledge can be falsified while religion and myths in their being defined within
the domain of faith and belief cannot be falsified.
 argues that the work of scientist is driven less by the desire to validate existing
knowledge than the desire to falsify existing knowledge and establish a new one.
IMRE LAKATOS

 Philosopher of science argues that scientific knowledge develops as a product of the

contradictions and conflict between competing research programs.
PAUL FEYERABEND

 States that scientific knowledge should always be accorded contrast skepticism.

 Always an object of doubt, should not be seen as absolute truth

THOMAS KUHN

 The philosophy of science is the idea of scientific revolutions.

 Science is governed by a paradign or set of belief, value systems and techniques that
guides the development of knowledge in a particular field.

CHAPTER 7: SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY & THE DEVT PROCESS

TECHNODETERMINISM

 Technological determinism believes that advancements in technology are the moments

that bring on each new phase in human history.
 Society shaped by technological imperative.
 Industrialization achieved through application of technology
 Change is gradual and that is ideal situation is one of balance.
 All societies started as traditional societies characterized by limited production.
 Gradual progress of economy.
 is made as a result of struggle between different social classes rooted in the underlying
economic base.
 Is defined by how its social institutions are organized in relation to the conversion of
nature into products and commodities.

1. Primitive socialism
2. Kinship modes
3. Feudalism
4. Capitalism
5. Communism

 In Marxism, the mode of production is a very important concept. It refers to the way in
which a society is organized so as to produce goods and services. It is composed of two
main aspects: forces of production which refers to the elements used in producing
anything (land, raw material, labor, machinery, and capital) and relations of production
which refers to the relationship between people as well as people’s relationship with the
forces of production out of which crucial decisions regarding what is to be done with the
output is determined.