Philosophy of Science Concepts

GENERAL TERMS:
★ Context of Discovery
★ Context of Justification
★ Fact
★ Falibility
★ Language
★ Valid: if and only if a premise necessitates the conclusion. Reasoning is non-empative
○ something can be valid but not sound
★ Sound: true premise + accept the conclusion + validity
★ True / Truth: content assessment
○ statement can be true
○ argument can not, it is sound
★ Metaphysical: everything that is not testable (ex. does god exist?)

TASK 1: SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE

1. Where Does Good Knowledge Come From?

 Evolution from Personal Authority to Methodological Approaches

o Source of Knowledge: Originates from observation, which helps us understand the
world, achieve certainty, and form a psychological identity.
 Theory-laden vs. Experience-laden knowledge.
 Knowledge is rooted in empirical evidence, validated through scientific
methods.
o What Can Be a True Source of Knowledge?
 God, ancient thinkers, observation, reasoning.
 Science vs. politics, morals, art, religion, and authority figures.
o Historical Context: Knowledge from Personal Authority
 Religious leaders, philosophers, rulers as sources of knowledge and power.
 Example: Aristotle (empiricism) vs. Plato (rationalism).
 Aristotle: Knowledge derived from senses and observation.
 Plato: Knowledge gained through reasoning, arguing senses are
unreliable.
o Rise of Modern Science
 Influence of mathematical and experimental approaches (e.g., alchemy,
hermeticism, Paracelsus).
 Scientific Revolution:
 Galileo, Descartes, and Bacon promoted empirical observation and
experimentation.
 Bacon: Inductive reasoning – observation and experimentation.
 Descartes: Deductive reasoning – ensuring logical consistency.
o Shift in Knowledge Validation:
 Knowledge moved from personal authority to methods of experimentation,
peer review, and reproducibility.
 Contemporary Knowledge: Validated through evidence-based methods.

2. Does Knowledge Have to Be Objective (According to Whom)?

 Commonsense View of Science

 o Truth vs. Fact
o True vs. Arbitrary
o Knowledge vs. Opinion
o Objective vs. Subjective Knowledge
 Defining Knowledge:
o Knowledge = Certain and true belief from a trustworthy authority.
 Belief: Knowledge is a state of mind that must be certain and true, aligning
with reality.
 To transition from belief to knowledge, three criteria must be met:
1. A trustworthy authority must validate the belief.
2. A solid foundation for the belief is needed.
3. Provenance (reliable sources) ensures knowledge is genuine.
 Commonsense Theory:
o Sensation (raw experience/observation) vs. Perception (interpretation of what we
observe).
o The role of communication in shaping knowledge.
o The image of the retina as an example of knowledge formation.

3. Can We Trust Our Observations?

 Relationship Between Observation and What is Actually Observed

o Are "observation statements" truly reflective of what is perceived?
 Unreliability of Observations:
o Observations might be shaped by personal beliefs, social, and cultural influences,
making them subjective.
o Empiricism: Emphasizes deriving knowledge from experience and sensory
perception.
o Positivism: Advocates for knowledge based on observable phenomena and
experience.

4. To What Extent Do Instruments Influence Our Observations?

 Impact of Instruments on Observations:

o Instruments change how and what we observe, enhancing or limiting our sensory
capabilities.
 Public vs. Private Observations:
o When observations shift from private (individual) to public (collective), they undergo
social validation, influencing interpretation and consensus.

5. What Role Do Experiments Play in Knowledge Production?

 Experiments Within Scientific Communities:

o Experiments serve to demonstrate whether theories work or not, and gain social
acceptance within the scientific community.
 Neutrality of Experiments:
o Can experiments objectively test theories without bias?
 o Rationalism: Verification of facts through controlled experimentation.
o Instruments vs. Experiments: Instruments assist in measurements, but experiments
test the theories.
 Science vs. Non-Science:
o The demarcation problem: distinguishing science from pseudoscience.
 Growth of Knowledge and the Problem of Progress:
o The process of knowledge accumulation and how progress is assessed.
 From Observation to Theory:
o Inductive Reasoning: Moving from specific observations to general principles or
laws.
o Status of Theories: Theories are not absolute truths but subject to testing and
revision.
o Logic in Theories: Logical consistency doesn’t guarantee truth (validity does not
equate to truth).

1. What is required for the assessment proposal in this course?

a. Review the online course manual to understand course objectives and assessment
goals
b. Prepare for a discussion on the proposal at the end of the post-discussion

TASK 2: FORM THE FACTS UPWARD

★ Deduction
★ Induction: method of explaining why your hypothesis is justifiable
★ Inductivism
★ Fallacy
★ Scientific laws/ methods
★ Creative imagination
★ Active observation training
★ David Hume

TASK 3: VARIEITIES OF EXPLANATION AND PREDICTION

★ Hempel (addresses the methodological actions through the use of hypothesises)
★ Deductive nomological
★ Inductive statistical
★ Scientific laws
★ Explanation (closer to truth?) vs. prediction (future assumptions)
○ temporal difference
★ Ancient vs scientific explanations
★ Model of explanation
★ Scientific predictions
★ Statistical predictions
★ Human behavior
★ Law covering model
★ Deductive nominal law/ model

TASK 4: ALL LIFE IS PROBLEM SOLVING

 ★ Problem of induction (Hume)
★ Falsification (Popper)
★ Falsifiability
★ Three world theory
★ Deductive method (according to Popper)
★ Science: disproves something
○ science is only good if you can falsify it

TASK 5: PARADIGMS
★ Kuhn (problem solving)
★ Paradigms (come from aristotle logic - line of reasoning transfer treatment of a case to
another case)
○ elements of a paradigm: methodological + metaphysical + strategies
★ Normal science
★ Revolutionary science
★ Puzzle
★ Incommensurability
★ Insulation
★ Platonic: reality is hidden from us
★ Reduction: a phenomena by referring using a concept you aren’t trying to explain (ex. science
is chemistry, chemistry is physics, physics is math)
★ Science is exclusively understood through methodology (according to Popper)
★ Best theory is the uncertain theories (according to Popper)
★ confirmation (accepting an idea - Popper does not agree, Hempel does) vs. cooperation
(Hempel vs. Popper)
★ Adhocance (modifications)
★ Role of socialisation: scientific student developed in socialised society + plays a role in their
fundamental ideologies

TASK 6: AFTER KUHN

★ Imre Lakatos
★ Research programme
★ Protective belt, hard core, heuristics (rules, what to do, what not to do)
○ rules of lakatos in the research programme
★ Sophisticated/naive falsification
★ Notion of progress
★ Novel prediction
★ Instant Rationality
★ Sophisticated (Lakatos) vs. Naive (Popper) falsification

TASK 7: RELATIVISM AND SITUATED KNOWLEDGES

★ Feminism and science (Longino)
★ Epistemological dilemma
★ Donna Haraway
★ Objective/universal knowledge -> why is it bad?
★ Relativism vs. Universalism
★ Relativism: criticism is that there is one truth, but relativism shows that there are more than
one (ex. individually or cultures)
 ★ Realism vs. Relativism (link: global truth)
★ Theoretical vs. empirical progressiveness (Lakatos)
★ Holism
★ Incommensurability
★ Feminist Objectivity
★ Pragmatism
★ Strong Theory

TASK 8: EXPLANATION IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

★ Democratic relativism: acceptance of different cultures
★ Underdetermination vs. Duhan Quime
★ standpoint theory: link between the two terms; universalism and relativism (Feyerabend)
★ Global vs. local validity
★ Theory of ladeness (Hereway)
★ Individualism
★ Structuralism

TASK 9: IS AN ECONOMIC CRISIS LIKE A SOLAR ECPLISE?

★ Prediction
★ Subjectivity
★ (Marxist) Historicism
★ Prophecies
★ Historism
★ Un)Oragnised Complexity
★ Open and closed system

TASK 10: LIFEWORK AND UNDERSTANDING. THE METHOD OF THE HUMANITIES

★ Methods
★ Categories
★ Context
★ Interpretation
★ Hermeneutic Circle
★ Language

TASK 11: SCIENCE, SOCIETY, POWER, PROFESSIONS