1. The Distinguishing Features of the “Cold War” and Bipolar World Order in 1945-1991.

2. The Internal and External Factors in the Dissolution of the USSR and its Implications for
World Order
3. The Main Trends in Contemporary International Relations and World Politics (1991-
2023).
4. The Main Trends in Contemporary Global Diplomacy: Traditions vs. New Dimensions.
5. International Negotiations in Contemporary International Relations: Theory and Practice
6. International Security in Contemporary International Relations: Global Overview
7. Arms Control in Contemporary International Relations: Global Overview
8. International Armed Conflicts in Contemporary International Relations: Global Overview
9. International Armed Conflict: Case-study
10. The Main Trends in World Economy: Global Overview
11. Globalization vs. Regionalization as Key Trends in Contemporary International
Economic Relations
12. Regional Economic Integrations Worldwide: Theory and Practice
13.The Main Trends in International Finance: Global Overview
14.The Main Trends in International Law: Global Overview
16. International Organization: Case-study
18. Territorial Integrity vs. the Right for Self-Determination as the Principles of
Contemporary International Law: Case-Study;
19. Non-governmental Organizations in World Politics: Global Overview
20. Global Energy in Contemporary International Relations: Global Overview
21. National Energy Policy: Case-study
22. I’m -security in Contemporary International Relations: Global Overview
23. Human Rights in Contemporary International Relations: Global Overview
24. International Migration in Contemporary International Relations: Global Overview
25. Heads of States and Governments in the Perspective of Comparative Constitutional Law
26. The Role of Heads of State and Government in a National Political System: Case-study
27. Post-Soviet Space as a Regional Subsystem of Contemporary International Relations:
Global Overview;
28. Euro-Atlantic Region as a Regional Subsystem of Contemporary International Relations:
Global Overview;
29. Asia-Pacific Region as a Regional Subsystem of Contemporary International Relations:
Global Overview;
30. Middle East as a Regional Subsystem of Contemporary International Relations: Global
Overview;
31. Latin America as a Regional Subsystem of Contemporary International Relations: Global
Overview;
32. Africa as a Regional Subsystem of Contemporary International Relations: Global
Overview;
33. The US Grand Strategy (1992-2023): Changes and Continuity;
34. The Grand Strategy of Russia (1991-2023): Changes and Continuity
35. The Grand Strategy of China (1989-2023): Changes and Continuity
36. The Grand Strategy of a Nation: Case-study
37. Theories of International Relations: Global Overview
38. International Conflict in the Light of a Theory of International Relations
40. The Public Diplomacy of a Country: Case-study
1. The Distinguishing Features of the “Cold War” and Bipolar World Order in 1945-
1991.

- The Cold War was an ongoing political rivalry between the United States and the
Soviet Union and their respective allies that developed after World War II.

- Bipolarity is a distribution of power in which two states have a preponderance of

power. In bipolarity, spheres of influence and alliance systems have frequently
developed around each pole. For example, in the Cold War of 1947-1991, most
Western and capitalist states would fall under the influence of the US, while most
Communist states would fall under the influence of the USSR.

- Truman speech, doctrine in 1947 as start of cold war (aid free people, support for
democracies)

- Ideological Conflict: The Cold War was defined by a deep ideological divide between
the two superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union. The United States
championed liberal democracy and capitalism, while the Soviet Union promoted
communism and a planned economy. This ideological conflict influenced the
strategies, alliances, and policies of both sides.

- Arms Race and Nuclear Deterrence: The Cold War witnessed an intense arms race
between the United States and the Soviet Union. Both sides developed and stockpiled
nuclear weapons, leading to the concept of mutual assured destruction (MAD). The
possession of nuclear weapons served as a deterrent, as neither side wanted to risk a
full-scale nuclear war due to the catastrophic consequences.

- Bipolar Power Structure: The Cold War era was characterized by a bipolar world
order, with the United States and the Soviet Union as the two dominant global
powers. The world was divided into two ideological and military blocs—the Western
Bloc led by the United States and the Eastern Bloc led by the Soviet Union. This
division led to the formation of alliances such as NATO (North Atlantic Treaty
Organization) and the Warsaw Pact.

- Proxy Wars and Regional Conflicts: The Cold War was marked by numerous proxy
wars and regional conflicts fought between the United States and the Soviet Union, or
their respective allies. These conflicts, such as the Korean War, Vietnam War, and
various conflicts in Africa and Latin America, were fueled by the superpowers' rivalry
and their desire to gain influence and control over strategic regions.

- Economic Competition: The United States and the Soviet Union engaged in economic
competition, with each side promoting its own economic system as superior. The
United States focused on capitalism and free markets, while the Soviet Union pursued
 a command economy. This economic competition extended to the realm of
technology, space exploration, and industrial capacity.

- High Level of Tension: The Cold War was characterized by a constant state of tension
and mistrust between the two superpowers. The fear of nuclear war, espionage,
ideological conflicts, and competition for influence created a pervasive atmosphere of
hostility and suspicion. This tension was evident in events such as the Cuban Missile
Crisis and the construction of the Berlin Wall.

- Global Influence and Proxy Control: The United States and the Soviet Union sought
to expand their spheres of influence and gain control over countries around the world.
They supported proxy governments, engaged in covert operations, and provided
military and economic aid to their respective allies. This competition for influence
often resulted in political instability and conflicts in various regions.
—
2. The Internal and External Factors in the Dissolution of the USSR and its Implications
for World Order

The dissolution of the USSR, which took place in 1991, can be attributed to a combination of
internal and external factors. These factors contributed to the economic, political, and social
challenges faced by the Soviet Union, ultimately leading to its breakup. Here are some of the
key factors:

Internal Factors:

- Economic Problems: The Soviet economy faced significant structural issues,

including inefficiency, lack of innovation, and over-reliance on a centralized planned
economy. These problems resulted in economic stagnation, shortages of essential
goods, and a decline in living standards for many citizens.

- Nationalism and Ethnic Tensions: The USSR was a multiethnic state, and nationalist
sentiments started to emerge among various Soviet republics. Calls for greater
autonomy and independence grew stronger, fueled by ethnic tensions and the desire to
assert cultural and political identities. This led to growing demands for self-
determination from the Baltic states, Ukraine, and other republics.

- Political Stagnation: The Soviet political system, characterized by a single-party rule

and lack of political pluralism, experienced a decline in legitimacy. The leadership
under General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev attempted reforms such as glasnost
(openness) and perestroika (restructuring), but these measures led to increased
political instability and weakened central control. Attempts to reform, Perestroika and
Glasnost, “let the cat out bag” which gave too much space for public discussion on
political matters and the growth of civil society groups (Memorial, Helsinki
Monitoring Group). The effect was a loss of faith in the Communist Party and its
ideology.

- Weakening of the Communist Party: The Communist Party of the Soviet Union
(CPSU), which had long held a monopoly on political power, faced internal divisions
and loss of support. Factionalism within the party and disillusionment with its policies
contributed to the erosion of its authority. Internal ideological factionalism especially
during the Gorbachev era between reformists and hardliners. Confrontation between
these primary factions worsened with the August 1991 coup attempt that led to a
weakened Communist Party (The CPSU was declared an illegal organization in the
RSFSR by Yeltsin, the Hardliner faction lost influence as they were removed from
power, and Gorbachev lost the RSFSR to Yeltsin) and a number of republics
declaring independence.
 - Despite a country wide referendum to keep the USSR together, the leaders of Belarus,
Russia, and Ukraine met at the Belovezha forest and signed the accords which
dissolved the USSR.

External Factors:

- Economic Challenges and Arms Race: The USSR faced economic pressures from the
escalating arms race with the United States. The substantial resources allocated to
military spending strained the Soviet economy and hindered its ability to address
domestic issues adequately.

- Gorbachev adopted the policy of not intervening in the affairs of the communist bloc
countries breaking away from the Brezhnev doctrine. This led to a wave of protests
within the bloc that overthrew their communist governments, East Germany, Poland,
Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania. This set the standard of expectations within the
USSR for democratisation and disappointment by the hardliners, leading them to
launch the August 1991 coup. -> Revolutions in Eastern Europe: The wave of
political change that swept across Eastern Europe in the late 1980s, particularly the
fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, weakened the Soviet Union's control over its satellite
states. The events in countries like Poland, Hungary, and East Germany inspired pro-
democracy movements in other Soviet republics. Popular Movements for
Independence: Various Soviet republics, including the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia,
Lithuania), Ukraine, and others, witnessed growing movements for independence.
These movements gained momentum, fueled by a desire for self-determination and
greater political and economic autonomy.

- Low oil prices during the 90s massively weakened the Soviet economy’s energy
exporting economy severely impacting its ability to sustain its military expenditure.

- Afghanistan War?

It's important to note that the specific impact of each factor and the complex interplay
between them is a subject of ongoing debate among scholars and experts. The dissolution of
the USSR was a multifaceted process influenced by a combination of internal dynamics and
external developments.
3. The Main Trends in Contemporary International Relations and World Politics (1991-
2023).

From 1991 to 2023, there have been several main trends in contemporary international
relations and world politics. Here are some of the key trends during this period:

Unipolarity and the Rise of the United States: Following the end of the Cold War in 1991, the
United States emerged as the sole superpower in the international system. This period was
characterized by American dominance in various spheres, including military, economic, and
cultural influence.

Globalization and Interdependence: The process of globalization accelerated during this

period, leading to increased interconnectedness among nations. The expansion of
international trade, advancements in technology, and the growth of multinational corporations
facilitated the flow of goods, services, capital, and information across borders.

Regionalism and Regional Integration: Regional organizations and blocs gained prominence
as countries sought to enhance their collective power and address common challenges.
Examples include the European Union (EU), the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN), the African Union (AU), and Mercosur in South America.

Rise of Non-State Actors: Non-state actors, such as multinational corporations, non-

governmental organizations (NGOs), and terrorist groups, gained influence and played
significant roles in global affairs. NGOs focused on issues such as human rights,
environmental protection, and humanitarian aid, while terrorist groups like Al-Qaeda and
ISIS posed security challenges.

Shifts in Power and the Rise of Emerging Economies: The rise of emerging economies,
particularly China, India, Brazil, and Russia, challenged the dominance of traditional powers.
These countries experienced significant economic growth and sought greater political
influence on the global stage.

Terrorism and Transnational Threats: The rise of terrorism, especially after the September 11
attacks in 2001, became a central concern in international relations. Counterterrorism efforts
and the fight against transnational threats, including organized crime, cyber warfare, and
nuclear proliferation, became key priorities for many nations.

Climate Change and Environmental Concerns: Growing recognition of the impact of climate
change and environmental degradation led to increased global attention on sustainability and
efforts to combat these challenges. The Paris Agreement in 2015 marked a significant
milestone in international efforts to address climate change.

Humanitarian Interventions and Responsibility to Protect (R2P): The international

community faced numerous humanitarian crises during this period, leading to debates on
intervention and the responsibility to protect civilians from mass atrocities. Instances such as
the NATO intervention in Kosovo, the Iraq War, and the humanitarian interventions in Libya
and Syria shaped discussions on the use of force.
Rise of Populism and Nationalism: In recent years, there has been a rise in populist and
nationalist movements worldwide, challenging established political structures and
international norms. These movements often emphasize protectionism, anti-immigration
sentiments, and skepticism toward international institutions.

Technological Advancements and Cybersecurity: Rapid advancements in technology,

particularly the internet and digital communication, transformed global politics.
Cybersecurity emerged as a critical concern, with states and non-state actors engaging in
cyber espionage, attacks, and information warfare.

Great power competition is back.

Huntington: clash between civilizations -> no, clash within

Fukuyama: end of history?

4. The Main Trends in Contemporary Global Diplomacy: Traditions vs. New

Dimensions.

What is diplomacy? Activities aimed at preventing wars and conflicts. Peaceful means.
Traditionally: executed by those working at MFA (only they are diplomats). Now there are
other actors. Not only war and peace. Economic business etc. New dimensions (vaccines,
etc.) Now actively working on anti sanctions policies, energy etc. Promote national business
abroad. Cyber security? No longer just about negotiations and working at the embassy.

Speak of personal interpretations of diplomacy. Identify your own “diplomatic” heroes.

Abramovich for example in regards to Ukraine.

In contemporary diplomacy, there are both traditional and new dimensions that shape the
practice and trends in diplomatic relations. Here are some main trends in contemporary
diplomacy, highlighting the interplay between tradition and new dimensions:

Traditional Diplomatic Practices:

- Bilateral and Multilateral Diplomacy: Bilateral diplomacy between individual
countries and multilateral diplomacy involving multiple countries or international
organizations continue to be important in addressing global challenges and advancing
national interests.
- Diplomatic Missions: Embassies, consulates, and diplomatic missions serve as
traditional platforms for communication, representation, and negotiation between
states.
 - Diplomatic Immunity: The principle of diplomatic immunity, providing legal
protections to diplomats and their staff, remains a fundamental aspect of diplomatic
relations.
- Negotiation and Treaty-making: Diplomacy involves negotiations, dialogue, and the
development of international agreements and treaties to address a wide range of
issues.
New Dimensions in Diplomacy:
- Digital Diplomacy: The increasing use of digital technologies, social media, and
online platforms has transformed the way diplomats engage with foreign audiences,
disseminate information, and conduct public diplomacy.
- Track II Diplomacy: Non-governmental actors, such as think tanks, academics, and
civil society organizations, play an increasingly significant role in diplomatic
processes through Track II diplomacy. They contribute expertise, ideas, and informal
dialogue to address complex issues.
- Economic Diplomacy: Economic diplomacy has gained prominence, with diplomats
focusing on promoting trade, investment, and economic cooperation to advance
national interests and foster economic growth.
- Science Diplomacy: Diplomacy is increasingly used to address scientific and
technological challenges, foster international research collaborations, and promote
scientific exchange and cooperation.
- Public Diplomacy and Soft Power: Diplomacy now includes efforts to shape public
opinion, promote cultural exchange, and enhance a country's soft power through
various means, such as cultural diplomacy, public diplomacy campaigns, and
international broadcasting.
- Involvement of women in diplomacy (!)
- Soft power as a diplomatic tool
Non-traditional Actors and Networks:
- Diplomacy is no longer the exclusive domain of states. Non-state actors, including
multinational corporations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and
international institutions, are playing more significant roles in global affairs, leading
to the rise of network diplomacy.
- Track I.5 and Track III Diplomacy: These involve a mix of state and non-state actors,
combining official and unofficial channels of communication and negotiation.
Addressing Global Challenges:
- Diplomacy is increasingly focused on addressing global challenges that transcend
national boundaries, such as climate change, cybersecurity, terrorism, migration,
health crises, and peacekeeping.
- Multi-stakeholder Diplomacy: Diplomacy now involves engagement and
collaboration with a wide range of stakeholders, including civil society organizations,
businesses, academic institutions, and grassroots movements, to address complex
global problems.
5. International Negotiations in Contemporary International Relations: Theory and
Practice

Internat

Two-level game: 1988 by Robert D. Putnam, in his publication "Diplomacy and Domestic
Politics: The Logic of Two-Level Games".

What is it? Procedure where sides are trying to find resolution. Different strategies and
approaches. It is based on a two-level game.
National and supranational level of communication. You need to find a solution with both. At
home and abroad. Foreign Policy Analysis! Example: JCPOA (you have to agree with the
iranians but also with the American public), BREXIT
You need to sell the decisions at home and abroad. Find common ground between both.

● The concept of negotiations and role of negotiations in international relations.

- Joint search of agreement between 2 or more parties
- Lie at the heart of the diplomatic activity
- Means of formation of world politics

Definition: A negotiation is a strategic discussion that resolves an issue in a way that both
parties find acceptable. In a negotiation, each party tries to persuade the other to agree with
his or her point of view. By negotiating, all involved parties try to avoid arguing but agree to
reach some form of compromise.
It is often conducted by putting forward a position and making concessions to achieve an
agreement. à trust between the parties is very important.

● Purposes of negotiations.
Collective Security.
Reaching a consensus without violence.
Deescalating situations.
Protection of universally recognized norms and principles of international law
No force in dealing with crisis situations
Resistance to international terrorism
Development of inter-civilizational dialogue
Manifestation of genocide, crime, poverty, drug trafficking
Protection of human rights
Environmental protection
Disarmament and non-proliferation of nuclear weapons.

Other purposes:
- Concealment
- Breakdown of talks
 - Propaganda
- Seeking for information

● Negotiating skills as an art.

○ Some people are born being predisposed to negotiating. They are better at
making deals, reading people, they have more charisma. To them it is not as
much a learned skill, as some developed talent or skill. Moreover, negotiations
don't always bring a definite, expected or a predicate result. Therefore
negotiations are an art.

● Negotiating skills as science.

○ To become successful in negotiations one must learn the correct procedures
and rules of conducting negotiations, and practice them a lot. To become good
in the process of negotiations, one must learn the theory and practice their
skills on a constant basis. The same can be said about scientific tasks and
disciplines, one learns the theory and then applies their knowledge by
practicing. So, therefore, negotiations is a science.

"Negotiating is both a science, based on theories, concepts and methods, and at the same time
an art, as it were, which requires sensitivity to cultural differences, an ability to maintain a
dialogue and a little bit of psychological skill." © Michael Ambuhl

● World schools of negotiating process.

American (Harvard Program)
European
- London School of Economics
- Vienna Diplomatic Academy
- Netherlands

Russian
- MSU
- SPBGU
- Diplomatic Academy
- MGIMO

● Harvard program on negotiations.

The Harvard Negotiation Project is a project created at Harvard University which deals
with issues of negotiations and conflict resolution.
The stated aims and goal of the project, according to the Harvard Law School site is as
follows
The mission of the Harvard Negotiation Project (HNP) is to improve the theory and practice
of conflict resolution and negotiation by working on real world conflict intervention, theory
building, education and training, and writing and disseminating new ideas.

Mild/Rough Approach
Mild (partners, agreement, suggestions)
Rough (enemies, victory, threat)
Four crucial factors for negotiation: people, interests, options and criteria
The activities: theory building, education and training, publications and a conflict clinic.
Negotiations vs subject of negotiations
Interest -> position
(mutual beneficial criteria)

● Major paradigms of negotiations.

Compromise
- Finding Agreement through mutual concessions of partners
- Possible only when both parties win

Negotiation with zero and non-zero options

- Game with a zero sum – one side wins
- Game with a non-zero sum - no one wins, and no one loses. They win more
and they lose less if they cooperate.

Unexpected solutions
- “Innovation” – giving acceptable a “way out” to negotiation parties
- Contribute to the achievement of agreement by offering solutions rather than
the mutual demands but which satisfy each of the parties.

Balance of interests.
- A way of reaching agreement that takes into account various interests of the
participating countries even those that are directly related to the subject of
negotiations

Advantages: results in a maximum gain of all the participants in the negotiations. There are
no fundamentally unacceptable items.

● Multilateral negotiations (session and non-session).

 Intensive international discussions, that involve multiple actors and interests, highly
complex agendas and differentiated international settings.

A coalition-building enterprise involving states, non-state actors and international

organizations.

Discussions on security, the environment, economic and non-government actors

(terrorism, environmental, groups, scientists)

● The mechanism of decision-making (multilateral negotiations).

Multilateral diplomacy has therefore turned instead to consensus decision-making, the

attempt to achieve agreement among all participants without the need for a divisive
vote.

- giving a secretary-general or chairperson the right to conduct 'straw

polls'; that is, the informal counting of votes by means of confidential
'consultations' with permanent missions or delegations
- allowing this official to employ a 'silence procedure'; that is, operating
the rule that a proposal with strong support is deemed to have been agreed
unless any member raises an objection to it so advertising its unpopular
position before a precise deadline, e.g.: NATO, OSCE
- and of course, voting is still often required, even though this does no
more than ratify a consensus already achieved.

It is obvious that there is no alternative to consensus decision-making but its

imperfections need to be kept in mind:

1. It is slow.
2. It tends to produce vaguely worded agreements. UN Security
Council Resolution 1441 of November 2002 on Iraq, notably in its
reference to the 'serious consequences' that would follow non-
compliance, is an important case in point.

The practice of international negotiations involves several steps:

● Pre-negotiation: This is the phase where parties identify the issue, gather information,
and develop strategies.

● Negotiation: Here, parties exchange proposals and counter-proposals, engage in

dialogue, and work towards a resolution. This process might involve bargaining,
persuasion, compromise, and other techniques.
 ● Post-negotiation: Once an agreement is reached, it needs to be implemented and
monitored. This phase may involve additional negotiations if the conditions change or
if disagreements arise over interpretation or compliance.

The effectiveness of negotiations in international relations can be influenced by a range of

factors such as the negotiation strategies used, the power dynamics between the parties
involved, the role of mediators or third parties, cultural differences, and the broader
international context. Some notable examples of international negotiations include the Paris
Agreement on climate change, the Iran Nuclear Deal, and the various peace negotiations in
the Middle East.

6. International Security in Contemporary International Relations: Global Overview

We can answer the same as in question 8 and implement our case from question 9

Is it feasible?
Is there WW3? WTF
How is conflict managed?
Idea of some regional conflicts etc.
What is an internal conflict?

In contemporary international relations, several main trends shape the landscape of

international security. These trends highlight the evolving nature of threats, the changing
dynamics of power, and the emergence of new challenges. Here are some of the key trends:

● Non-traditional Security Challenges: Traditional military conflicts between states

remain a concern, but non-traditional security challenges have gained prominence.
These include transnational terrorism, organized crime, cyber threats, pandemics,
climate change, and migration. Such challenges often transcend national borders and
require collective responses from the international community.
● Rise of Non-State Actors: Non-state actors, such as terrorist organizations, criminal
networks, and insurgent groups, have become significant players in international
security. These actors often operate across borders, exploit governance gaps, and pose
challenges to state authority. Addressing their activities requires enhanced
cooperation and intelligence-sharing among states.
● Nuclear Proliferation and Arms Control: Nuclear proliferation remains a significant
concern, particularly in regions such as North Korea and Iran. The erosion of arms
control agreements, such as the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty
between the United States and Russia, has heightened anxieties about a new arms race
and increased the risk of nuclear conflict.
● Cybersecurity Challenges: The increasing reliance on digital technology and
interconnectedness has led to an escalation in cyber threats. State-sponsored
cyberattacks, hacking incidents, data breaches, and cyber espionage pose significant
 risks to national security, critical infrastructure, and economic stability. Cybersecurity
has become a priority for governments and international organizations.
● Regional Conflicts and Instability: Several regional conflicts persist and have far-
reaching implications for international security. Ongoing conflicts in the Middle East,
such as the Syrian civil war and the Yemeni conflict, contribute to instability,
humanitarian crises, and the rise of extremist groups. Tensions in other regions,
including the Korean Peninsula and the South China Sea, also pose risks to regional
and global security.
● Disinformation and Hybrid Warfare: Disinformation campaigns, propaganda, and
hybrid warfare tactics have become prevalent tools in international relations. State and
non-state actors exploit social media platforms and other channels to manipulate
public opinion, sow divisions, and undermine democratic processes. Countering
disinformation has become a critical aspect of maintaining international security.
● Power Shifts and Geopolitical Competition: The global balance of power is
undergoing significant shifts, with the rise of emerging powers such as China and
India and the relative decline of Western dominance. This changing power dynamics
and geopolitical competition can lead to strategic rivalries, proxy conflicts, and a
reevaluation of existing alliances and partnerships.
● Multilateralism and Collective Security: Multilateralism remains crucial in addressing
international security challenges. Cooperation among states through international
organizations, such as the United Nations, NATO, and regional bodies, facilitates
dialogue, conflict resolution, peacekeeping operations, and coordination of responses
to global security threats.
● Weak states are the dangerous ones, not only strong states

Overall, international security in contemporary international relations is characterized by a

complex and interconnected web of challenges, requiring comprehensive and collaborative
approaches to ensure global stability and peace.

● There exist traditional and non-traditional security threats:

○ Traditional: threats against the essential values of a state, territorial integrity,
and political sovereignty (i.e. conflicts between states)
○ Non-traditional: Climate change, poverty, disease, migration, resource wars,
terrorism.
● Concepts in International Security:
○ Indivisible security: One state’s quest for security should not come at the
expense of another’s.
○ Security dilemma: State A seeks to enhance its security which is perceived by
State B as a threat. State B thus enhances its own security to match that of
State A which the latter perceives as a threat, the cycle continues.
● The goal is to combat threats to international security. Several international and
regional institutions exist with this aim, to name a few:
 ○ The United Nations Security Council - the highest authority to ensure
international peace and security.
○ UN ECOSOC
○ NATO
○ CSTO
○ SCO
○ AUKUS
● Humanitarian intervention has been the primary means of international involvement
in conflicts in the 21st century in Yugoslavia, Libya, and Syria.
○ This has been guided by the principle of “Responsibility to Protect” (R2P). It
rests on three pillars:
■ Pillar I: The state has a responsibility to protect its own people.
■ Pillar II: States should assist each other in their Pillar I responsibilities.
■ Pillar III: If any state is “manifestly failing” to carry out its
responsibilities, the international community should take collective
action.

—--

International security in contemporary international relations (IR) refers to the set of

measures, strategies, and structures employed by states and international organizations to
safeguard their interests, maintain peace, and prevent or respond to threats to global
stability. It encompasses a broad range of issues, including military conflicts, terrorism,
nuclear proliferation, cyber threats, pandemics, and environmental challenges. Here are
some key points to understand international security in contemporary IR:

Conceptualization of Security: Traditional notions of security primarily focused on military

defense and territorial integrity. However, contemporary IR recognizes that security extends
beyond the military realm and encompasses a wide range of non-traditional threats, such as
economic instability, climate change, and transnational crime. Human security, which
emphasizes the protection of individuals from violence, poverty, and disease, has also
gained prominence.

State-Centric Approach: States remain the primary actors in international security. They
engage in a variety of activities, such as building military capabilities, forming alliances,
negotiating arms control agreements, and participating in international organizations, to
protect their national interests and ensure their security. However, non-state actors,
including terrorist organizations and transnational criminal networks, have also become
significant players, challenging the state-centric approach.

Multilateralism and International Organizations: International security is often addressed

through multilateral cooperation and the involvement of international organizations.
Institutions like the United Nations (UN), North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and
regional bodies play crucial roles in facilitating dialogue, diplomacy, and collective responses
to security challenges. Multilateral frameworks provide a platform for states to coordinate
their efforts, share intelligence, and develop common strategies.

Interconnectedness and Globalization: Globalization has increased the interdependence

among states, creating new security dynamics. Issues such as economic interconnections,
migration flows, and the spread of technology have made traditional security concerns more
complex. Globalized threats like cyber warfare and the illicit trafficking of weapons, drugs,
and human beings transcend national boundaries, necessitating international cooperation for
effective responses.

Non-Traditional Security Threats: Alongside traditional military threats, non-traditional

security challenges have gained prominence in contemporary IR. These include terrorism,
cyber attacks, transnational crime, pandemics, climate change, resource scarcity, and
environmental degradation. Addressing these threats requires cooperation and coordination
among states, as they often transcend national borders and require collective action.

Humanitarian Intervention and Responsibility to Protect: The concept of humanitarian

intervention has evolved, encompassing the responsibility to protect (R2P) vulnerable
populations from mass atrocities. R2P asserts that the international community has a
responsibility to intervene, with the consent of the affected state if possible, to prevent or halt
genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity. However, debates and
challenges persist regarding the application and implementation of R2P.

Nuclear Proliferation and Arms Control: The proliferation of nuclear weapons and other
weapons of mass destruction (WMD) poses significant threats to international security.
Efforts to prevent the spread of WMDs, promote disarmament, and strengthen arms control
regimes remain crucial. Treaties like the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
(NPT) and agreements like the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) with Iran aim
to prevent nuclear proliferation and ensure non-proliferation commitments.

Cybersecurity and Information Warfare: The increasing reliance on digital technologies has
led to the emergence of cybersecurity as a critical aspect of international security. Cyber
threats, including hacking, espionage, and disruption of critical infrastructure, have the
potential to cause significant harm. States and international organizations are grappling with
the development of norms, rules, and frameworks to address cyber threats and protect
cyberspace.

7. Arms Control in Contemporary International Relations: Global Overview

Definition:
Cooperative and not imposed, between antagonistic/rival pairs, with the goal to further
national/international security by mitigating negative consequences of security dilemma and
to reduce the risk of unintended war (also reduce the cost of preparing for war &
reduce damage should war occur but these goals are debatable)

Concept of arms control came up in the early 1960s, before that there was only the concept of
disarmament.

Types of Arms control:

Conventional and non-conventional arms control

Stages of arms control:

● Risk reduction
○ Communication lines
● Confidence building
○ Transparency and verification: exchanging information, prior notify, observe
exercises and activities, assessment visits
● Arms control proper
○ Limits (numerical or geographical), info exchange, verification
● Banning of particular weapons
● Export control

Golden 1990s and erosion of arms control:

After easy 1990s arms control got more difficult, departing from the explanation that arms
control is a means to an end and not end itself (national security) -> why still needed, danger
of nuclear war between Soviet Union and US is gone

In times of tension arms control is needed but difficult to get, easier to get it when relations
are good but then no pressure to do so

Strategic stability
All major instruments:

● Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT):

○ Status: The NPT was opened for signature in 1968 and entered into force in
1970. As of September 2021, it has 191 states parties, including the five
nuclear-weapon states recognized by the treaty (United States, Russia, United
Kingdom, France, and China). Four states—India, Israel, Pakistan, and North
Korea—are known to possess nuclear weapons and are not party to the treaty.

● Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I):

○ Status: SALT I was signed in 1972 between the United States and the Soviet
Union. It placed limits on the number of intercontinental ballistic missiles
(ICBMs) and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) each side could
possess. SALT I expired in 1977 and was succeeded by the SALT II treaty.

● Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty II (SALT II):

○ Status: SALT II was signed in 1979 between the United States and the Soviet
Union. It further limited the number of strategic nuclear weapons and delivery
systems. However, it was never ratified by the United States Senate and
therefore did not enter into force.

● Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF Treaty):

 ○ Status: The INF Treaty was signed in 1987 between the United States and the
Soviet Union. It banned the possession, production, and testing of ground-
launched ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges between 500 and 5,500
kilometers. In 2019, the United States withdrew from the treaty, citing Russian
non-compliance. As a result, the treaty is no longer in force.

● Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START I):

○ Status: START I was signed in 1991 between the United States and the Soviet
Union. It aimed to reduce and limit the strategic nuclear arsenals of both
countries. The treaty expired in 2009 but was superseded by the New START
treaty.

● START II (Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty II):

○ Status: START II was signed in 1993 between the United States and Russia. It
envisioned deeper reductions in strategic nuclear weapons compared to
START I. START II would have eliminated multiple-warhead intercontinental
ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and reduced the number of strategic nuclear
warheads. However, START II was never ratified by Russia due to concerns
over the U.S. withdrawal from the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty in 2002. As a
result, the treaty did not enter into force.

● Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT):

○ Status: The CTBT was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in
1996. It bans all nuclear explosions, including those conducted for peaceful
purposes. However, the treaty has not entered into force as several key states,
including the United States, China, and North Korea, have not ratified it.

● New START (Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty):

○ Status: New START was signed in 2010 between the United States and
Russia. It limits the number of deployed strategic nuclear warheads and
delivery systems. The treaty remains in force until February 5, 2026.
However, as of my knowledge cutoff, there were discussions between the two
countries regarding its extension.

● Treaty on Open Skies:

○ Status: The Treaty on Open Skies was signed in 1992 and allows for unarmed
aerial observation flights over the territories of participating states to promote
transparency and build confidence. In 2020, the United States withdrew from
the treaty, citing Russian non-compliance. Subsequently, Russia announced its
withdrawal in 2021, leading to the treaty's uncertain future.

● Conventional Forces in Europe Treaty (CFE Treaty):

○ Status: The CFE Treaty was signed in 1990 between NATO and the Warsaw
Pact countries. It aimed to reduce conventional military forces in Europe.
 Although the treaty remained in force, Russia suspended its participation in
2007, and in 2015 it announced that it would no longer abide by the treaty's
provisions.

● SORT (Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty):

○ Status: The SORT treaty, also known as the Moscow Treaty, was signed in
2002 between the United States and Russia. It aimed to reduce strategic
nuclear warheads. Under this treaty, both countries committed to reducing
their deployed strategic nuclear warheads to a range of 1,700-2,200 by 2012.
The treaty expired in 2012, and its provisions are no longer in force.

—
1963 partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty only partial because underground tests were still
allowed (a big issue was how to differentiate underground tests from earthquakes)

SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks):

SALT provided for a limitation (a tool for managing the nuclear arms race, allowed both to
grow to some extent)

ABM: signed in 1972 and amended in 1974

1972 treaty, both sides were allowed to have two sites for ballistic defence systems, one at the
capital and one at the major silos -> 1974 reduced it to one site -> USSR chose to protect
Moscow, US chose to protect ICBMs

Why reduce the number of sites? Because it would be absolutely ineffective

START was the beginning of reduction (before only limitation) -> only strategic nuclear
weapons, not addressing tactical weapons

START 1 was signed in 1991 but entered into force only in 1994: the nuclear successor states
became weapon free (all four legal successor states should become parties of the agreements)

START 2 never probably entered into force

START 3 Framework: include for first time tactical nuclear weapons

SORT: deal between Bush Jr. and Putin, coordinated US withdrawal from ABM treaty and
part of solution was that Russia would not withdraw from START 2 treaty but would also not
feel bound to it

Most important frameworks were the START 1 and the New Start:
There was no START 3 treaty signed, Bush administration didn’t follow it

Importance of New Start (provided transparence maintenance of agreed levels):

START 1 was the single treaty that provided for transparency till the end of 2009. START 2
never worked and START 3 never concluded and SORT had no verification procedures.
When START1 expired at the end of 2009 (and even though SORT was in place) there was
no verification anymore. The basic idea of New Start was a) to set lower limits but also b) to
relaunch transparency/verification mechanism

8. International Armed Conflicts in Contemporary International Relations: Global

Overview

The way in which armed conflicts are fought has changed over time. The classic wars of the
industrial age have become outdated and inter state war with two large traditional armies
fighting each other directly on the battlefield has become a thing of the past.

Inter-state wars in general are decreasing and have become a rare event. For example, in
2017, out of 49 state based conflicts, only one conflict, between Pakistan and India, was
fought between states.

Also, in 2018, out of 52 state based conflicts, only 2 of them were between states. One again
involving Pakistan and India and the other involving Iran and Israel.

Further, while territorial and other disputes between countries persist, analysts argue that they
are much less likely to escalate to interstate wars. Other motivations.

Also, with the decline in interstate wars, casualties have been reduced.

However, one can not conclude that the world has become a more peaceful place. Inter-state
conflict lost its dominance but other types of conflict are prevailing and most remaining wars
are not between states.

For example, the number of non-state conflicts has increased (a new peak of 82 active non-
state conflicts was recorded in 2017 and fatalities have increased concurrently) and the intra-
state conflict is absolutely prevailing. Most battle related deaths are occuring in internal
conflicts and especially internal conflicts with foreign intervention are very deadly. There is
also greater internationalisation of intra-state conflict and, as an example, in 2021: 25 out of
52 internal conflicts were internationalised.

The main types of armed conflicts are low-scale peripheral insurgencies in functional states,
large-scale internationalised civil wars in weak/failed states and non-state conflicts.

First, low-scale peripheral insurgencies in functional states is the most widespread type of
state based conflict. It is an internal conflict, geographically contained and of low intensity.
Conflict often taking place in Asia (Thailand, India, Philippines, etc.) and Africa. The state in
these conflicts is usually strong enough to keep the situation in control and the chances of
rebels winning is very low.

Second, large-scale internationalised civil wars in weak/failed states are few but the most
intense (Syria, Yemen) and deadly. They not only harbour problems for the country in which
the conflict is fought but also threaten to bring problems to regional and even transregional
level. They are heavily internationalised and are leading in terms of terrorist activity.

Third, non state-conflicts are part of a larger trend in which the role of non-state actors in
violence is increasing globally. Most of them happen in Africa and there is a growing number
in the Middle East and in the last couple of years also in Latin America (mostly criminal
groups). Although low scale peripheral insurgencies are most widespread state based
conflicts, non-state conflict is the most widespread conflict of all three types. However, this
type of conflict usually lasts shorter and is not as deadly as state-based conflict.

To sum up, the world is not more peaceful. Classical inter state wars are fading away but
other types of conflicts are prevailing: we have three main types of armed conflict in the 21st
century. Non-state conflict is the most widespread and large-scale internationalised civil wars
in weak/failed states are the most intense and deadly conflicts and also harbour more
problems for international security.

- The world is not more peaceful!

- DECLINE in percentage of wars (major, large-scale conflicts)
- Most remaining wars are not between states
- Major Decline in all inter state conflicts (0-3/year in the 21st century)
- Absolute PREVALENCE of INTRA-STATE CONFLICTS
- Most battle-related deaths (BRDs) incurred in internal conflicts BUT in the long term
BRDs go down!
9. International Armed Conflict: Case-study

Fragmented, internationalised and intensive.

Syria: limited political access, leader not ready to go, uses force, no reforms, Shia-Sunni
divide, minority sect ruling, and geopolitical most important element
Astana and Geneva

10. The Main Trends in World Economy: Global Overview

World Economy –
Ø Worldwide economic activity between various countries that are considered
intertwined and thus can affect other countries negatively or positively;

Main characteristics:
· It is a complicated system, because there is a number of actors in the
world economy;
· There is the common aim in the world economy (it is simple – meeting the
needs);
· There is integrity in the world economy – all parts of the system are
intertwined and interact with each other, although separate from each
other;

Features of the world economy:

1. Hierarchy in the world economy – on the one hand there are several
countries that are very important: the USA, Japan, Germany, France, the
UK and Italy all combined approx. 31% of world GDP, thus have the
influence on other countries; on the other hand, there is BRIC (Brazil,
Russia, India and China) + Indonesia + Mexico – combined 37% of world
GDP; BRICS (South Africa) combined 32.6% of the world GDP;
2. The world economy is the arena of the competitive struggle – through
countries, through MNCs using trade, TNCs as well;
 3. Multilevel organizations of the world economy – the level of countries
(therefore can talk about competition) + the level of MNCs – here where
the competitive struggle is strong;

The formation of world economy (stages of evolution):

Year 1870 – the year of the birth of the modern world economy. Of course, trade existed
before but the modern world economy like we have nowadays. Several periods of evolution:

1. 1870-1913– this period is the Golden Age of the world economy – first wave of
globalization as some scholars call it; however, globalization appeared fully in 1980 –
factors and resources could flow freely from one country to another – the capital flow!
We cannot say there was free trade, however it existed in different parts (i.e. Great
Britain and its colonies). Germany, the USA and Japan could not trade with British
colonies freely, therefore WW1 broke out;
2. 1914-1950 – the roll back in the world economy’s development. All good results that
were achieved in the first period disappeared – no free trade at all, no free movement of
people (migration), no free movement of capital (people could not move because of the
two wars and the Great Depression);
3. 1950 – 1980 (sometimes 1990) – the period of integration and trans nationalization –
different integration groups appeared i.e. the European Economic Community; ASEAN;
trans nationalization (TNCs started to appear in that period in Europe and America and
started their competitive struggle); the economic growth was quite high in that period
especially after the second period, in some countries such as Japan there was even
economic miracle, Italy, Iran.

After 1980 – the modern wave of economic globalization.

Globalization if the world economy: reasons and its impact on national

economies.

D1: Globalization is an increase in the impact on human activities (economic, social, cultural,
political, technological etc.) of forces that span national boundaries.
D2: is a complex of changes produced by the dynamic of capitalist development – and this is
important – as well as the diffusion of cultural practices associated with this development.
D3 (Fischer, 2003): is the ongoing process of greater economic interdependence among
countries reflected in the increasing amount of cross-border trade in goods and services, the
increasing volume of international financial flows and the increasing flows of labor;

Attention: globalization refers to the widening and deepening of the international flows of
trade, capital, labor, technology and information. Integrating the national economy with the
global economy and a single global market.

Economic dimensions of globalization: Trade; Finance; Aid; Migration; Ideas.

3 major eras of globalization:

1. 1870-1914 “The birth of the modern world economy”:
· The world economy was as integrated as it is today;
 · The global integration of capital markets was facilitated by
advances in rail and ship transportation and in telegraph
communication.
2. The late 1940s-the mid-1970s:
· An increase of capital flows from the USA and a US-founded
production system known as “Fordism” (managerial capitalism);
· Some reduction of trade barriers under the auspices of GATT.
3. Since the late 1970s:
· The emergence of the newly industrialized countries of East Asia;
· Rapid technological progress;
· Japan emerged as a new source of FDI;
· Assembly systems were significantly modified into a new
arrangement characterized by flexible manufacturing (Toyotism);
· Since 1990s a new set of developing economies (India, China,
Mexico, Chile, Brazil and Vietnam) appeared;
· From the “Golden decade” to the “Great Recession”.

Forces operating in the world economy that increase interdependence

· The widening and freeing of trade: a growing number of countries have begun to
pursue open policies (over 30% of the world’s output of goods and services is now
traded);
· The growth of global capital markets and the greater flow of short-term speculative
capital (over $2 trln are exchanged on the world currency market every day);
· More FDI by MNCs than by national governments;
· The growth of global value chains with firms sourcing inputs from the cheapest
international markets’
· The greater movement of people than even before;
· The spread of IT, which can be exacerbate contagion in financial markets;
· Integration of populous East and South Asian economies with the international
economic system has injected fresh vitality and dynamism into economic globalization;
· New institutions (i.e. WTO), with authority over national government, and new
multinational agreements on trade, services, intellectual property which reduce national
autonomy.

Obstacles for globalization:

· The contradiction between globalization and domestic developments in certain
countries;
· The contradiction between the global free trade institutions and bilateral or regional
preferential trade arrangements.

Impact on national economies (Advantages):

· The greater flow of FDI and foreign aid increases employment in developing
countries;
· Plant making increases the level of people’s qualification in all countries all over the
world (including developing countries);
· Acceleration of economic growth;
 · The spread of latest achievements of science and technologies to all countries of the
world.

Impact on national economies (Disadvantages):

o Globalization and interdependence make countries more vulnerable
to shocks such as:
§ World recession and downturns in world trade;
§ Financial crisis (the Asian crises of 1997);
§ The banking crises (in the US in 2007/2008).
o The world economy is an arena where unequal facilities are
demonstrated;
o Increasing income inequality among countries;
o Increasing cultural and religious contradictions;
o Ecological problems in many countries of the world.

- Globalization and Interconnectedness: The world economy is increasingly

interconnected, characterized by the free flow of goods, services, capital, and
information across borders. Globalization has led to the expansion of multinational
corporations, global supply chains, and the integration of financial markets, creating
both opportunities and challenges for nations.

- Shift in Economic Power: The global economic power is shifting from traditional
Western powers to emerging economies, particularly in Asia. Countries like China,
India, and other emerging markets are experiencing rapid economic growth,
challenging the dominance of established powers. This shift has geopolitical
implications and reshapes global economic governance.

- Rise of Regional Economic Blocs: Regional economic integration has gained

momentum, with the establishment of various economic blocs such as the European
Union, ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations), and the African
Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA). These blocs aim to enhance regional
cooperation, deepen economic ties, and promote shared interests among member
states.

- Technological Advancements: Technological advancements, particularly in the areas

of information technology, automation, artificial intelligence, and robotics, are
transforming the global economy. These developments have implications for
productivity, job markets, and income distribution, creating both opportunities and
challenges for countries worldwide.
 - Trade Wars and Protectionism: There has been a rise in trade tensions and
protectionist measures among major economies. Disputes over trade imbalances,
intellectual property rights, and market access have led to the imposition of tariffs and
trade restrictions. These actions can disrupt global supply chains, impact economic
growth, and strain diplomatic relations.

- Sustainable Development and Climate Change: The recognition of environmental

challenges and the need for sustainable development have become prominent in
international economic discourse. Countries are increasingly focusing on renewable
energy, carbon emissions reduction, and transitioning to low-carbon economies.
Climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts have economic implications and
influence international cooperation.

- Income Inequality and Social Discontent: Rising income inequality within and among
countries has become a significant concern. Disparities in wealth distribution can lead
to social and political instability, impacting economic growth and international
relations. Addressing these inequalities and ensuring inclusive economic development
is a key challenge for policymakers.

These trends highlight the complex interplay between economic factors, political dynamics,
and international relations. Understanding these trends is crucial for policymakers, analysts,
and stakeholders to navigate the evolving global economic landscape.

11. Globalization vs. Regionalization as Key Trends in Contemporary International

Economic Relations

Globalization if the world economy: reasons and its impact on national

economies.

D1: Globalization is an increase in the impact on human activities (economic, social, cultural,
political, technological etc.) of forces that span national boundaries.
D2: is a complex of changes produced by the dynamic of capitalist development – and this is
important – as well as the diffusion of cultural practices associated with this development.
D3 (Fischer, 2003): is the ongoing process of greater economic interdependence among
countries reflected in the increasing amount of cross-border trade in goods and services, the
increasing volume of international financial flows and the increasing flows of labor;

Attention: globalization refers to the widening and deepening of the international flows of
trade, capital, labor, technology and information. Integrating the national economy with the
global economy and a single global market.

Economic dimensions of globalization: Trade; Finance; Aid; Migration; Ideas.

3 major eras of globalization:

 1. 1870-1914 “The birth of the modern world economy”:
· The world economy was as integrated as it is today;
· The global integration of capital markets was facilitated by
advances in rail and ship transportation and in telegraph
communication.
2. The late 1940s-the mid-1970s:
· An increase of capital flows from the USA and a US-founded
production system known as “Fordism” (managerial capitalism);
· Some reduction of trade barriers under the auspices of GATT.
3. Since the late 1970s:
· The emergence of the newly industrialized countries of East Asia;
· Rapid technological progress;
· Japan emerged as a new source of FDI;
· Assembly systems were significantly modified into a new
arrangement characterized by flexible manufacturing (Toyotism);
· Since 1990s a new set of developing economies (India, China,
Mexico, Chile, Brazil and Vietnam) appeared;
· From the “Golden decade” to the “Great Recession”.

Forces operating in the world economy that increase interdependence

· The widening and freeing of trade: a growing number of countries have begun to
pursue open policies (over 30% of the world’s output of goods and services is now
traded);
· The growth of global capital markets and the greater flow of short-term speculative
capital (over $2 trln are exchanged on the world currency market every day);
· More FDI by MNCs than by national governments;
· The growth of global value chains with firms sourcing inputs from the cheapest
international markets’
· The greater movement of people than even before;
· The spread of IT, which can be exacerbate contagion in financial markets;
· Integration of populous East and South Asian economies with the international
economic system has injected fresh vitality and dynamism into economic globalization;
· New institutions (i.e. WTO), with authority over national government, and new
multinational agreements on trade, services, intellectual property which reduce national
autonomy.

Obstacles for globalization:

· The contradiction between globalization and domestic developments in certain
countries;
· The contradiction between the global free trade institutions and bilateral or regional
preferential trade arrangements.

Impact on national economies (Advantages):

· The greater flow of FDI and foreign aid increases employment in developing
countries;
 · Plant making increases the level of people’s qualification in all countries all over the
world (including developing countries);
· Acceleration of economic growth;
· The spread of latest achievements of science and technologies to all countries of the
world.

Impact on national economies (Disadvantages):

o Globalization and interdependence make countries more vulnerable
to shocks such as:
§ World recession and downturns in world trade;
§ Financial crisis (the Asian crises of 1997);
§ The banking crises (in the US in 2007/2008).
o The world economy is an arena where unequal facilities are
demonstrated;
o Increasing income inequality among countries;
o Increasing cultural and religious contradictions;
o Ecological problems in many countries of the world.

bipolarity was hindering globalization to become really global -> after collapse of USSR
globalization energy was released -> 1990s was age of globalisation
Globalization led to increased regionalism
Some argue globalization started in end of 19th c. -> one criteria: international trade was
growing faster than global GDP, benchmark to say this is manifestation of globalization
Many historians argue that economic interdependence within Europe by beginning of WW1
was no less than today.

markets become global, production for entire world and not only regional market
liberalization of movement of trade and capital
TNC can choose their jurisdiction

Instead as assumed, western countries seem to be among the losers in globalization -> some
developing countries profited a lot

Now weak states can be seen as a danger, before only strong states were seen as a danger

World becomes increasingly non-western, effect of globalization and redistribution of power

triggered by globalization, changing weight of developed and developing countries
Regionalism becomes stronger

Economic integration refers to the process of eliminating trade barriers and integrating
economic policies between two or more countries. It aims to promote economic cooperation,
increase efficiency, and enhance economic growth among participating nations. There are
several theories and stages associated with economic integration. Let's explore them:

Stages of Economic Integration:

1. Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA): It is the lowest level of economic integration.
PTAs involve the reduction or elimination of tariffs and trade barriers on selected
products between member countries. Examples include free trade agreements (FTAs)
and bilateral agreements.
2. Free Trade Area (FTA): An FTA eliminates tariffs and trade barriers on most goods
among member countries. However, each member retains its independent trade
policies with non-member countries. Examples include the North American Free
Trade Agreement (NAFTA, now replaced by USMCA).
3. Customs Union: In a customs union, member countries eliminate internal tariffs and
adopt a common external trade policy towards non-member countries. The Southern
Common Market (Mercosur) is an example of a customs union.
4. Common Market: A common market goes beyond a customs union by allowing the
free movement of not only goods but also services, capital, and labor among member
countries. The European Single Market is an example.
5. Economic Union: An economic union involves deeper integration, including the
harmonization of national economic policies, as well as the establishment of a
common currency. The European Union (EU) is an example of an economic union.
 6. Political Union: The highest form of economic integration, a political union involves
not only economic cooperation but also the establishment of a unified political and
legal framework. This stage typically involves a significant loss of sovereignty by
member countries. The European Union is moving toward a closer political union.

12. Regional Economic Integrations Worldwide: Theory and Practice

Economic integration refers to the process of eliminating trade barriers and integrating
economic policies between two or more countries. It aims to promote economic cooperation,
increase efficiency, and enhance economic growth among participating nations. There are
several theories and stages associated with economic integration. Let's explore them:

Theory of Economic Integration:

- Neoclassical Theory: This theory suggests that economic integration leads to the
maximization of economic welfare through the free movement of goods, services,
capital, and labor across borders. It emphasizes the gains from specialization and
comparative advantage.

Stages of Economic Integration:

7. Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA): It is the lowest level of economic integration.
PTAs involve the reduction or elimination of tariffs and trade barriers on selected
products between member countries. Examples include free trade agreements (FTAs)
and bilateral agreements.
8. Free Trade Area (FTA): An FTA eliminates tariffs and trade barriers on most goods
among member countries. However, each member retains its independent trade
policies with non-member countries. Examples include the North American Free
Trade Agreement (NAFTA, now replaced by USMCA).
9. Customs Union: In a customs union, member countries eliminate internal tariffs and
adopt a common external trade policy towards non-member countries. The Southern
Common Market (Mercosur) is an example of a customs union.
10. Common Market: A common market goes beyond a customs union by allowing the
free movement of not only goods but also services, capital, and labor among member
countries. The European Single Market is an example.
11. Economic Union: An economic union involves deeper integration, including the
harmonization of national economic policies, as well as the establishment of a
common currency. The European Union (EU) is an example of an economic union.
12. Political Union: The highest form of economic integration, a political union involves
not only economic cooperation but also the establishment of a unified political and
legal framework. This stage typically involves a significant loss of sovereignty by
member countries. The European Union is moving toward a closer political union.
Examples:
- European Union (EU), economic union: The EU is one of the most advanced and
comprehensive examples of regional economic integration. It began as the European
Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1951 and evolved into the European Economic
Community (EEC) and later the EU. It encompasses 27 member states (as of 2021)
and has established a common market, a customs union, a single currency (the
Eurozone), and various common policies in areas such as agriculture, trade, and
competition.

- Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), free trade area: ASEAN is a

regional organization consisting of ten Southeast Asian countries, including Brunei,
Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore,
Thailand, and Vietnam. It aims to promote economic integration, free trade, and
cooperation among its members. ASEAN has established the ASEAN Free Trade
Area (AFTA) and has been working towards the creation of an ASEAN Economic
Community (AEC) to enhance economic integration in the region.

- Mercosur, customs union : Mercosur, officially known as the Southern Common

Market, is a regional economic integration initiative in South America. It includes
Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay as full members, with Bolivia, Chile,
Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, and Suriname as associate members. Mercosur
aims to create a common market, promote trade liberalization, and foster economic
cooperation among its member countries.

- North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), free trade area: NAFTA was an
economic integration agreement between Canada, Mexico, and the United States. It
aimed to eliminate trade barriers, promote investment, and enhance economic
cooperation among the three countries. In 2020, NAFTA was replaced by the United
States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA), which updated and modernized the
trade and investment provisions.

- African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA), free trade area: The AfCFTA is a
landmark initiative in Africa aimed at creating a single market for goods and services,
promoting intra-African trade, and facilitating economic integration across the
continent. It was launched in 2019 and has 54 member countries. The AfCFTA seeks
to boost economic growth, industrialization, and sustainable development in Africa.

- Eurasian Economic Union, customs union:

Most trade between Belarus and Russia! Everybody else is exporting natural resources
13.The Main Trends in International Finance: Global Overview

Institutions
Places of currencies
Trade and finance interconnected (dollar as reserve currencies)
Crypto currencies

The field of international finance within international relations experiences several main
trends that shape the dynamics and interactions among countries in the global financial
system. Here are some of the key trends in international finance:

Globalisation of financial markets? How it started, disadvantages and advantages,

which countries profit most and which are not involved and why?

The globalisation of the financial market due to reduction of trade barriers, improved
communication, foreign direct investment, etc.

Since the late 1970s globalisation has been rising rapidly. Reasons for this development are:
● Emergence of the newly industrialised countries of East Asia
● Rapid technological progress
● Japan emerged as a new source of FDI
● Since 1990s a new set of developing economies appeared (India, China, Mexico,
Chile, Brazil, Vietnam)

BUT already in late 19th century up to World War I the world economy was very integrated
(rail and ship transportation, telegraph communication)

Advantages:
● Greater flow of FDI and foreign aid increases employment in developing countries
● Acceleration of economic growth
● Spread of science and technologies to all countries of the world

Disadvantages:
● Countries become more vulnerable to shocks
● Increasing income inequality among countries
● Increasing cultural and religious contradictions
● Ecological problems in many countries

Dedollarization? What is it? Why did it appear? Why is it important for other
economies/countries? What are the advantages and disadvantages and for who? Who
profits?

De-dollarisation refers to reducing the dollar's dominance of global markets. It is a process of

substituting the US dollar as the currency used for: Trading oil and/ or other commodities.
Buying US dollars for the forex reserves etc.

- Global Financial Integration: There is a growing trend of global financial integration,

characterized by the increasing interconnectedness of financial markets and the cross-
 border flow of capital. This integration is facilitated by advancements in technology,
financial liberalization, and the removal of barriers to capital movement.

- Definition: Financialization is a process whereby financial markets, financial

institutions, and financial elites gain greater influence over economic policy and
economic outcomes. This happens when a country shifts away from industrial
capitalism. Additionally, it refers to the increased presence of the financial sector in
our lives, the increasing diversity of transactions and market players, along with the
intersection with all parts of the economy and society.

Financialization began with the fall of the Bretton Woods system and the rise of
NEOLIBERALISM
As Bretton Woods came to an end and the US government began printing more money, this
led to greater global liquidity which enabled banks to extend more credit to consumers. This
opened up additional opportunities for profits in the private lending market.
Neoliberalism advocated for deregulation which worked in favor of financial institutions.

Consequences:
● Facilitated capital to promote the growth of other sectors.
● Increased diversity of financial instruments sold - a process known as securitization.
● Disproportionate growth of incomes of those in the financial sector (income
inequality).
● Result of “unproductive capitalism”
● In the wake of the 2007-2010 financial crisis, a number of economists and others
began to argue that financial services had become too large a sector of the US
economy, with no real benefit to society accruing from the activities of increased
financialization.

Impacts:
1) to elevate the significance of the financial sector relative to the real sector,
2) to transfer income from the real sector to the financial sector, and
3) to increase income inequality and contribute to wage stagnation.
4) may put the economy at risk of debt deflation and prolonged recession.

- Rise of Emerging Market Economies: Emerging market economies have become

significant players in international finance. Countries such as China, India, Brazil, and
others have witnessed rapid economic growth, increased foreign direct investment,
and expanded capital markets. These emerging economies have gained influence in
global financial institutions and have become important sources of investment and
capital flows.
- Financial Crises and Regulatory Reforms: Financial crises, such as the global
financial crisis of 2008, have prompted regulatory reforms aimed at enhancing
financial stability and risk management. International institutions and national
governments have implemented measures to strengthen banking regulations, improve
transparency, and mitigate systemic risks in the global financial system.
- Sustainable Finance and ESG Considerations: There is a growing focus on sustainable
finance and Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) considerations. Investors,
financial institutions, and policymakers are increasingly recognizing the importance
of incorporating environmental and social factors into investment decisions. This
 trend is driving the growth of green finance, social impact investing, and the
development of ESG frameworks and standards.
- Digitalization and Fintech: The rapid advancement of technology and the emergence
of financial technology (fintech) are transforming the financial industry. Digitalization
has led to the development of new financial services, such as mobile banking, digital
payments, and blockchain-based platforms. Fintech innovations have the potential to
increase financial inclusion, improve efficiency, and reshape the landscape of
international finance.
- Role of International Financial Institutions: International financial institutions, such as
the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, and regional development
banks, continue to play a significant role in providing financial assistance, promoting
economic stability, and addressing global economic challenges. These institutions are
adapting their policies and programs to support sustainable development, poverty
reduction, and crisis management.
- Use of Economic Sanctions: Economic sanctions are increasingly used as a tool of
statecraft in international relations. Countries or groups of countries impose sanctions
on other nations to influence their behavior, address security concerns, or promote
adherence to international norms. Sanctions can include restrictions on trade, financial
transactions, investment, and access to international financial markets.
14. The Main Trends in International Law: Global Overview

IL has a long history. One of the oldest examples is the stone carved treaty on borders in
Mesopotamia (2100 BC). Or agreement on military alliance between Egyptian Pharaoh and
Hittie king. (Treaty of Kadesh)

Sources of IL:
● International conventions and treaties
● International customs
● General principles
● Judicial decision and teachings of highly qualified lawyers

1) Strengthening of International Human Rights Law:

- Increasing emphasis on the protection and promotion of human rights globally.

Treaty: The Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration (2018): aims to protect
the rights of migrants. The first-ever intergovernmentally negotiated UN agreement on a
common approach to international migration

2) Environmental Law and Climate Change:

- Heightened focus on addressing climate change and protecting the environment.

Treaty: Paris Agreement (2015): seeks to combat climate change and promote sustainable
development

3) International Criminal Law:

- Continued efforts to combat impunity for international crimes and hold individuals
accountable.

Teaty: The Kampala Amendments to the Rome Statute (2010): expands jurisdiction of the
International Criminal Court

4) Digital and Cyber Law:

- Increasing focus on regulating cyberspace and protecting digital rights.
- Development of legal frameworks for cybersecurity, data protection, and privacy.
- Addressing challenges such as cybercrime, misinformation, and the use of emerging
technologies.
Treaty: The Budapest Convention on Cybercrime (2001): aims to address the issue through
international cooperation

5) International Law of the Sea:

- Ongoing disputes over maritime boundaries and resources.

South China Sea, disputes between Peru and Chile

15. United Nations in Contemporary International Relations: Global Overview;
IMF or UNESCO
How many members? (193,15,45)
What do they address? (any, sec, economic etc)
Decisions are taken (⅔, 9 out of 15, majority)
Legally binding? (no, yes, no)

16. International Organization: Case-study

The Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) is a regional security alliance

comprising post-Soviet states. Here are some key points about the CSTO:
- Establishment: In 2002, the 6 member states agreed to create the Collective Security
Treaty Organization as a military alliance.

- Member States: The CSTO currently consists of six member states: Armenia, Belarus,
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, and Tajikistan.
- Uzbekistan was a member until 2012 but decided to suspend its participation. ( anew
foreign policy concept -> no to military blocs)

- The organization also has observer states, including Afghanistan and Serbia.

- Collective Security Council: This is the highest decision-making body of the CSTO
and consists of the heads of state or government of the member countries. The
council meets at least once a year and is responsible for setting the organization's
strategic direction and making important decisions.

- Permanent Council: The Permanent Council is composed of the permanent

representatives of the member states and meets regularly to discuss and coordinate
various aspects of the organization's activities. It serves as a forum for diplomatic
discussions and decision-making.

- Collective Security Council Secretary: The Secretary is appointed by the Council and
serves as the chief executive officer of the organization. They coordinate and
oversee the implementation of the decisions made by the Council and are
responsible for managing the day-to-day operations of the CSTO.

- Collective Rapid Reaction Force (CRRF): The CRRF is the military component of the
CSTO. It is a multinational force designed to respond to various security challenges,
including armed aggression, terrorism, and organized crime. The CRRF is under the
command of a Joint Staff, which coordinates its operational activities.

- Military Committee: The Military Committee consists of the Chiefs of General Staff or
equivalent military representatives of the member states. It plays a crucial role in
developing military cooperation, coordinating joint exercises, and ensuring the
effectiveness of the CRRF.

- Secretariat: The Secretariat provides administrative and organizational support to the

CSTO. It assists in the preparation of meetings, implementation of decisions, and
 serves as a communication hub between member states and other international
organizations.

- Working Groups and Committees: The CSTO has various working groups and
committees that focus on specific areas of cooperation, such as defense policy,
counterterrorism, military-technical cooperation, border security, and information
security. These groups facilitate dialogue and coordination among member states in
their respective domains.

17. Intergovernmental International Organizations: Global Overview

Different functions, membership and membership criteria

Various goals and scopes outlined in treaty or charter

Some are developed to provide a neutral forum for debate or negotiation to resolve disputes

Other developed to carry out mutual interest with unified aims

Security, peace and conflict resolution, promote economic or political cooperation,

environmental protection

Some are more general (UN) and others may have subject-specific missions (Interpol)

Realism: actors, such as international organizations, may desire a place in the international
system, however, they believe that such actors will not have any significant effect on what
goes on in world affairs.

Liberals believe that international institutions play a key role in cooperation among states via
interdependence. With the proper institutions and diplomacy, Liberals believe that states can
work together to maximize prosperity and minimize conflict. The realist lens magnifies
instances of war and conflict and then uses those to paint a certain picture of the world.
Liberals, when looking at the same world, adjust their lenses to blur out areas of domination
and instead bring areas of cooperation into focus. When looking at International
Organizations through a liberal perspective, it is clear that a function of them is to reduce the
security threat between states in the global arena. The main principles including the rejecting
the idea of power politics, absolute gains and international cooperation are ideas that have
shaped the creation of International organization.

United Nations (UN): The United Nations is the most prominent and comprehensive
intergovernmental organization. It was established in 1945 and has 193 member states. The
UN focuses on maintaining international peace and security, promoting human rights,
fostering economic and social development, and coordinating global cooperation on various
issues. It consists of several specialized agencies, programs, and bodies, including the
General Assembly, Security Council, Economic and Social Council, and the International
Court of Justice.

Regional Organizations: There are numerous intergovernmental organizations at the regional

level, each with its own focus and membership. Some of the prominent regional
organizations include:

- European Union (EU): The EU is a political and economic union comprising 27

European countries. It aims to promote economic integration, facilitate the free
movement of people and goods, and coordinate policies on various issues such as
trade, agriculture, and environmental protection.
- African Union (AU): The AU is a continental organization consisting of 55 member
states in Africa. It seeks to promote peace, security, and development in Africa,
address conflicts, enhance regional integration, and protect human rights.
- Organization of American States (OAS): The OAS is an organization of 35 member
states in the Americas. It aims to promote democracy, human rights, security, and
economic development in the region.
- Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN): ASEAN is a regional organization
comprising ten Southeast Asian countries. It focuses on promoting economic
integration, political cooperation, and cultural exchange in the region.
- Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC): The OIC is an organization of 57 member
states representing the interests of the Muslim world. It works on issues such as
solidarity among Muslim countries, promoting Islamic values, and addressing
political and socio-economic challenges.

Specialized Organizations: There are numerous specialized intergovernmental organizations

that focus on specific areas such as trade, health, finance, and environment. Some prominent
examples include:

- World Trade Organization (WTO): The WTO is a global organization that deals with
the rules of international trade and facilitates negotiations among member countries to
promote free and fair trade.
- World Health Organization (WHO): The WHO is a specialized agency of the UN that
focuses on global public health issues, provides guidance, sets standards, and
coordinates responses to health emergencies.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF): The IMF is an organization that promotes
international monetary cooperation, provides financial assistance to member
countries, and facilitates economic stability and growth.
- United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO):
UNESCO is a specialized agency of the UN that promotes international cooperation
in the fields of education, science, culture, and communication.
18. Territorial Integrity vs. the Right for Self-Determination as the Principles of
Contemporary International Law: Case-Study;

IL has a long history. One of the oldest examples is the stone carved treaty on borders in
Mesopotamia (2100 BC). Or agreement on military alliance between Egyptian Pharaoh and
Hittie king. (Treaty of Kadesh)

Sources of IL:
● International conventions and treaties
● International customs
● General principles
● Judicial decision and teachings of highly qualified lawyers

Generally recognised principles of IL:

● U.N. Charter (7 principles)
● Declaration of Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and
Cooperation among States (...) 1970 (principles were specified)
● Declaration of Principles, Final Act of CSCE 1975 (3 more principles added)

Russian doctrine of IL recognizes 10 principles of IL. Related to three categories:

● International peace and security
● Interaction and cooperation of states
● Human rights

1. Sovereign equality
2. Refraining from threat or use of force
3. inviolability of frontiers
4. territorial integrity
5. peaceful settlement of disputes
6. non-intervention in internal affairs
7. respect for human rights and fundamental freedom
8. equal rights and self determination of peoples
9. cooperation among states
10. fulfilment in good faith of obligations under international law

The Karabakh conflict is a territorial dispute between Armenia and Azerbaijan over the
region of Nagorno-Karabakh.

Nagorno-Karabakh is a predominantly ethnic Armenian region within Azerbaijan.

The conflict began in the late 1980s when Nagorno-Karabakh sought to unify with Armenia,
leading to violent clashes and a war from 1991 to 1994.
Armenia gained control over Nagorno-Karabakh and surrounding areas, establishing the
Republic of Artsakh, which is not internationally recognized.

Efforts to resolve the conflict have been ongoing, with the OSCE Minsk Group as the main
mediator.

In September 2020, a new round of heavy fighting broke out, resulting in Azerbaijan
regaining control over some territories.

In November 2020, a ceasefire agreement was signed, with Russian peacekeeping forces
deployed to Nagorno-Karabakh.

The conflict remains unresolved, with challenges in finding a comprehensive and sustainable
solution.

The Nagorno-Karabakh conflict raises complex issues related to the principles of territorial
integrity and the right to self-determination within the framework of contemporary
international law. Let's explore these principles:

Territorial Integrity: Territorial integrity is a fundamental principle of international law that

upholds the inviolability of a state's borders and the preservation of its territorial sovereignty.
According to this principle, states are entitled to have their territorial integrity respected by
other states and the international community. The principle of territorial integrity is enshrined
in the United Nations Charter and is considered a core norm in international relations.

Right to Self-Determination: The right to self-determination is another principle recognized

in international law. It grants peoples the right to freely determine their political status,
pursue their economic, social, and cultural development, and choose their own form of
governance. This right can be exercised by both individuals and groups, including minority
groups within states. The right to self-determination is also enshrined in the United Nations
Charter and in various human rights instruments.

In the context of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict:

a. Territorial Integrity Perspective: From the perspective of territorial integrity, the

internationally recognized borders of Azerbaijan encompass the region of Nagorno-
Karabakh. According to this view, any attempt to alter the territorial boundaries of
Azerbaijan through force or secession would be considered a violation of the principle of
territorial integrity.

b. Self-Determination Perspective: The predominantly ethnic Armenian population of

Nagorno-Karabakh seeks to exercise its right to self-determination by determining its own
political status. The population of Nagorno-Karabakh held a referendum in 1991, in which
the overwhelming majority voted for independence from Azerbaijan. They subsequently
declared the establishment of the Republic of Artsakh (the name used by the de facto
authorities in Nagorno-Karabakh). Advocates of self-determination argue that the rights of
the population in Nagorno-Karabakh should be respected, allowing them to determine their
political future.

The Nagorno-Karabakh conflict represents the tension between these two principles.
Resolving
19. Non-governmental Organizations in World Politics: Global Overview

Definition and Types of NGOs:

- non-profit organizations
- operate independently of governments
- driven by a specific mission or cause.

They can be categorized into various types, including:

- advocacy groups
- humanitarian organizations (Action against Hunger)
- development organizations
- human rights organizations
- environmental organizations

IR theories:
● Liberalism/Neo-liberalism: Liberal IR theorists generally view NGOs favorably and
see them as important actors in global governance. They argue that NGOs contribute
to democratization, the protection of human rights, and the promotion of global
cooperation. NGOs are seen as key players in advocating for social and environmental
issues and filling governance gaps left by states.

● Constructivism: Constructivist IR theorists emphasize the role of norms, ideas, and

social constructions in shaping international relations. They argue that NGOs play a
crucial role in shaping and disseminating norms and values, challenging traditional
state-centric power structures. NGOs are seen as influential in the construction of
global norms and the diffusion of ideas across borders.

● Realism: Realist IR theory focuses on the primacy of states and their pursuit of power
and national interests. From a realist perspective, NGOs are often seen as less
significant than states and are perceived as lacking coercive power. Realists argue that
NGOs may have limited influence in the international system, but they can still be
useful in providing humanitarian aid or serving as channels for state interests.

What do they do?

Advocate for specific causes by:

representing the interests of marginalized groups
promoting human rights
pushing for policy changes
engage in lobbying
public awareness campaigns
Research and policy analysis to influence decision-making processes
Humanitarian and Development Assistance: NGOs play a critical role in providing
humanitarian aid and development assistance in areas affected by conflicts, natural disasters,
and socio-economic challenges. They deliver emergency relief, support long-term
development projects, and work on issues such as poverty alleviation, healthcare, education,
and sustainable development.

Monitoring and Accountability: NGOs act as watchdogs, monitoring the actions of

governments, corporations, and other actors. They raise awareness about human rights
abuses, environmental degradation, corruption, and social injustices, holding accountable
those responsible. NGOs often publish reports, conduct investigations, and collaborate with
the media to expose wrongdoing.

Criticisms and Challenges: Who funds them? Are they independent? Are they biased? Is this
really the broader public interest? They lack democratic accountability?

Examples:
● Doctors without Borders:
Based in France, a medical NGO working in conflict zones, areas affected by natural
disasters, and areas with endemic diseases. Their focuses include antibiotic resistance,
maternal health, HIV/AIDS, malnutrition, vaccinations, mental health, and more.

● Amnesty International
An advocacy NGO based in the UK. It claims to have more than ten million members and
supporters. Its goal is to promote and protect human rights through awareness campaigns and
mobilizing the public. Areas of focus include torture, the death penalty, police brutality, and
climate justices.

● Danish Refugee Council

One of the leading international nonprofits that offers humanitarian support to refugees and
internally displaced persons affected by violence, war, political crises, and natural disasters.

● The Andrey Rylkov Foundation

20. Global Energy in Contemporary International Relations: Global Overview

Why is it important

International organizations:
- Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC): OPEC is an
intergovernmental organization that consists of 13 major oil-exporting countries. Its
primary goal is to coordinate and unify the petroleum policies of its member countries
to ensure stable oil prices and a steady supply to the market.
 - OPEC+: OPEC+ is a coalition formed by OPEC member countries and several non-
OPEC oil-producing countries, most notably Russia. The group was established to
stabilize global oil markets through coordinated production cuts or increases. OPEC+
aims to balance supply and demand to maintain price stability.

- International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA): The IAEA is an international

organization that promotes the peaceful use of nuclear energy and works to prevent
the proliferation of nuclear weapons. It serves as a forum for cooperation and
knowledge sharing among member states, and it provides technical assistance and
guidance on nuclear safety, security, and technology.

Major Energy Exporters:

● Oil: Saudi Arabia, Russia, United States, Iraq, Canada.
● Natural Gas: Russia, United States, Qatar, Australia, Canada.
● Coal: Australia, Indonesia, Russia, United States, Colombia.

Major Energy Importers:

● Oil: United States, China, India, Japan, South Korea.
● Natural Gas: Japan, China, South Korea, Germany, Italy.
● Coal: China, India, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan.

Coal Consumption:
● Coal consumption has been declining in many developed countries due to
environmental concerns and a shift towards cleaner energy sources.

Oil Consumption:
● Developing countries, particularly in Asia, have experienced significant growth in oil
consumption due to industrialization and increased transportation needs.

Natural Gas Consumption:

● Natural gas consumption has been growing steadily due to its relatively cleaner nature
compared to coal and oil.

Renewable Energy:
● The use of renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, hydroelectric, and biomass,
has been increasing globally.
● Countries like China, the United States, Germany, Japan, and India have been leaders
in renewable energy capacity and investment.

Energy Hotspots:
● The Middle East: Known for its abundant oil reserves, the region remains a significant
energy hotspot. Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and the United Arab Emirates are major oil
exporters.
 ● Russia: As a major exporter of both oil and natural gas, Russia plays a crucial role in
the European and Asian energy markets.

Strait of Hormuz, Strait of Malacca, Suez Channel

Nuclear Energy:
Nuclear energy considered as green energy by some
Major nuclear energy producers include US, France, China, Russia and Japan

Energy markets
Oil -> global
Gas -> regional
Coal, electricity -> domestic

1973: OPEC oil embargo (price rises, countries consider alternatives and by 1986 share of oil
in energy consumption fell below 40%)
1980s: OPEC relaxed extraction quotas for members, price fell abruptly -> low oil price in
1980s and 1990s.
2000s: Price grew dramatically due to global economic growth (China, Asia Pacific)
2008/9: economic crisis, short reversal but prices continued to grow (+ political instability in
North Africa and Middle East)
2011-2014: High oil prices but collapse in second half of 2014 due shale revolution and OPEC
decision not to cut extraction quotas -> price halved
21. National Energy Policy: Case-study

Iran Armenia Gas pipeline

Iran Iraq Gas Pipeline
Iran Turkey Pipeline
Project: Iran Oman Pipeline

Iran's Standing in the Energy Market (Oil and Gas):

Iran holds significant reserves of both oil and natural gas, making it a major player in the
global energy market. The country has the world's fourth-largest proven oil reserves and the
second-largest natural gas reserves. Historically, Iran has been a significant oil producer and
exporter.
However, Iran's energy market and its standing in the global oil and gas industry have been
subject to various challenges due to geopolitical factors and international sanctions:
- restricting its access to international markets
- hindering foreign investments in its oil and gas industry
- Lack of technology
These sanctions have had an impact on Iran's production capacity and its ability to export oil
and gas.

Iranian crude oil and natural gas exports accounted for 18 percent of GDP and about one-
quarter of government revenues. In contrast, oil and gas exports contributed about one-third
to Saudi Arabia’s GDP and constituted two-thirds of all Saudi government revenues in 2018.
Russia in 2021 - 40% of federal budget

But highest energy consumer in Middle East

Exports:
Iran has traditionally been a significant exporter of crude oil and natural gas. China, other
Asian countries and the Middle East.

Imports:
Iran imports certain refined petroleum products due to its limited refining capacity. It has
imported gasoline, diesel, and other petroleum products, particularly during periods of
domestic supply shortages. The country has imported refined products from various sources,
including the United Arab Emirates, India, and China.
Competition but also cooperation with Russia in energy market
National Policy on Energy:
Iran's national policy in regards to energy is influenced by several factors, including its
domestic energy needs, economic considerations, environmental concerns, and international
dynamics. Key aspects of Iran's energy policy include:

a. Energy Diversification: Iran has recognized the importance of diversifying its energy mix
and reducing dependence on fossil fuels. The country has sought to develop its renewable
energy sector, particularly solar and wind power, as part of its long-term energy strategy.

b. Domestic Energy Consumption: Iran has a large population and growing energy demand.
Managing domestic energy consumption is a priority to ensure reliable supply and meet the
needs of its population. Energy efficiency measures, conservation campaigns, and subsidies
on energy products have been employed to address consumption patterns.

c. Investment in Infrastructure: Iran has aimed to enhance its energy infrastructure, including
oil and gas exploration, production, refining, and transportation facilities. Investment in
infrastructure is crucial for maintaining and increasing its energy production capacity and
facilitating both domestic consumption and export activities.

d. International Cooperation: Iran has sought international partnerships and foreign

investments in its energy sector, particularly in the development of oil and gas fields,
infrastructure projects, and technology transfers. However, international sanctions have posed
challenges to foreign investments and collaborations.

e. Environmental Considerations: Iran faces environmental challenges, including air pollution

and water scarcity. The country has recognized the need to address these issues and has taken
steps to promote cleaner energy technologies, improve energy efficiency, and mitigate
environmental impacts in its energy sector.

22. Cyber-security in Contemporary International Relations: Global Overview

A new threat and challenge, intertwined with globalisation, not only nation states but also
NSA, cyber pirates etc.

- Privacy vs Security
- Snowden Leaks revealed that the NSA was able to conduct surveillance
without going through public warrants for courts. Justification was to ensure
national security…
- Increase use of technology has led to digitization
- Digitization has left critical services and infrastructure vulnerable to cyber attacks
from state and non-state actors (Colonial Pipeline was hit with ransomware by
Russian NSAs)
- Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections
 - Stuxnet was a malicious computer worm developed by the Americans and
Israelis to infect and damage Iran’s nuclear program
- Surveillance technology has made advances and can threaten national security
(Snowden leaks revealed US had ability to spy on state leaders’ devices - Angela
Merkel’s phone was bugged)
- New technologies like the Israeli Pegasus software has allowed states to
access smartphones without users being aware of this.
- Advances in quantum computing allow hackers to generate potential passwords faster
than before, they can also access supposedly protected areas through “brute force”,
forcing their way towards access.
- There are no “rules” between states on how cyberwarfare should be conducted.
Moreover, cyberthreats can also come from non-state actors who are difficult to track
down.
- The “securitization” of the cyberspace can be witnessed with countries beginning to
develop their cybersecurity capabilities as a means to protect national security (the US
Space force also deals with cyber threats, Singapore recently established a new branch
of its armed forces with the “Digital and Intelligence Service)

Disruptive
Strategic stability
Nsa and states
Stuxnet
Pipeline in US
Elections Trump
23. Human Rights in Contemporary International Relations: Global Overview

Definition:
a right which is believed to belong to every person.

A HISTORICAL NOTE:
- One of the first widely known document is the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of
the Citizen (Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du Citoyen), passed by France's
National Constituent Assembly in 1789. It is a important document in the history of
human and civil rights.
- Also widely known are the U.S. Bill of Rights of 1789 - the first ten amendments to
the United States Constitution on specific guarantees of personal freedoms and
rights, clear limitations on the government's power in judicial and other proceedings.
The concepts codified in these amendments are built upon those found in several
earlier documents, including the Virginia Declaration of Rights and the English Bill of
Rights 1689, along with pre-earlier documents such as Magna Carta (1216)

And what is Magna Carta?

- Magna Carta, 1216, meaning The Great Charter', was a peace treaty between the
King John of England and his rebel barons
- Magna Carta established for the first time the principle that everybody, including the
king, was subject to the law.
- Some of Magna Carta's core principles are echoed in the United States Bill of Rights
and in many other constitutional documents around the world, as well as in the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and the European Convention on
Human Rights (1950).
- Magna Carta contained 63 clauses. The third is the most famous and is valid today:
- No free man shall be seized or imprisoned, or stripped of his rights or possessions,
or outlawed or exiled, or deprived of his standing in any other way, nor will we
proceed with force against him, or send others to do so, except by the lawful
judgment of his equals or by the law of the land.

The formation of the United Nations gave human rights international legitimacy, particularly
because many nations signed the United Nations Charter, which specifically mentions
human rights.

Its Preamble and Chapter I reaffirmed faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and
worth of human persons, in equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small
and called for promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental
freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion.

In details respect and protection of human rights were fixed as a principle of international law
in the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe in 1975:
 - States respect human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the freedom of
thought, conscience, religion or belief, for all without distinction as to race, sex,
language or religion.

- States promote and encourage the effective exercise of civil, political, economic,
social, cultural and other rights and freedoms, all of which derive from the inherent
dignity of the human person and are essential for his free and full development.

- States recognize and respect the freedom of the individual to profess and practice,
alone or in community with others religion or belief acting in accordance with the
dictates of his own conscience.

- States on whose territory national minorities exist will respect the right of persons
belonging to such minorities to equality before the law, will afford them the full
opportunity for the actual enjoyment of human rights and fundamental freedoms and
will, in this manner, protect their legitimate interests in this sphere.

- States recognize the universal significance of human rights and fundamental

freedoms, respect for which is an essential factor for peace, justice and well- being
necessary to ensure the development of friendly relations and co-operation among
themselves as among all States.

- States constantly respect these rights and freedoms in their mutual relations and
endeavor jointly and separately, including in cooperation with the United Nations, to
promote universal and effective respect for them.

- States confirm the right of the individual to know and act upon his rights and duties in
this field.

- In the field of human rights and fundamental freedoms, States will act in conformity
with the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations and with the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights. They will also fulfill their obligations as set
forth in the international declarations and agreements in this field, including inter alia
the International Covenants on Human Rights.

The UN now serves as the main coordinating body for its agencies which implement and
monitor IHRs.

Since the formation of the United Nations, it has passed many agreements and resolutions
binding the signatories to respect human rights.

Additionally, it has set up tribunals to charge those suspected of violations of human rights.

Several other organizations, created by various treaties, have come into existence.

Human rights continue to be a growing body of international law.

There are more than 70 international conventions adopted in this field.

The three basic pillars of IHRL are:
- Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948
- International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966
- International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1966

All three combined are called the International Bill of Human Rights

On the basis of the Bill of Rights a number of other treaties have been adopted at the
international level. These are generally known as human rights instruments.

Some of the most significant include:

- Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, 1979
- Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or
Punishment, 1984
- Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989
- International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and
Members of Their Families, 1990
- International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced
Disappearance, 2006 am i going to hell for finding this funny?
- Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, 2006
- Optional Protocol to the Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

Let us examine three components of the Bill of Rights.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) of 1948 is a UN General Assembly

declaration. 5 pages, precise and declarative, not treaty; since GA - not legally binding. Soft
law. Russian law, considers it as customary law.

UDHR is a set of recommendations, it does not contain legally binding obligations. Many
legal scholars cite the UDHR as evidence of customary international law.

However, the moral authority of the document is so high that UDHR is considered as the
"golden standard" of international human rights.

Indeed, its provisions were later incorporated into other international conventions.

It sets out, for the first time in history, fundamental human rights to be universally protected.

It has been translated into almost 500 languages.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights provides for the following:

General provisions
- All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
 - Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms without distinction of any kind,
such as race, color, sex, language,religion, political or other opinion, national or
social origin, property, birth or other status.
- Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.
- No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be
prohibited.
- No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or
punishment.

Judicial issues
- All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal
protection of the law.
- No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile.
- Everyone charged with a penal offense has the right to be presumed innocent until
proved guilty according to law in a public trial.
- No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or
correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honor and reputation.

Freedoms of movement
- Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of
each state
- Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his
country.
- Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from
persecution.

Nationality issues
- Everyone has the right to a nationality.
- No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change
his nationality

Men and women, family

- Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion,
have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to
marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution.
- The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to
protection by society and the State

Property
- International Human Rights Law
- Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others
- No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.

Religion
- Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, to manifest
his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.
- Freedom of opinion and assembly
 - Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes
freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart
information and ideas.
- Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.

Freedom of opinion and assembly

- Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes
freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart
information and ideas.
- Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.

Government, elections
- Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or
through freely chosen representatives.
- The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall
be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal
suffrage and shall be held by secret vote.

Equal pay, right to holidays, living standards

- Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work.
- Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working
hours and periodic holidays with pay.
- Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being
of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and
necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment,
sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances
beyond his control.

Motherhood and childhood

- Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children,
whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection.

Education
- Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the
elementary and fundamental stages.
- Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education
shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to
all on the basis of merit.
- Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to
the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms

Culture, science
- Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, to
enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits.

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights of 1966 promotes for.

 - physical integrity, in the form of the right to life and freedom from torture and slavery;

- liberty and security of the person, in the form of freedom from arbitrary arrest and
detention;

- procedural fairness in law, in the form of rights to due process, a fair and impartial
trial, the presumption of innocence, and recognition as a person before the law;

- individual liberty, in the form of the freedoms of movement, thought, conscience and
religion, speech, association and assembly, family rights, the right to a nationality,
and the right to privacy;

- prohibition of any propaganda for war as well as any advocacy of national or religious
hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence by law;

- political participation, including the right to the right to vote;

- non-discrimination, minority rights and equality before the law.

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 provides for:

- work, under "just and favorable conditions", with the right to form and join trade
unions;

- social security, including social insurance;

- family life, including paid parental leave and the protection of children;

- an adequate standard of living, including adequate food, clothing and housing, and
the "continuous improvement of living conditions";

- health, specifically "the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health";

- education, including free universal primary education, generally available secondary

education and equally accessible higher education. This should be directed to "the
full development of the human personality and the sense of its dignity", and enable
all persons to participate effectively in society;

- participation in cultural life.

Monitoring, implementation and enforcement of IHRL

This is a key issue.

There is no single body responsible for that.

 - Implementing organs are established under all major international Conventions on
human rights such as the Conventions on the protection of rights of women, child,
Convention against torture, Convention on civil and political rights, etc.

- International human rights conventions require states to provide periodic reports on

the implementation of their obligations. The reports are expected to detail progress
in implementing the treaty in domestic law and practice. The state's delegation
appears before the Human Rights Committee to discuss the report in a public
process. At the end of a session the committee issues 'concluding observations' on
each state, using the report, the dialogue, and any other relevant information
submitted by, for example, national human rights institutions or non-governmental
organizations. These observations are used to commend the state for any progress
and to identify areas where improvement is expected.

There are ten human rights treaty bodies that monitor implementation of the core
international human rights treaties:
1. Human Rights Committee (CCPR)
2. Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR
3. Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD)
4. Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW)
5. Committee against Torture (CAT)
6. Subcommittee on Prevention of Torture (SPT)
7. Committee on the Rights of the Child (CRC)
8. Committee on Migrant Workers (CMW)
9. Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD)
10. Committee on Enforced Disappearances (CED)

The High Commissioner for Human Rights is the principal human rights official of the United
Nations.

The High Commissioner heads OHCHR and spearheads the United Nations' human rights
efforts.

OHCHR's thematic priorities are strengthening international human rights mechanisms;

enhancing equality and countering discrimination; combating impunity and strengthening
accountability and the rule of law, integrating human rights in development and in the
economic sphere; widening the democratic space; and early warning and protection of
human rights in situations of conflict, violence and insecurity.

It has an office at United Nations headquarters in New York and offices in numerous
countries and regions. OHCHR has four major divisions:

- The Research and Right to Development Division (RRDD) is responsible for thematic
research and policy development, human rights mainstreaming across all work areas
of the United Nations system, development of tools and learning packages and
provision of expertise to a variety of stakeholders on a wide range of human rights
themes.
 - The Human Rights Treaties Division (HRTD) is responsible for supporting the work of
the 10 human rights treaty bodies that are mandated to monitor national-level
implementation of international human rights treaties.

- The Field Operations and Technical Cooperation Division (FOTCD) supports the
work of human rights field presences and leads OHCHR engagement with countries
on human rights issues.

- The Human Rights Council and Special Procedures Division (HRCSPD) provides
substantive and organizational support to the Human Rights Council, its Universal
Periodic Review (UPR) mechanism, special procedures and other subsidiary bodies.

They employ 1085 staff based in Geneva, New York and in 13 country offices and 13
regional offices around the world.

The UN also employs the UN Refugee Agency and its High Commissioner who heads the
UNHCR.

It has twice won the Nobel Peace Prize.

Its 9,700 staff members work in 126 countries providing protection and assistance to nearly
60 million refugees, returnees, internally displaced people and stateless persons.

Some 88 per cent of UNHCR staff work in the field, often in difficult and dangerous duty
stations.

The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) is mandated by the United
Nations to lead and coordinate international action for the worldwide protection of refugees
and the resolution of refugee problems.

UNHCR's primary purpose is to safeguard the rights and well-being of refugees. UNHCR
strives to ensure that everyone can exercise the right to seek asylum and find safe refuge in
another state, or to return home voluntarily. By assisting refugees to return to their own
country or to settle in another country, UNHCR also seeks lasting solutions to their plight.

UNHCR's efforts are mandated by the organization's Statute, and guided by the 1951 United
Nations Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol.

The Human Rights Committee is the body of independent experts that monitors
implementation of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights by its State parties.

All States parties are obliged to submit regular reports to the Committee on how the rights
are being implemented.

States must report initially one year after acceding to the Covenant and then whenever the
Committee requests (usually every four years). The Committee examines each report and
addresses its concerns and recommendations to the State party in the form of "concluding
observations”.
In addition to the reporting procedure, article 41 of the Covenant provides for the Committee
to consider inter-state complaints.

Furthermore, the First Optional Protocol to the Covenant gives the Committee competence
to examine individual complaints.

The only international institution where an individual can initiate a legal claim against
a state is the European Court of Human Rights.

It is not a part of the UN system but that of the authority of the European Convention on
Human Rights.

- The European Convention on Human Rights is an international treaty to protect

human rights and fundamental freedoms in Europe.
- The Convention established the European Court of Human Rights.

- Any person who feels his rights have been violated under the Convention by a state
party can take a case to the Court.

- Decisions of the Court finding violations are binding on the States concerned and
those States are obliged to execute them.

- The Court was established on 21 January 1959.

- The jurisdiction of the Court has been recognized by all 47 member states of the
Council of Europe (including Russia).

- The Court receives thousands of complains each year.

- Applications by individuals against states, alleging that the state violates their rights
under the European Convention on Human Rights, can be made by any person, non-
governmental organization or group of individuals.

- After the preliminary finding of admissibility the Court examines the case by hearing
representations from both parties.

- The Court may undertake any investigation it deems necessary on the facts or issues
raised in the application and contracting states are required to provide the Court with
all necessary assistance for this purpose.

- The Court's chamber decides both issues regarding admissibility and merits of the
case.

- More than 90% of complains are declared to be inadmissible.

 - In final judgments the Court makes a declaration that a state has violated the
Convention, and may order the state to pay material and/or moral damages and the
legal expenses.

- The Court's judgments are public and must contain reasons justifying the decision.
Article 46 of the Convention provides that states undertake to abide by the Court's
final decision.

United Nations (UN): The UN is a key institution in the field of human rights. It has
established various bodies and mechanisms to promote and protect human rights, such as:

a. Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR): The OHCHR is the main
UN entity responsible for human rights. It provides leadership, supports states in
implementing human rights obligations, and coordinates the work of UN human rights
mechanisms.

b. Human Rights Council (HRC): The HRC is an intergovernmental body within the UN
system responsible for strengthening the promotion and protection of human rights globally.
It conducts periodic reviews of the human rights records of all UN member states and
addresses human rights situations worldwide.

c. Treaty Bodies: The UN has established several treaty bodies to monitor the
implementation of specific human rights treaties. Examples include the Human Rights
Committee or the Committee against Torture.

International Human Rights Treaties: Several international treaties have been adopted to
safeguard and promote human rights globally. Some of the most significant ones include:

a. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR): Although not a treaty, the UDHR is a
fundamental document that sets out the basic principles of human rights. It has been widely
recognized as a cornerstone of international human rights law.

b. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR): The ICCPR protects civil and
political rights, such as the right to life, freedom of speech, and freedom of assembly.

c. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR): The ICESCR
safeguards economic, social, and cultural rights, such as the right to education, the right to
work, and the right to health.

Regional Human Rights Mechanisms: Regional organizations have also established

human rights mechanisms to address specific regional contexts. Examples include:

a. European Court of Human Rights (ECHR): The ECHR is responsible for interpreting and
enforcing the European Convention on Human Rights within the Council of Europe system.
b. Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR): The IACHR promotes and
protects human rights in the Americas, primarily through the American Convention on
Human Rights.

Emerging Trends:
a. Focus on Accountability: There is an increasing emphasis on holding individuals and
states accountable for human rights violations, including through international criminal
tribunals and courts.

b. Technology and Human Rights: The impact of technology on human rights, including
issues related to privacy, freedom of expression, and cybersecurity, has gained significant
attention.

c. Humanitarian interventions

24. International Migration in Contemporary International Relations: Global Overview

In 2020, an estimated 281 million people were living outside their country of birth, i.e.
3.6 % of total world population. This number – defined as the global stock of
international migrants – is almost twice as high as it was in 1990. (upward trend
since 2000)

Directions of migration:

Earlier: From developing to developed states (low-quality labour force)

Nowadays:
1) From developing to developed states (also high-quality labour force):
• Mexico→the USA, Turkey→Germany, China→the USA, India→the
USA;
• This channel weakens due to recession in the developed countries;
• In 2013 the number of migrants amounted to 81,9 million (share of
migrants in population of the developed countries is 11%).

2) From developed to developing countries:

• The USA, Canada→Latin America; the EU→Turkey; Japan→Thailand,
Malaysia;
• The reason is the recession in the developed countries and economic
growth in developing countries;
• In 2010 the number of migrants amounted to 7-14 million, that is only 3-
6% migrants in the world economy.

3) Between developing countries:

• Bangladesh→India; Afghanistan→Pakistan; Bangladesh, India, Sri
Lanka, Pakistan→countries of the Persian Gulf;
 • In 2013 г. the number of migrants amounted to 82,3 million (share of
migrants in population of countries is less 2%).
• This channel rises due to recession in the developed countries (Т=2,5%);
• In developing countries there is the lack of high-quality labour force
(every year Brazil needs 60 thousands of new engineers, China is in need
of teachers of English language);

4) Between developed countries:

• Germany, Canada, Korea→the USA; the UK→Australia.

Centers of migration:
1. Western Europe, USA, Canada and Australia (more than 35 million people from
Asia, Africa etc. live there; every year more than 1 million people come there);
2. Middle East countries (after 1973; the number of migrants amounts to 5 million;
Qatar=92%, the UAE=89%, Kuwait=86%);
3. South Africa (every year more than 250 thousand people come there from Lesotho,
Botswana etc.);
4. Latin America (the number of migrants amounts to 8 million)

5. South-East Asian countries (Malaysia, Singapore).

The main centers of labor migration among developed countries:

· The USA = 43 million people (1st place in the world economy);
· Germany = 11 million people (3rd place in the world economy);
· Canada, the UK, Spain, France = 7 million people each (5-8 th places in the world
economy);
· Australia = 6 million people (9th place in the world economy).

The reasons for migration:

1. Wage differentials;
2. Family and social networks;
3. Demographic and economic conditions;
4. Conflict and displacement;
5. Environmental pressures.

Main exporters of labour force in the world economy:

Developing countries (apart from the Maldives, Bhutan, countries of the Persian Gulf etc.)
and some developing countries.

Impacts on sending countries:

Pros:
1. Weakening the problem of unemployment;
2. Remittances;
 3. After the work abroad the migrants usually come with knowledge, money, operational
experience.
Cons:
1. Brain drain;
2. Deterioration of dependency ratio.

Impact on receiving countries:

Cons:
1. Taking jobs away from natives;
2. Countries can become depended on migrants;
3. In receiving countries there can be social tension due to migrants;
4. Rising crime;
5. Migrants from developed countries can stimulate rising prices for housing, health and
educational services etc.
Pros:
1. Migrants tend to be more mobile than native workers;
2. Wages of migrants is lower than of native workers;
3. Immigration stimulates economic growth (production);
4. Migrants don’t receive pensions and are not provided with social programmes;
5. Migrants from developed countries bring knowledge, entrepreneurship resources and
stimulate the development of service-sector of the national economy.

Migrant channels:
• Mexico- USA=11,6 million people;
• Bangladesh-India=3,3 million people;
• Turkey-Germany=2,7 million people;
• Kazakhstan-Russia=2,6 million people;
• India-the UAE=2,2 million people.

25. Heads of States and Governments in the Perspective of Comparative Constitutional

Law

Forms of government (form of ruling) differ, depending on whether the power is carried by
one person, or it belongs to a collective body. (2 main forms of government: Monarchy or
Republic)
The form of government is fixed by most of the modern Constitutions

Form of government. Monarchy (oldest form of government)

Characteristics:
●The Monarch = Head of State,
●Term of Power ⇒ unlimited(life limit)
●inherited power
- Salic system - only men can inherit, women are not able to inherit at all
- Castilian system - women can inherit but if the relations are direct (ex: the
monarch’s daughter, not the monarch’s nephew)
- Austrian system - women inherit only if there are no men at all (used in Monaco)
- Swedish system - the first born inherits the throne

(1) Absolute Monarchy

Unlimited power of the Monarch.
No separation of Powers.
All decisions in the State are taken by the Monarch, nobody can overcome these decisions
(Ex: Saudi Arabia, Oman)

(2) Constitutional Monarchy (power is limited by constitution)

(2.1) Dualistic
- Two centres of Power: the Monarch and the Parliament
Parliament elected by the people, But monarch can dissolve elected parliament
- The Monarch possesses absolute veto power ⇒ monarch more powerful than
parliament (also he can dissolve the parliament)
- The powers may be shared between three branches
Government appointed by the Monarch and responsible only to the Monarch
Example: Jordan, (used to be)

(2.2) Parliamentary (Most popular form of monarchy)

- The monarch reigns, but not rules
- The powers of the Monarch are seriously limited
(Ex: Japan, very limited power of monarch)
(Ex: UK - monarch has absolute veto power, but is not used for more than 300 years. UK
monarch didn’t use it for a Long long time )
- power is separated between three branches: Executive, Legislative, Judiciary
- government is selected by the Parliament and is responsible for the parliament
- The Monarch has no possibilities to limit the decisions of the parliament (no veto, or very
limited application) (Can ask ministers questions, ask for reports, etc )
-All acts of monarch should be countersigned by the Head of Government or responsible
minister (transfer of the responsibility and necessity of two signatures to give legal for to the
acts)
(Ex: most European countries, UK, Japan)

Form of government: Republic

Republic (Form Lat. Res publica - public affair) = form of government, which is
characterized by an elected head of state, usually referred to as the president.
Source of power-people(nation). Main goal: to serve the interest of the people
(1.1) Presidential Republic
- Substantive volume of responsibilities of the Head of State (President)
-The President is elected by population (direct or indirect voting) and gets mandate from the
population (Powerful because was chosen by the people)
-President appoints ministers (government) (Ministers are reporting directly to the president,
they cannot be controlled by the parliament. President appoints the government and manages
it. Government is responsible only before President, no parliamentary responsibility)
-President constitutes part of the Executive branch of power
- President has right to suspend laws, coming from the Parliament (suspensive veto). Pocket
Veto in addition in USA
-----suspensive veto - a veto by which a law is merely suspended until reconsidered by the
legislature and becomes a law if repassed by an ordinary majority)
-----pocket veto - empowers the President to simply keep the bill pending for an indefinite
(no prescribed time-limit) period. The President neither ratified nor rejects or returns the bill.
- President may be deprived of the legislative initiative right (USA) => may not be able to
initiate any law
- Separation of powers into three branches
- (Ex: USA, Kazakhstan, Uruguay, Argentina, etc)

(1.2) Super Presidential Republic - republic is an extreme form of the Presidential republic
- Practically unlimited powers of the Head of State
- Separation of Powers is fictitious
- Absolute Veto power of the Head of state (it is possible to stop a law, adopted in the
parliament)
- (Ex:Latin American countries with dictatorship regimes, South African countries (Rwanda),
People’s republic of Korea)

(2) Parliamentary Republic

- Limited powers of the head of state (president), his power is more decorative
- Head of state is elected by the Parliament or specially formed body (council, Convent, etc)
Mandate is transferred by indirect way
- The government is formed by the Parliament
- The Government represents the parliament majority party or is based on coalition
- The government answers to the parliament (vote of no confidence, annual reports, censure
resolution, etc)
- All acts of the Head of State should be countersigned by the Head of Government of
responsible minister
-( Ex: Israel, Germany, Greece, Italy, etc)

(3) Mixed Republic (Parliamentary-Presidential or Presidential- Parliamentary) - The head

of state (president) has vast powers
- The president is elected by the population of the country
- The government is formed by the parliament and the president (president proposes
candidates and the Parliament approves)
- The Gov. represents the Parliament majority party or is based on coalition
- The gov. bears responsibility before the Parliament (vote of no confidence, annual reports,
censure resolutions etc) and before the president (dual responsibility
- Important that the president and the parliament share the same political orientation.
- * This form of government is effective provided that a government based on a
parliamentary majority, and the president share the same political orientation
- Ex: France, Russia
26. The Role of Heads of State and Government in a National Political System: Case-
study

Russia:
In Russia, the political system is a semi-presidential republic with a strong executive
presidency, which means power is shared between the President and the Prime Minister.

Head of State (President): The President of Russia is the head of state and represents the
country domestically and internationally. The President is directly elected by the citizens and
serves as the highest-ranking official in the government. The President has significant
executive powers, including the ability to appoint the Prime Minister and members of the
government, propose legislation, and command the armed forces. The President also has the
authority to dissolve the lower house of the parliament (State Duma) under certain
circumstances. (if Duma rejects Prime Minister three times or if Duma votes no confidence
on government a second time within three months)

The President is elected for six years by citizens of the Russian Federation. Any Russian
citizen not younger than 35 years who has resided in the Russian Federation on a permanent
basis for not less than 10 years may be elected President.
The President may be impeached by the Federation Council only on the basis of charges of
high treason or of another grave crime brought by the State Duma.

Head of Government (Prime Minister): The Prime Minister is the head of government in
Russia. They are appointed by the President, subject to confirmation by the State Duma. The
Prime Minister is responsible for implementing the President's policies and managing the
day-to-day operations of the government. They work closely with the President and
coordinate with various ministries and government agencies.

The Government consists of the Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation,
deputy chairmen and federal ministers. The Government heads the system of federal
executive bodies: ministries, federal services and federal agencies. However, there are
ministries, federal agencies and services that report directly to the President, for example, the
Ministry of Internal Affairs, the Ministry of Emergency Situations, the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs, the Ministry of Defense, etc.

In case of the president's death, resignation or impeachment, the prime minister becomes a
temporary president until new presidential elections which must take place within three
months. The prime minister as acting president may not dissolve the State Duma, announce a
referendum or propose amendments to the Constitution.

Both have seat in SC

 1. The president of Russia holds the highest political office in the
government, while the prime minister holds the second highest
office.
2. The president is elected by the Russian people, while the prime
minister is appointed by the president, just like other
applicable offices in the government.
3. The president is the head of the state and the government; the
prime minister is a co-head of the government but not of the
state.
4. The president has a central role in the Russian political system,
while the Prime minister acts only as a chief administrator of
the government.
5. The president has the power to appoint and dismiss the prime
minister. The prime minister doesn’t have this privilege.

27. Post-Soviet Space as a Regional Subsystem of Contemporary International

Relations: Global Overview;

States: 12+3
Russia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova,
Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan
(excluding Baltic states)
Conflict:
- Armenia (& Artsakh) - Azerbaijan
- Tajikistan - Kyrgyzstan
- Russia - Ukraine
- Tajik civil war
- Moldova - Transnistria
- Ethnic clashes in Kyrgyzstan
- Chechen wars and insurgencies in Dagestan and Ingushetia

De facto states: Abkhazia, South Ossetia, Transnistria, Artsakh

Eurasian integration, consolidation of post-Soviet space (minus Baltic states) is the single
most important project to Russia today. Highest priority of Russia.
In 1990s idea was to become part of the West.
Eurasia as region to be lead by Russia. Eurasia is the definition of status-quo for Russia.
East Central Europe was not that much of an issue, everybody understood that it is gone.
Success or failure to consolidate Eurasia will define if Putin’s foreign policy is a failure or a
success. If it is a failure -> Russia will have to choose between being junior partner of China
or of the USA.
In Russian thinking: West needs some years to “digest” the enlargement -> Russia has a
window of time to consolidate Eurasia -> Bucharest debate showed that was a wrong
assumption
initially based on consensus -> problem because only 7% were actually ratified -> very
fragmented -> dissident states -> rejecting supranational institutions
Because 12 members never agreed -> multi-speed integration -> it would be tried with
smaller members and then others might join -> led to EAEU and CSTO

CIS no longer key project for Russia -> key projects are EAEU and CSTO
Customs unions didn’t lead to more trade
Most trade between Belarus and Russia! Everybody else is exporting natural resources
28. Euro-Atlantic Region as a Regional Subsystem of Contemporary International
Relations: Global Overview;

● Regional leaders: France, Germany, United Kingdom.

● The old European states struggled for dominance of the continent with the UK
playing the role of balancer.
 ● During cold war Europe was divided by two alliances and two groups of states and
two economic integration projects: the European Community/EU and COMECON
(Socialist bloc)
● But even during the Cold War, there were exceptions within the two blocs, in NATO
France had an independent streak under De Gaulle - leaving the NATO command
structure, in the Socialist bloc you had states like Yugoslavia, Albania, and Romania
with independent minded leaders.
● The United States has been the primary security provider of the region with NATO
members falling under the “Security Umbrella” of Washington. This has enabled the
EU to develop their economies and social democracies with defense a secondary
priority (this has begun to change given recent geopolitical challenges)
● With the end of the Cold War, attempts were made to integrate the post socialist states
and even including Russia. However, as both the United States and European states
sought their own security interests, the expansion of NATO came at the expense of
Russian security. Thus, Europe has become a frontline of great power competition
today.

Here are the main points regarding the Euro-Atlantic region as a regional subsystem in IR:

5/10

Main Actors:
● United States: As the dominant power in the region, the United States plays a central
role in shaping the dynamics of the Euro-Atlantic region. It has significant military
capabilities, economic influence, and a history of alliances with European countries.

● European Union (EU): The EU is a major actor within the Euro-Atlantic region,
consisting of 27 member states. It aims to promote economic integration, common
 policies, and cooperation among its members. Most developed regional integration
project worldwide.

● NATO: The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). NATO serves as a key
security institution in the Euro-Atlantic region, providing collective defense and
cooperation among its members. 31 members.

● Russia: As a significant Eurasian power, Russia is a major actor in the Euro-Atlantic

region. It has historical tensions and geopolitical interests in the region, which
influence its relations with other actors.

● United Kingdom:
- The United Kingdom (UK) has historically been a major global power and has
played a crucial role in European affairs. Its departure from the European
Union (EU) through Brexit has impacted the dynamics within the Euro-
Atlantic region.
- The UK possesses significant military capabilities, including its nuclear
deterrent, and has been an active participant in NATO, contributing to
collective defense efforts.
- Economically, the UK has a highly developed financial sector, with London
serving as a global financial hub. Its economic ties with Europe are of
 considerable importance, and post-Brexit trade agreements have been a key
focus.

● Germany:
- Germany is the largest economy within the European Union and a driving
force behind European integration. It plays a central role in shaping EU
policies and initiatives.
- Germany has been a key supporter of European economic and political
integration, advocating for closer cooperation among member states.
- It has a strong manufacturing sector and is known for its export-oriented
economy. German industries, such as automotive and machinery, have
significant influence in the global market.

● France:
- France is another major actor in the Euro-Atlantic region, with a rich history
of global influence. It has played a significant role in European integration and
has been a driving force behind initiatives such as the Common Security and
Defense Policy (CSDP) within the EU.
- France possesses substantial military capabilities, including a nuclear
deterrent, and maintains an active role in NATO, contributing to European
security and defense.
- Economically, France has a diverse and developed industrial sector, including
aerospace, defense, automotive, and luxury goods. It is one of the world's
largest economies and a key player in global trade and investment.
- France often advocates for an independent European defense and security
policy, highlighting its commitment to maintaining European sovereignty.

Main Institutions:
● European Union: The EU is a supranational institution that fosters economic
integration, political cooperation, and the development of common policies among its
member states.

● NATO: NATO is a collective defense alliance that aims to safeguard the security and
stability of its member states through mutual defense commitments and military
cooperation.

● Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE): The OSCE is a

regional security organization that includes nearly all European countries, the United
States, and Canada. It addresses security, human rights, and cooperation issues in the
Euro-Atlantic region.

Economic Power:
 ● The Euro-Atlantic region is home to some of the world's largest economies, including
the United States, Germany, the United Kingdom, and France. These countries
contribute significantly to global GDP and trade.

● The EU is the world's largest single market, facilitating trade and economic
integration among its member states. It has a common currency (the euro) used by 19
EU countries.

Problems and Challenges:

● Security Issues: Very peaceful. Russia - Ukraine, Yugoslavia

● Brexit: The departure of the United Kingdom from the EU, commonly known as
Brexit, has posed challenges for both the EU and the UK. It has impacted trade
relations, security cooperation, and the future of the EU project.

● Migration: The Euro-Atlantic region has experienced significant migration flows,

leading to debates over immigration policies, social integration, and border security.

● Relative decline

Keep US in, Ger down, Rus out

Europe a key region in main US grand strategy schools (Offshore balancing, selective
engagement)

29. Asia-Pacific Region as a Regional Subsystem of Contemporary International

Relations: Global Overview;

- Some issues of the region:

- Unresolved territorial disputes: South China Sea, Korean peninsula, Taiwan.
- American attempt to create the “Indo-Pacific” bringing India into the region as
a means to balance against China.
- Nuclearization of the Korean peninsula
- Wariness of the region becoming a battleground for great power competition
between China and the United States.
- Armed Conflict in Myanmar
- Growing middle class in developing countries like Indonesia, Philippines,
Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam. Some of which have pressured their
governments for further democratization and reform.
- Ageing population in first wave developed Asian countries like China, South
Korea, Japan, Singapore, which will put a strain on their economic resources.
- US pivot to Asia under Obama administration

- Regional bipolarity: US vs China

- China -> unipole in region but multipole worldwide and willing to share Pacific but not
letting foreign powers into Asia

- Sub regions of the Asia-Pacific and their regional leaders:

- East Asia: China, Japan, South Korea
- South East Asia (and beyond): Indonesia, Australia

- Unlike Europe or Eurasia, the Asia Pacific has remained unchanged since the Cold
War. The Korean peninsula remains divided, the Taiwan issue remains unresolved,
and the United States still acts as a security guarantor to its allies there and is bound
by treaty agreements of mutual defense: South Korea, Philippines, Thailand, Japan,
and to an ambiguous degree, Taiwan.
- However, despite these conflicts, the region has developed rapidly, marked by the rise
of the “Four Asian Tigers”, the Japanese economic miracle, and China’s economic
rise, countries like Vietnam and Indonesia have also been catching up.
- The neo-liberal era and the development of the Asian economies thus spurred the
“redistribution” of economic power and the de-polarization of Western economic
dominance.

- The region has become a faultline of great power confrontation as the United States,
its allies, and partners seek to keep China in check by enhancing their security
cooperation or contesting China’s claims to the South China Sea.

- Regional organizations/institutions:
- ASEAN (Association of South East Asian Nations), consisting of the South
East Asian States, aims to strengthen the region as a bloc and express
“ASEAN centrality” where the bloc shall balance between China and the US.
However, China’s lucrative investments and influence in the region has
divided ASEAN with countries like Laos, Cambodia, and Myanmar becoming
dependent on Beijing and weakening ASEAN centrality.
 - Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP). This was an
effort by ASEAN to parallel what was once the Trans Pacific Partnership
agreement (TPP). However, unlike the TPP, the RCEP included China. The
argument by most Asian countries was that China could not be left out as it is
the major trading partner of the Asian countries. The RCEP has been ratified.
The TPP was later reformed to the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement
for Trans Pacific Partnership, after the Trump administration withdrew from
the TPP.
- BRI and AIIB
- AUKUS - Australia, UK, US
- The Quad - India, Japan, Australia, US

US vision on regional order:

Biden continues the path of bilateral alliances in the region. He convined first ever QUAD summit
meeting (it was about COVID)

China vision:
30. Middle East as a Regional Subsystem of Contemporary International Relations:
Global Overview;

- China is present but does not interfere directy, it avoids getting involved -> acts
through UN
- EU tries as a soft power (civil- and economic aid)
They all rely on export of resources
They would proclaim autonomy in a state and not sovereignty
Not only Saudi vs Iran but also Turkey plays a role
31. Latin America as a Regional Subsystem of Contemporary International Relations:
Global Overview;

During Cold War extremely US centric, in every sense

After Cold War -> EU, China, India, Russia getting involved

Not poor like South Asia or Africa

Trade:
Trade between them is low because:
All export commodities
Geography (jungles, would require to sail around)

China and EU also play a role now, US is not the only relevant power anymore.
Regional frameworks -> not including US
Regional order is not Brazil centric
End of 1990s -> left turn (Hugo Chavez victory in 1998) -> but the trend is exhausting itself

Several projects of economic integration existing in parallel to each other -> ineffective, no
project really successful
After cold war projects don’t include US (except FTAA)

US centric regional governance

After Cold War Bush came up with the NAFTA (US, Canada and Mexico): benefits for
Mexican export into US, NAFTA is still important for US
Trump said NAFTA is not just, new agreement USMCA was agreed on, amended the
NAFTA slightly

It should combine North- and South America

Embraced by governments in the region, expecting a „Marshall Plan“
It was not on agenda of Clinton, then Bush Jr. again pursued it. Region was at this time
already in „left turn“ and region was not that interested anymore and the region was already
engaged in MERCOSUR. Negotiations stalled.
US switched to bilateral FTAs
Mercosur has common customs policy, tariffs cannot diverge, if a country claiming
membership for Mercosur (Chile in this case) has bilateral FTA with US, and Mercosur does
not, the country can not join
That put limit to Mercosur
Before sanctions major market for Venezuelan oil was the US
It not a viable project for the time being
Excluding US! Alternative to OAS.
It brings together the whole of South America
About political and defence cooperation!
They also observed elections like OSCE
32. Africa as a Regional Subsystem of Contemporary International Relations: Global
Overview;
AU „teethless“
It claims the right to intervene without asking the SC
South African Development Community
East African Community
COMESA (Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa)
ECOWAS (Economic Community of West African States)

RECs control the Stand-by Force -> in this case AU depends on RECs
Resources vs infrastructure
33. The US Grand Strategy (1992-2023): Changes and Continuity;

The end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union removed the focal point of
U.S. strategy: containing the Soviet Union. A major debate emerged about the future
direction of U.S. foreign policy and in the 1990s four major grand strategic alternatives were
identified. (“Competing Visions for U.S. Grand Strategy”, Barry R. Posen, 1997)

1. neo-isolationism
2. selective engagement
3. cooperative security
4. primacy

Neo-isolationism

- Internationalism not only unnecessary but counterproductive

- Stemming from a defensive realist understanding of international politics, what the
authors call "neo-isolationism" advocates the United States remove itself from active
participation in international politics in order to maintain its national security.
- It holds that because there are no threats to the American homeland, the United States
does not need to intervene abroad.
- Stressing a particular understanding of nuclear weapons, the authors describe how
proponents believe the destructive power of nuclear weapons and retaliatory potential
of the United States assure the political sovereignty and territorial integrity of the
United States.
- The United States' security and the absence of threats means that "national defense
will seldom justify intervention abroad."
- Even further, its proponents argue that "the United States is not responsible for, and
cannot afford the costs of, maintaining world order."
- The United States should not attempt to spread its values because doing so increases
resentment towards the U.S. and in turn, decreases its security.
- The collapse of the Soviet Union has left a rough balance of power in Eurasia. The
fact that Britain, France, China, and Russia have nuclear retaliatory forces makes it
quite likely that these powers will deter each other, further reducing the risk that an
ambitious hegemon could dominate and militarily exploit the economic resources of
the Eurasian landmass.

Selective engagement
- With similar roots in the realist tradition of international relations, selective
engagement advocates that the United States should intervene in regions of the world
only if they directly affect its security and prosperity.
- Most proponents of this strategy believe Europe, Asia and the Middle East matter
most to the United States. Europe and Asia contain the great powers, which have the
greatest military and economic impact on international politics, and the Middle East is
a primary source of oil for much of the developed world.
 - Selective engagement tries to prevent great power war and wants to ensure that the
great powers understand that the United States does not wish to find out how a future
Eurasian great power war might progress, and that it has sufficient military power to
deny victory to the aggressor.

Cooperative security
- the most important distinguishing feature of cooperative security is the proposition
that peace is effectively indivisible
- Unlike the other three alternatives, cooperative security draws upon liberalism as well
as realism
- Stressing the importance of world peace and international cooperation, the view
supposes the growth in democratic governance and the use of international institutions
will hopefully overcome the security dilemma and deter interstate conflict.
- Involve stronger support for international institutions, agreements, and the frequent
use of force for humanitarian purposes

Primacy
- only a preponderance of U.S. power ensures peace
- The United States must pursue ultimate hegemony and dominate the international
system economically, politically and militarily, rejecting any return to bipolarity or
multipolarity and preventing the emergence of any peer competitor. (With this in
mind, some supporters of this strategy argue that the U.S. should work to contain
China and other competitors rather than engage them.)

Posen argues that the four schools of U.S. grand strategy have been replaced by just two:

1. Liberal hegemony, which came from a fusion of primacy and cooperative

security
2. Restraint, which came from a fusion of neo-isolationism and selective
engagement

Liberal hegemony
- favour a world order in which the United States is a hegemon and uses this power
advantage to create a liberal international system and at times use force to enforce or
spread liberal values
- The United States strives to retain overwhelming military power, under a theory that
potential competitors will not even try to compete on the global stage.
- Support for liberal hegemonic strategies among major thinkers in both political parties
helps explain the broad elite support for the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the 2011
intervention in Libya, even though U.S. military involvement in those conflicts had
been initiated by presidents of different parties.
Restraint
- call for the United States to significantly reduce its overseas security commitments
and largely avoid involvement in conflicts abroad.
- America would take advantage of what Posen calls a "remarkably good" strategic
position: "[The United States] is rich, distant from other great powers, and defended
by a powerful nuclear deterrent. Other great powers are at present weaker than the
United States, close to one another, and face the same pressures to defend themselves
as does the United States."
- Restraint is distinct from isolationism: isolationists favour restricting trade and
immigration and tend to believe that events in the outside world have little impact
within the United States. Restraint, however, sees economic dynamism as a key
source of national power and accordingly tends to argue for a relatively open trade
system.
- Restraint proponents also argue that military force is a blunt, expensive, and
unpredictable instrument, and that it accordingly should only be used rarely, for clear
goals.

Offshore balancing (Mearsheimer & Walt)

- The grand strategy of "offshore balancing" arguably permits a great power to maintain
its power without the costs of large military deployments around the world.
- In offshore balancing, the United States would refrain from significant involvement in
security affairs overseas except to prevent a state from establishing hegemony in what
offshore balancers identify as the world's three key strategic regions: Western Europe,
Northeast Asia, and the Persian Gulf.
- The three regions are the focus, since Europe and Northeast Asia are the major
industrial centers of the world, which contain all of the other great powers and the
Persian Gulf for its importance to the global oil market.
- This strategy advocates a significantly reduced overseas presence compared to liberal
hegemony, but argues that intervention is necessary in more circumstances than
restraint.
- Outside of these regions, an offshore balancer should not worry about developments.
Also, a state pursuing offshore balancing should first seek to pass the buck to local
powers and intervene only if the threat is too great for the other powers in the region
to handle.
- Offshore balancing is associated with offensive realist theories of state behavior: it
believes that conquest can often enable states to gain power, and thus that a hegemon
in regions with large economies, high populations, or critical resources could quickly
become a global menace to U.S. national interests.

Difference between offshore balancing and selective engagement is the degree of military
presence: offshore balancing wants to use other regional powers to check an emerging threat
whereas selective engagement is willing to keep stationed troops etc.
—
Nowadays no internationalism or isolationism, it is mixed, but debate still alive

Robert Kagan: Unipolar moment

even though unipolar moment may have been there, the US didn’t grab it
From Trump on emphasising competition
Biden? Maybe difference in means but assessments are the same -> also competition

Obama started rebalancing to Indo-Pacific, since him no change in that policy

Threat perception:
The United States grand strategy has undergone significant changes since 1992. The end of
the Cold War led to a period of unipolarity, in which the United States was the sole
superpower. This period was marked by a focus on promoting democracy and free markets
around the world, as well as on using military force to intervene in conflicts where American
interests were at stake.

● The September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks led to a new focus on homeland security and
counterterrorism. The wars in Afghanistan and Iraq also marked a significant change
in US grand strategy, as the United States became more involved in long-term nation-
building projects.

● The 2008 financial crisis led to a period of introspection and soul-searching in the
United States. The country's economic dominance was challenged by rising powers
such as China, and its military dominance was increasingly questioned. The United
States also began to withdraw from some of its global commitments, such as the wars
in Afghanistan and Iraq.

● The Trump administration has further challenged the traditional US grand strategy.
President Trump has withdrawn the United States from several international
agreements, such as the Paris Agreement on climate change and the Iran nuclear deal.
He has also imposed tariffs on goods from China and other countries.

● The Biden administration has pledged to restore America's global leadership and to
work with allies to address common challenges. However, it remains to be seen how
the Biden administration will balance the competing demands of domestic and foreign
policy.

● Despite the changes that have taken place, there are also some continuities in US
grand strategy. The United States has remained committed to promoting democracy
and free markets around the world. It has also continued to use military force to
intervene in conflicts where American interests are at stake. The United States
remains the world's leading superpower, and its grand strategy will continue to have a
significant impact on the global order.

Some of the key changes and continuities in US grand strategy since 1992:

Changes:
● The end of the Cold War led to a period of unipolarity, in which the United States was
the sole superpower.
● The September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks led to a new focus on homeland security and
counterterrorism.
● The wars in Afghanistan and Iraq marked a significant change in US grand strategy,
as the United States became more involved in long-term nation-building projects.
 ● The 2008 financial crisis led to a period of introspection and soul-searching in the
United States.
● The rise of China and other emerging powers has challenged the United States'
economic and military dominance.
● The Trump administration has further challenged the traditional US grand strategy.
Continuities:
● The United States has remained committed to promoting democracy and free markets
around the world.
● It has also continued to use military force to intervene in conflicts where American
interests are at stake.
● The United States remains the world's leading superpower, and its grand strategy will
continue to have a significant impact on the global order.

None of these issues disappeared -> but new came

34. The Grand Strategy of Russia (1991-2023): Changes and Continuity

Territory and history

Schools of foreign policy thought:

1. Pro-Western liberals
- Russia is a part of the West
- Globalization; democratic vs authoritarian states

2. Gosudarstvenniki (realists or statists)

- Become a global power and a center in the multi-polar world
- Unipolarity vs “real” multipolarity

3. Civilizationist
- Distinct civilization apart from West, independency
- Anglo-American sea power vs Russia-led heartland

Kozyrev and Yeltsin (Westernizers), 1991-1996 (1993):

- their goal was to integrate into the West and benefit.
- Prioritised the democratic change within the state, follow western models, close
relations with western states and institutions
- full integration into existing Western international organizations—both financial and
defense.
- A key assumption underlying this approach was that the only way a weakened Russia
could integrate into the international community was through close cooperation with
the U.S. and other Western powers.
- By 1993, however, it was clear that the initial Kozyrev strategy-relying on the United
States to help Russia integrate into the global community and transition to a
democracy and market economy-was running into trouble.
- Relations with the United States were also disappointing. The hoped-for economic
assistance was slow in coming and much less than expected. Moreover, Moscow's
efforts to protect what it saw as its legitimate security interests in the other Soviet
successor states prompted charges of Russian neo-imperialism from a suspicious
West.

Despite Kozyrev serving till 1996, by the end of 1993, Moscow had already abandoned
Kozyrev's pro-Western policy.
- Russia could entrust its security and place in the international community only to
itself.
- Moscow should pursue a foreign policy more independent of the United States.
- maintaining exclusive Russian influence over the other Commonwealth countries was
one of Russia's vital interests.
 - Moscow's former Warsaw Pact allies must remain either friendly to Moscow or
neutral.
- Fall 1993, President Yeltsin came out in strong opposition to any move by NATO to
incorporate the Central European states.

Primakov and Yeltsin (statist), 1996-2000:

- Balance relations with West by turning eastwards to China and India
- Consolidate the post-Soviet space
- Stop NATO expansion
- Objecting to NATO’s use of military force against other countries

Putin (statist):
From 2001 to 2004, Russia was committed to the foreign policy of pragmatic statism:
- Putin believed that the most important national interests were Russia’s
modernization and its economic growth instead of the containment of the U.S.
- Cooperate with the West to create a favourable external environment for economic
and social development, while at the same time maintaining opposition on issues such
as Nato eastward expansion and missile defence.
- 911 provided an opportunity for the Putin government to end the cold relations with
the West since the Kosovo War.
- Forming a counter-terrorism partnership with the U.S
- Strengthening cooperation with NATO. In May 2002, the two sides announced the
establishment of the NATO-Russia Council.
- Enhancing relations with the European Union and its key member states. In May
2003, the Russia-European Union (EU) St. Petersburg Summit set long-term goals for
creating four common spaces (Nevertheless, the two were still divided on issues
including Russian democracy, the Chechnya situation and the EU’s New
Neighborhood Policy.)
- Focusing on post-Soviet space. In May 2002, Russia, together with partner countries,
formed the Collective Security Treaty Organization.
- Developing economic cooperation with Asia-Pacific countries and shifting the focus
of Sino-Russian strategic cooperation to the bilateral level and to the Shanghai
Cooperation Organization.

From 2005 to 2008.

- a policy of cooperating with the U.S. but firmly countering it in areas of core interests
to Russia
- Response to U.S. and European interference in Russia’s internal affairs as well as
“color revolutions” in the CIS region
- Cooperating with the U.S. while countering U.S. repression in areas of core interests
to Russia. Russia opposed the U.S. deployment of a national missile defense system
and its plans to deploy an anti-missile system in Eastern Europe (Putin, 2008) and
objected that Ukraine and Georgia were included by the U.S. in NATO’s eastward
expansion.
 - Meanwhile, the Putin government continued to cooperate with the U.S. on counter-
terrorism, nuclear non-proliferation, and economics and trade.
- Developing cooperation with the EU in multiple fields: political dialogue and
economic, trade and energy cooperation.
- Due to contradictions over Putin’s political reforms to strengthen centralization, the
“color revolutions” and the EU’s New Neighborhood Policy, Russian-European
political relations made no progress in the program of creating four common spaces.
After the expiration of the Russia-EU Partnership and Cooperation Agreement in
December 2007, the two sides failed to agree on a new relationship agreement.
- Continuing to develop the Collective Security Treaty Organization and the Eurasian
Economic Community and strengthen bilateral relations with CIS countries. Russia
actively helped CIS countries resist “color revolutions”.
- Strengthening diplomatic ties with Asia-Pacific countries to counterbalance the U.S.
and improving strategic collaboration with China, India, and other countries.
The main reasons for the Putin government to implement this foreign policy include: the
“color revolutions” launched by the West in the CIS region directly threatened Russia’s
political stability and geopolitical interests; the U.S. military security policy posed a threat to
Moscow; Putin believed that Russia must autonomously determine its process of democratic
development in the light of its history, geopolitics, and national conditions. This policy
safeguarded Russia’s national security, maintained its long-standing influence in the CIS
region and, to some extent, consolidated its great power status, but meanwhile complicated its
relations with the West.

Medvedev (hybrid between pro-west and statist) & Putin for short:
From 2009 to 2013, Russia was committed to the Stability and Cooperation Diplomacy, the
main goals of which include: maintaining Russia’s great power status and keeping stable
relations with the West; safeguarding stability in the CIS region and domestic socio-political
stability; advancing the foreign policy of cooperation and avoiding conflicts with other
countries. Russia joined the WTO during this time.
- Further advancing the integration of the CIS to maintain stability in the region. In
August 2008, Russia’s armed intervention in Georgia’s armed reunification of South
Ossetia led to a feud between the two.
- To promote economic integration within the framework of the Eurasian Economic
Community, Russia established a customs union and a unified economic space with
Belarus and Kazakhstan in 2010 and 2012 respectively.
- Maintaining practical partnership and cooperation with the EU. The armed conflict
between Russia and George had a serious impact on Russian-EU relations and it was
only after the global financial crisis that the EU resumed its partnership with Russia.
In response to the shocks brought about by the global financial crisis, Russia and the
EU have developed practical cooperation on trade, economics and energy, but the two
failed to implement the program of creating four common spaces and to sign a treaty
on strategic partnership.
- Resetting Russian-U.S. relations. In July 2009, President Obama visited Moscow,
marking the reset of Russian-U.S. relations. The results of the reset are shown mainly
 in three aspects: 1) the signing of the New Start Treaty, 2) the continuing cooperation
between the two countries on nuclear non-proliferation; 3) the expansion of economic
and trade ties. But at the same time, the two countries are at odds over the European
ABM system, U.S. interference in Russia’s internal affairs and Ukraine’s involvement
in EU integration.
- Deepening all-round strategic coordination with China, and in 2011, together with
China, upgrading the Sino-Russian strategic partnership of coordination to a
comprehensive strategic partnership of coordination.
The reasons for implementing the Stability and Cooperation Diplomacy include: the
modernization of Russia required a cooperative foreign policy; Russia recognized that the
gradual improvement of its international status in the current international system was in its
interests; It was necessary for Russia to carry out economic cooperation with other countries
around the world against the backdrop of economic globalization and the global financial and
economic crisis.

Putin (statist):
Since 2014, Russia has been committed to a Great Power Diplomacy (Liu, 2019), which was
prompted by the Ukraine Crisis in February 2014 and the consequent confrontation between
Moscow and the West.
- Confronting the West and maintaining cooperation only in extremely limited areas
such as nuclear disarmament. From March 2014, the United States and the European
Union imposed economic sanctions on Russia and then extended them to Russian
banks and energy and military companies
- “Turning east”, that is, developing political and economic cooperation with Asia-
Pacific countries and integrating into the Asia-Pacific region. Russia has been actively
deepening its cooperation with China in various fields and in 2019 the two countries
upgraded their relationship to a comprehensive strategic partnership of coordination
for a new era. Russia has strengthened its preferential strategic partnership with India,
its comprehensive strategic partnership with Vietnam and its strategic partnership
with ASEAN, while only Russian-Japanese relationship has been progressing slowly.
Since 2016, Russia has been dedicated to building the “Greater Eurasian Partnership”
with the Eurasian Economic Union, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization and
ASEAN member states (Путин, 2016b).
- Maintaining Moscow’s dominant role in the CIS region. The Putin government led
partner countries to establish the Eurasian Economic Union in January 2015 to
promote economic integration within the framework of the Union. It has also been
developing political, economic, and anti-epidemic cooperation with CIS countries to
resist U.S. and European expansion in the region.
- Returning to the Middle East. The Putin government’s military involvement in Syria
in September 2015 consolidated Russia’s dominance in Syria and expanded its
influence in the Middle East.
The main reasons for the Putin administration to implement the Great Power Diplomacy
include: the West’s attempts to pull Ukraine into its geostrategic orbit, which crossed
Moscow’s red line; the intensification of geopolitical and military competition between
Russia and the West; the deep-rooted Russian great power mentality. As a result of this
foreign policy, Russia has annexed Crimea and strengthened its relations with Asia-Pacific
countries, but the loss of Ukraine has slowed down its modernization.

Current Russian main goals:

- Preserve unique national identity
- Maintain global power status, become pole in new multipolar world order
- Be an influential power on the world stage
- Full sovereignty and independence

Objectives:
- Preventing Western influence in Russian domestic politics and in the post-Soviet
space
- Keeping nuclear parity with the US
- Limit US leadership role elsewhere (Ukraine, Middle East are grounds to push back)
- Stopping regime changes around the world (Syria)
- Breaking US monopoly over military forces to achieve its goals (Syria, Ukraine)
- Consolidating the Euroasian community of states is the single most important project
Russia has initiated and shaped (Collective Security Treaty Organization, Eurasian
Economic Union) -> If Russia fails to integrate Eurasia: either go West, go East or go
nowhere? (junior partner)
35. The Grand Strategy of China (1989-2023): Changes and Continuity

China's hierarchy of national security priorities

China's grand strategy and foreign policy have evolved significantly since 1989. Here's an
overview of the key phases and shifts in China's approach during this period:

Phase 1: Post-Tiananmen Era (1989-1999)

- Following the Tiananmen Square protests in 1989, China faced international isolation
and criticism. During this period, China focused on maintaining political stability and
economic development as the primary objectives of its foreign policy. Deng
Xiaoping's policy of "keeping a low profile" (taoguang yanghui) guided China's
approach, emphasizing caution and avoiding confrontation.

Phase 2: Rise of Economic Power (2000-2012)

- In the early 2000s, China's economic growth accelerated, becoming the world's
second-largest economy. The central focus of China's foreign policy during this
period was to create a favorable external environment for economic development.
China sought to expand its influence through economic engagement, trade
liberalization, and investment diplomacy. The "peaceful rise" narrative emphasized
China's commitment to peaceful coexistence and non-interference in other countries'
internal affairs.

Phase 3: Assertiveness and Power Projection (2012-present)

- Under President Xi Jinping's leadership, China adopted a more assertive foreign
policy approach, signaling a departure from the previous low-profile strategy. This
phase is characterized by a stronger emphasis on safeguarding China's core interests,
asserting territorial claims, and expanding its global influence. Key elements of this
phase include the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), which aims to enhance connectivity
and economic cooperation across Eurasia and beyond, and the pursuit of maritime
territorial claims in the South China Sea.
China's foreign policy in this phase also involves a more proactive stance on global
governance issues. It seeks to enhance its role in international institutions, increase its
influence in regional and global security affairs, and promote alternative narratives to
challenge Western-dominated norms and institutions. Notable examples of this
approach include the establishment of the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank
(AIIB) and China's increasing involvement in multilateral forums.

—
China sees itself as a returning power
Dominate region not globe -> seeks regional unipolarity
Globalization was major source for China’s rise
24-character strategy is result of fall of communism and Tiananmen square backlash
(sanctions on arms, technologies, etc)
Economic development most important pillar for Beijing’s policy for at least two decades
Under Hu Tsintao China became more assertive -> under Xi Jinping especially
Win-win -> no-zero-sum game!

They support multipolar world but not expand number of poles indefinitely, they want a
small number of major powers -> concert of powers

modified liberal order: changing position of major powers but don’t change order itself ->
China profited from liberal order -> status quo, jointly managing the system
negotiated order: US would except China is different but it would be no alternative for the
West. US would offer more prestige and China would shoulder more responsibility.
36. The Grand Strategy of a Nation: Case-study
Security + what makes the county a country
Projects of the country?
The following are some of the key goals that have characterized Iran's grand strategy during
this period:

1. Protecting and Safeguarding the Islamic Revolution: Iran's primary goal has been to
protect and safeguard the ideals and principles of the Islamic Revolution, both within
its borders and by supporting like-minded groups and movements abroad.
2. Asserting Regional Influence: Iran seeks to assert its influence in the Middle East and
the wider Islamic world. This includes pursuing policies that increase its political,
military, and economic influence, as well as supporting proxy groups and alliances
that align with its objectives.
3. Countering Western Dominance: Iran aims to counter what it perceives as Western
dominance in the region. This involves challenging and opposing Western policies,
particularly those of the United States and its allies, and supporting groups that resist
Western influence.
4. Ensuring National Security: Iran's grand strategy focuses on ensuring its national
security and protecting itself from external threats. This includes building a robust
defense capability, maintaining a deterrent posture, and countering perceived threats
from regional rivals and foreign powers.
5. Pursuing Nuclear Program: Iran's pursuit of a nuclear program has been a significant
component of its grand strategy. While Iran maintains that its nuclear program is
peaceful and for civilian purposes, it has faced international scrutiny and has sought to
safeguard its right to nuclear technology and capabilities.
6. Economic Development and Self-Sufficiency: Iran aims to achieve economic
development and self-sufficiency to reduce its vulnerabilities and enhance its
geopolitical standing. This includes diversifying its economy, attracting foreign
investment, and developing strategic industries.
7. Building Regional Alliances: Iran seeks to build alliances and partnerships with like-
minded actors in the region. This includes cultivating relationships with other Shia-
majority countries, supporting non-state actors aligned with its goals, and pursuing
cooperation with regional powers that share common interests

Revolutionary Idealism (1979-1988): Khomeini

- During this phase following the Iranian Revolution, Iran pursued a policy of
revolutionary idealism. The priorities of this phase included:
- Exporting the Islamic Revolution and promoting revolutionary ideals.
- Challenging the existing order in the Middle East and opposing Western
influence.
- Supporting like-minded revolutionary and anti-imperialist movements abroad.
- Defending Iran against external threats, particularly during the Iran-Iraq War.
Pragmatic Stabilization (1988-1997): (Rafsanjani)
 - After the end of the Iran-Iraq War, Iran shifted towards a policy of pragmatic
stabilization. The priorities of this phase included:
- Rebuilding the economy and restoring stability after the war.
- Normalizing relations with neighboring Arab states and reducing regional
tensions.
- Diversifying diplomatic relations with non-Western powers to mitigate
isolation.
- Mitigating international sanctions and addressing the negative impact on the
economy.
Reformist Engagement (1997-2005): (Khatami)
- This phase began with the election of President Mohammad Khatami and focused on
reformist engagement. The priorities of this phase included:
- Pursuing political and social reforms internally.
- Improving Iran's image globally and engaging in dialogue with Western
countries.
- Promoting a more moderate and cooperative approach to regional and
international issues.
- Addressing concerns over Iran's nuclear program through negotiations and
diplomacy.
Conservative Assertiveness (2005-2013): (Ahmedinejad)
- With the election of President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, Iran shifted towards
conservative assertiveness. The priorities of this phase included:
- Asserting Iran's regional influence and challenging Western dominance.
- Advancing Iran's nuclear program and defending its right to nuclear
capabilities.
- Supporting groups such as Hezbollah and Hamas to resist Western influence.
- Countering perceived threats from the United States and Israel.
Diplomatic Engagement (2013-2018): (Rouhani)
- Under President Hassan Rouhani, Iran pursued a policy of diplomatic engagement.
The priorities of this phase included:
- Securing sanctions relief and improving Iran's economic prospects.
- Normalizing relations with the international community, particularly Western
powers.
- Addressing concerns over Iran's nuclear program through negotiations and the
Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA).
- Mitigating regional tensions and pursuing a more cooperative approach to
conflicts.
Since 2018: (Raisi)
- More assertive stance
- Aligning with Russia and China
37. Theories of International Relations: Global Overview

Classical Realism

Main thinkers:
- Sun tzu
- Thucydides and the Peloponessian war 5th c. BC (strong do what they will, weak
suffer what they must)
- Machiavelli (it is far better to be feared than loved, there are no
morals in politics)
- Thomas Hobbes (men are equal, leads to war): Leviathan
- Hans Morgenthau (Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, 1948)

Main characteristics:
- Human beings are inherently egoistic and self-interests to the extent where self
interest overcomes moral principle
- Morality has no place in international politics, only the national interest counts.
- The national interest is guided by the survival and security of the state -> hence
everybody wants to maximise their own power to survive and guarantee security
- Views history as repetitive cyclical (no progress) because human nature is unchanging
- Power is the main currency in international politics
- International politics trumps domestic politics (if you don’t take care of international
politics there might no longer be any domestic politics)
- States are inherently aggressive and are only checked by other states
- The international system is defined by anarchy (no supranational entity will guarantee
your security)
- Sovereign states are the principle and most important actors in international relations
- IOs and IL have no real force as they exist only as long as states accept them
- Primacy of balance of power
- Power is relative, not absolute (not seeking absolute power, but having more power
than your opponent)

Weaknesses:
- Ignores importance of structure of international relations (impact of current
structure of international relations)
- What about non-state actors?
- Metaphysical ideas about the unchanging nature of men (not very scientific)?

Neo-Realism

History:
- after 1970’s classical realism was replaced by structural realism
- associate with Kenneth Waltz “Theory of International Politics” (1979) - proposed the
defensive theory (later, John Mearsheimer proposed the offensive theory)
 - Neorealism is often called “structural realism” which signifies that the theory
primarily centres on the effects of the structure of the international system
when it seeks to explain outcomes in international politics
- The aim of neo-realism was to cure the defects of earlier IR theories including
classical realism by applying a more scientific approach -> liberation of realism
from various kinds of metaphysical ideas about the unchanging nature of men
- Structure influences the state and not the state the global system

Main thinkers:
- Defensive: Kenneth Waltz (Theory of International Politics, 1979)
- Offensive: John Mearsheimer (The Tragedy of Great Power Politics, 2001)

Defensive realism:
- Defensive realism asserts that states develop and maintain policies and programs
aimed at promoting security through a defensive approach.
- Defensive realism contends that states navigate through anarchy by balancing their
power through arms race or capability-building. An imbalance resulting from a state
pursuing dominance is counterbalanced by other states seeking to maintain the status
quo. The international system punishes aggressors according to defensive realists.
- The primary purpose of military of a particular state under defensive realism is to
maintain security by having the capacity for defending against aggressors. In addition,
defensive capability is superior over offensive capabilities.
- Defensive realists specifically believe that states are only interested about maintaining
their security through defensive measures
- Defensive realism contends that mistrust is variable and amenable to change through
international cooperation, primarily through mutual security agreements.
- States should have enough power. There is no need for maximizations because
if you do so you take up risk. Search for power has limits -> states really seeks
security.
- If you increase your power too much you fail (Hitler, Napoleon)

Offensive realism:
- Offensive realism asserts that the programs and policies developed and maintained by
states are aimed not only at promoting security but also at increasing their power to
dominate the international system.
- Offensive realism argues that states inherently desire dominance because they are
power-maximizing actors. Furthermore, offensive realists believe that the
international system rewards states that are able to secure and maintain their
dominance.
- Offensive realism argues that the primary purpose of the military is to display the
power of a state through aggression, thus further depressing threats from other states.
- Offensive realists think that states are interested in conquest and that the best way to
survive is to demonstrate their power and prevent others states from attaining similar
level of power.
 - Offensive realism specifically argues that mistrust is not only prevalent but also
constant.
- You never know true intention of other states, if you want to survive, you should
maximize your power, otherwise other states will do.

Weaknesses:
Neorealism ignores national attributes, domestic interests, regime type, strength of
institutions, culture, etc., might be too state centric

Difference between classical realism and neorealism:

The most important of these differences is how specifically the pursuit of power in the
international system is determined. Classical realism states that flaws in human nature mean
that states will inherently demand power in the international system whilst, in contrast,
neorealism takes a wider view of the structures of the international system, and argues that
this is what accounts for power shifts in the international system, and not the inherent flaws
in human nature.

Classical Liberalism

History:
Period of enlightenment

Main thinkers:
John Lock, Immanuel Kant, Adam Smith, Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Main characteristics:
- Liberalism claims that all states pursue benefit, they want to make profit, and they all
create rules, norms of behaviour, and pursue the common good.
- Positive view of human nature
- Views history as progressive change is possible
- Believe in increased material prosperity through market liberalization, technology and
economic interdependence
- Conflict is not the natural state in IR and harmony is possible
- Pluralism of actors
- World politics is an interdependent global society with international institutions
facilitating cooperation
- Fundamental role for peace, law, justice, human rights, non-state actors
- The “I” terms matter: ideas, institutions, individuals, interdependence, interactions,
ideologies, idealism, integration, etc.
- Question: how to create an international system that encourages cooperation?
 - Economic interdependence leads to peace. it causes governments to redefine their
interests in a way that makes war less likely -> the greater the economic
interdependence the less likely is war
- Collective security - the formation of a broad alliance of most major actors in an
international system for the purpose of jointly opposing aggression by any actor
- Rejection of power politics as the only possible outcome of international relations; it
questions security/warfare principles of realism
- It accentuates mutual benefits and international cooperation
- It implements international organizations and nongovernmental actors for shaping
state preferences and policy choices

This school of thought emphasises three factors that encourage more cooperation and less
conflict among states:

- International institutions, such as the United Nations, who provide a forum to resolve
disputes in a non-violent way
- International trade because when countries' economies are interconnected through
trade they are less likely to go to war with each other
- Spread of democracy as well-established democracies do not go to war with one
another, so if there are more democracies, interstate war will be less frequent

Varieties:
- Liberal Internationalism:
- Economic interdependence and prosperity fosters peace
- A law-governed international society can emerge without a world government
- Capitalism is natural and inherently pacifistic
- Natural harmony of interest in IR
- Liberal internationalist assumption that interdependence was associated with
peace was contradicted by World War I
- Liberal Idealism:
- spread of democracy fosters peace (Woodrow Wilson’s “fourteen points” and
the creation of the League of Nations)
- Peace is not natural but must be constructed
- contrary to liberal internationalism, idealism does not defend a natural
harmony between states
- International order should be constructed and managed by an international
organization
- Collective security rather than alliance system (collective defense)

Neo-Liberalism

History:

Main thinkers:
 - Robert Keohane, Joseph Nye

Main characteristics:
- States are key actors in international politics, but not the only significant
actors. States are rational (or instrumental), always seeking to maximize their
interests. Rational behavior leads states to see value in cooperative behavior.
- States are mainly concerned with economic gains. Neo-liberalism accounts for the
process of achieving sustained patterns of cooperation under anarchy.
- States cooperate to create international institutions with the goal of avoiding market
failures and creating trust
- international relations are peacefully driven by self-interested, economic behaviour.
(economic gains, economic cooperation, economic behaviour)
- International institutions and organization can build trust among states and facilitate
cooperation by reducing uncertainty, linking issues, monitoring behavior and
enhancing the importance of reputation.
- International institutions should control the states behavior: how states fulfill the
expectations, the states reputation, how they fulfill their efew
- states seek to maximize absolute gains through cooperation rather than trying to
achieve gains relative to other countries
- the international system is characterized by interdependence “a reciprocal relationship
between independent entities”

Complex interdependence (Keohane and Nye)

- interdependence is always asymmetric. so their networks and links will be different

because states are different and their societies are different
- power is possessed by the country which is less dependent on another country
- No state in international system is truly independent (every state has some set of
transaction-based relationships with another)
- National security is not the exclusive objective of states (economic
issues are at least of equal importance)
- Military force is often not an effective nor desirable solution to interstate
conflicts. The decline of the efficacy(success) of military force as a tool of statecraft.
- Military force is less useful than in the past.
- Economic and institutional instruments are often more useful.

Democratic Peace Theory

- democratic peace theories seek to explain the disputed empirical fact that
constitutional democracies have never gone to war with each other in recent history
(1816 onwards)
 - Relations between pairings of democratic states are inherently more peaceful than
relations between other regime type pairings (ex: democratic vs non-democratic, non-
democratic vs non-democratic)
- the more states are democratic the more they are peaceful
- Reasons why democracies do not fight each other (cultural and norm-biased
explanations)
- Democracies have domestic political cultures based on the principle of
peaceful conflict resolution
- Democratic governments are controlled by their citizens, who will not
support the idea of war with another democratic country
- Democracies hold common moral values which lead to the formation of a
“zone of peace”
- Peace between democracies if strengthened by economic cooperation
and interdependence

It asserts that democratic states are highly unlikely to go to war with one another. There is a
two-part explanation for this phenomenon. First, democratic states are characterised by
internal restraints on power, as described above. Second, democracies tend to see each other
as legitimate and unthreatening and therefore have a higher capacity for cooperation with
each other than they do with non-democracies. Statistical analysis and historical case studies
provide strong support for democratic peace theory, but several issues continue to be debated.
First, democracy is a relatively recent development in human history. This means there are
few cases of democracies having the opportunity to fight one another. Second, we cannot be
sure whether it is truly a ‘democratic’ peace or whether some other factors correlated with
democracy are the source of peace – such as power, alliances, culture, economics and so on.
A third point is that while democracies are unlikely to go to war with one another, some
scholarship suggests that they are likely to be aggressive toward non-democracies – such as
when the United States went to war with Iraq in 2003. Despite the debate, the possibility of a
democratic peace gradually replacing a world of constant war – as described by realists – is
an enduring and important facet of liberalism.
Varieties:
Marxism:

History:
- building upon the dialectical social philosophy of Marx and Engels

Main thinkers:
- Marx, Engels

Characteristics:
- Not a traditional theory
- Essentially an economic interpretation of history
- Critically interpretation of capitalism
- Focuses on the emancipation of the working class and world equality
- Rejects the liberal worldview of self-interested individuals and the realist view of
sovereign states and anarchy
- World is divided not between political determined nations but between economically
determined classes
- Economy > politics
- sovereignty and nationalism => viewed by many Marxists as tools of the bourgeoisie
leadership to hide class tensions
Strengths:
- the first theory that emphasised issues of inequality and emancipation
- marxism gave basis and systemic foundation to understand unfairness of world
- focuses on the problems of development (the third world)
- Marxism brings out the importance of economics in politics

Weaknesses:
- Utopian
- Ignores conventional struggles for power and security
- Economic determinism
- Underestimates nationalism and overestimates class struggle

Neo-Marxism:

History:
- Flourished in 1970s

Main thinkers:
- Immanuel Wallerstein: The modern World System (1974)
- Paul Prebisch

Characteristics:
- Looked at how the capitalist systems penetrated non-capitalist systems, using
a binary distinction between the core area and the peripheral area
- Argued that world economies linked by exchange relations were largely
impossible before about 1500
- The capitalist world economy which appeared around 1500 coincided with the
expansion of commerce
- The states of Northwestern Europe were able to impose a regional division of
labour and specialisation of production
- And, through increasingly powerful state bureaucracies, to consolidate the
flow of surplus toward the core countries

World systems theory (Wallerstein):

He distinguished three groups of states or regions: the core, the semi-periphery and the
periphery. The aim was to understand how states have developed since the sixteenth century
in relation to each other, thereby creating relations of dependency between different groups of
states depending on the specific types of economies and industries they specialised in.
Therefore, these relations of dependency and groups required that we understand the world
through broader units than states. These units – or world systems – helped to address the
dilemma of why states all became capitalist, albeit in very unequal and different ways. The
core group of states (e.g. in Western Europe and North America) refers to democratic
governments providing high wages and encouraging high levels of investment and welfare
services. The semi- periphery states (e.g. in Latin America) are authoritarian governments
that provide low wages and poor welfare services for their citizens. Periphery states (e.g. sub-
Saharan and Central Africa, South Asia) refer to non- democratic governments where
workers can mostly expect wages below subsistence levels and where there are no welfare
services. The core is able to produce high-profit consumption goods for itself as well as for
the semi- periphery and periphery markets because the periphery provides the cheap labour
and raw materials to the core and semi-periphery necessary to make these high-profit
consumption goods. In other words, although historically some states have changed their
group (e.g. from periphery to semi-periphery), capitalism always needs a peripheral region
that provides the means for the core to sustain a high level of consumption and security.
Thus, relations of dependency and inequality are essential to capitalism and cannot be
significantly reduced.

Dependency theory:
- Paul Prebisch, Samir Amin
- Started around the 1950s and took hold in the 1960s and 1970s partly because of the
revolutionary atmosphere of the period - Classical dependence (1950s)
- Dependency theory: poor countries send their resources to rich countries which are
those who get most benefit
- Poorer countries exported commodities to the richer countries and they sell
manufactured products out of it back to the poorer countries
- Formal political control (colonialism) is not necessary to create dependency =>
political control possible through economic means
- Uneven development and inequalities of capitalist system
- Capitalism leads to uneven development and hindering development of developing
countries.
- The North-South divide is global in scope. Metropoles develop, satellites
underdeveloped.
- Satellites develop when the ties with metropoles are weakest
- Most underdeveloped regions today had closest ties to metropoles in
past
- How metropole subjugate satellites:
- Foreign investment in poor countries is limited to extractive industries
- Westernising domestic elites in poor countries
- The basis of international politics is the transfer of natural resources from
peripheral developing countries to core wealthy states, mostly the Western
industrialised democracies.
- So, dependency theory focuses on the redistribution of raw materials from poor
countries to the wealthier countries of the world.
- This creates benefits for the wealthier, industrialised countries and takes away from
the resources of the underdeveloped countries.
- «third-world» countries were not always «poor» but became impoverished through
colonial domination and forced incorporation into the world economy by expansionist
«first-world» powers
 - to combat these systems of inequality, dependency theorists have argued that poor
countries should adopt economic control policies that can break them out of the prison
of international economic controls
- ex: import substitution (government assistance to domestic producers and
barriers to wealthy international corporations attempting to flood the market
with mass-produced imports) rather than the export-based models usually
favoured by international economic organisations such as the World Bank and
International Monetary Fund.
- Weaknesses:
- No direct relationship between states’ reliance on extractive industries and
poverty underdevelopment
- States are dependent because underdeveloped; not vice versa
- Why do some satellite states escape (NICs)?

Theories of imperialism:
Rosa Luxemburg, Rudolf Hilferding and Vladimir Lenin:
They developed the classical theories of imperialism to understand how capitalism expanded
and adapted to a world of inter-imperial rivalry leading to the First World War and the slow
disintegration of the European empires.

Critical Theory

- Robert Cox «Social Forces, States and world Order Beyond

International Relations Theory» (1981), Andrew Linklater “Men and Citizens” (1982)
- Constructivism, postmodernism, feminism etc.
- They're called critical not because of their importance but because they criticize the
classical or basic theories of international relations
- Classical theories, they oversimplify reality
- Critical theories do not provide the comprehensive theory of their own. They do not
aspire to give the all encompassing explanation of development of the international
system of the courses of behaviour of states
- unable to substitute the classical theories of international relations
- the classical theories provide a kind of universalist all encompassing explanation to
the behaviour of states and thus evolution of the international system. But critical
theorists claim that it is not always the case, that states behave differently in different
situations, and what is applicable to some states might not be applicable to the other
states.
- According to critical theories the international system is actually much more diverse
and complex than it is usually assumed by the classical theories

Constructivism
- Onuf, Katzenstein
- Constructivism’s arrival in IR is often associated with the end of the Cold War, an event
that the traditional theories such as realism and liberalism failed to account for.
- Constructivism sees the world, and what we can know about the world, as socially
constructed.
- Constructivism stresses that the reality of international politics is not given, but rather a
construction of the social processes of international relations
- Constructivism takes the focus away from material factors to non-material (ideas, norms)
- A.Wendt proposes that states construct their identities, and hence interests, through a
process of mutual interaction.
- Constructivists argue that agency and structure are mutually constituted, which implies
that structures influence agency and that agency influences structures.
- Realists argue that the anarchic structure of the international system determines the
behaviour of states. Constructivists, on the other hand, argue that ‘anarchy is what states
make of it’ (Wendt 1992). This means that anarchy can be interpreted in different ways
depending on the meaning that actors assign to it.
- They show, for instance, that it is not only the distribution of material power, wealth and
geographical conditions that can explain state behaviour but also ideas, identities and norms.
Furthermore, their focus on ideational factors shows that reality is not fixed, but rather
subject to change.
- Makes us see the world system as dynamic rather than static
- Problems/conflicts are not inherent in the system but in the situation actors find
themselves in (i.e. not anarchy, but mistrust, struggle for resources is the cause of
conflict)
38. International Conflict in the Light of a Theory of International Relations

Iran in Syria -> offensive realism

John J. Mearsheimer, a prominent international relations scholar known for his work on
structural realism, provides insights into how structural dynamics influenced the conflict
between Russia and Ukraine. Mearsheimer's theory of offensive realism posits that great
powers, driven by the anarchic nature of the international system, seek to maximize their own
power and security. According to this perspective, the conflict between Russia and Ukraine
can be understood through the following key points:

- Security Dilemma: Mearsheimer argues that in an anarchic international system,

states are constantly concerned about their own security. Actions taken by one state to
enhance its security can be perceived as threatening by other states. This leads to a
security dilemma, where defensive measures taken by one state are viewed as
offensive by others, potentially leading to conflicts. In the case of Russia and Ukraine,
Russia saw Ukraine's turn towards the West, including its aspirations for NATO and
EU integration, as a security threat to its own interests.

- Power Maximization: Offensive realism emphasizes the pursuit of power by great

powers. Mearsheimer argues that states seek to gain power to ensure their own
survival in a competitive system. Russia, as a major regional power, sought to
maintain its sphere of influence in the post-Soviet space and prevent NATO's further
expansion towards its borders. The conflict in Ukraine can be seen as Russia's attempt
to assert its power and prevent Ukraine from slipping out of its influence.

- Geopolitical Imperatives: Mearsheimer emphasizes the importance of geography in

shaping great power politics. Ukraine holds significant strategic importance to Russia
due to its proximity, historical ties, and economic interdependence. Russia views
Ukraine as a vital buffer zone and seeks to prevent it from aligning with Western
powers. From a geopolitical standpoint, the conflict between Russia and Ukraine can
be seen as a struggle for influence over this critical region.

- U.S. or NATO presence increases danger to Russian national security

- Balancing: Mearsheimer argues that states have two main strategies in response to
threats from other powers: balancing and bandwagoning. Balancing refers to the
formation of alliances and coalitions to counteract a threatening state's power, while
bandwagoning refers to aligning with the stronger power to gain security benefits. In
the context of the Russia-Ukraine conflict, the West's support for Ukraine can be seen
as a form of balancing against Russian power.

39. The Concept of “Soft Power”: Theory and Practice

 - Power is the ability to affect others to get the outcomes one prefers, and that can be
accomplished by coercion, payment, or attraction. Soft power is the ability to obtain
preferred outcomes by attraction rather than coercion or payment. The concept of soft
power in international relations refers to a nation's ability to shape the preferences and
behaviour of other actors through non-coercive means, such as culture, ideology,
diplomacy, and attraction rather than through military or economic force (hard power)
- Coined by Joseph Nye in 1990 in book “Bound to Lead”
- For most classical theories of IR only what tangible counts as power (weapons,
resources etc.) -> Nye disagreed and says that also ideas and attraction can influence
others
- Nye states that soft power is only one component of power, and rarely sufficient by
itself (The ability to combine hard and soft power into successful strategies where
they reinforce each other could be considered “smart power”)
- As China dramatically developed its hard power resources, leaders realized that it
would be more acceptable if it were accompanied by soft power. This is a smart
strategy because as China’s hard military and economic power grows, it may frighten
its neighbours into balancing coalitions. If it can accompany its rise with an increase
in its soft power, China can weaken the incentives for these coalitions. In 2007,
Chinese President Hu Jintao told the 17th Congress of the Chinese Communist Party
that they needed to invest more in their soft power, and this has been continued by the
current President Xi Jinping.

What are the diplomatic instruments of soft power?

- Cultural diplomacy is an important way to connect with different groups and help
people understand the values and culture of a country. Cultural diplomacy includes
the organisation of festivals and exhibitions, the exchange of artists, and support for
film and other art projects. Cultural diplomacy is part of the broader umbrella concept
of public diplomacy.

- Education diplomacy is becoming more important as countries use educational

exchanges and scholarships to build relationships, international prestige, and their
overall soft power. This includes providing opportunities to study abroad, as well as
educational programs and exchanges to improve diplomatic relations and international
cooperation. Typically, students and academics participating in educational exchange
programmes develop a positive image and bond.

- Public diplomacy is used to connect with people all over the world and spread a good
image. Public diplomacy is an important part of soft power which is used as an
umbrella concept for cultural diplomacy, educational exchanges, and media outreach.
Through public diplomacy, countries foster relationships, promote their foreign policy
objectives, and increase their influence in the international arena.
 - Sports diplomacy is becoming an important part of soft power. It has a wide range of
aspects. The hosting of events such as the FIFA World Cup improved Qatar’s public
image. The relevance of major sports events for soft power is the reason why
countries lobby heavily to host the Olympics, the World Cup, and other sporting
events. The second important aspect is success in sports. Argentina’s victory in Qatar
has increased the visibility and prestige of the country. ;)

- E-diplomacy is an important tool of soft power. It includes using websites, blogs, and
social media to shape public opinion and influence global conversations. During the
Arab Spring, the importance of social media led to the use of Twitter and Facebook
diplomacy. You can learn more about the use of social media and other online tools to
increase soft power.

In practice, countries employ various strategies to project soft power and achieve their
foreign policy objectives. These strategies include cultural exchange programs, educational
scholarships, development assistance, public diplomacy initiatives, and diplomatic
negotiations. Soft power can help build positive perceptions of a country, foster cooperation,
attract investments, and increase influence on the global stage.

However, it is important to note that soft power is not a substitute for hard power. Military
strength, economic capabilities, and other forms of hard power remain crucial in international
relations. Soft power should be seen as a complement to hard power, as both can work
together to achieve a nation's strategic goals.
40. The Public Diplomacy of a Country: Case-study

- Definition: Public diplomacy or people's diplomacy, broadly speaking, is any of the

various government-sponsored efforts aimed at communicating directly with foreign
publics to establish a dialogue designed to inform and influence with the aim that this
foreign public supports or tolerates a government's strategic objectives.
- Methods include statements by decision makers, purposeful campaigns conducted by
government organizations dedicated to public diplomacy, and efforts to persuade
international media to portray official policies favourably to foreign audiences.
- Two basic types of public diplomacy:
The first is branding, or cultural communication, in which the government
tries to improve its image without seeking support for any immediate policy
objective. States use branding strategies to foster a better image of themselves
in the world. Ideally, branding creates general goodwill and facilitates
cooperation across a variety of issues. It also helps to maintain long-term
alliance relationships and undermine enemy propaganda.
During the Cold War, for example, the United States used public diplomacy to
persuade European audiences that the foundations of democratic government
and capitalist enterprise were superior to Soviet alternatives. The Voice of
America broadcast directly into the Warsaw Pact nations of eastern Europe to
dispel myths about the West. At the same time, the U.S. State Department
built and maintained reading rooms in Allied countries, replete with books
about American history and culture. The department hoped that exposure to
American principles and ideas would reinforce broad support for U.S. policies.
- The second type of public diplomacy includes various strategies designed to
facilitate more rapid results—a category sometimes called political advocacy.
Whereas branding is meant to affect long-term perceptions, political advocacy
campaigns use public diplomacy to build foreign support for immediate policy
objectives. Foreign publics may be encouraged to support or oppose the
leaders of other states. Sometimes states need to quickly convince foreign
audiences to support costly military alliance strategies. Foreign leaders may
want to cooperate with alliance plans but fear domestic reprisal for agreeing to
unpopular actions. Under these conditions, public diplomacy may help those
leaders cooperate by reducing the threat of backlash at home.
This type of political advocacy is illustrated by Kuwait’s efforts in 1990 to
gain U.S. popular support for an attack against Iraq. In late 1990, Kuwait hired
an American public relations firm to convince U.S. voters that liberation from
the dictator Saddam Husseinwas worthwhile and morally correct. Americans
had mixed feelings about intervention, and most voters knew little about
Kuwait. U.S. Pres. George H.W. Bush worried that he lacked the public
mandate to act firmly against Iraq. Kuwait therefore undertook a carefully
orchestrated political advocacy campaign to demonstrate the scope of
Saddam’s cruelty and gain American sympathy.
 - In other cases, states use public diplomacy to discredit adversaries. Countries
tacitly or explicitly urge foreign publics to oppose leaders who do not share
the sender’s strategic interests. This strategy has two goals. First, it attempts to
encourage cooperation by pressuring recalcitrant foreign leaders who rely on
popular support. Second, when prospects for a change in policy are minimal, it
encourages foreign audiences to revolt against their leaders.
- Sceptical commentators have suggested that public diplomacy is simply a
euphemism for propaganda. Scholars sometimes use the terms interchangeably
because, in practice, it is difficult to distinguish one from the other.

The United States has a long history of engaging in public diplomacy to influence global
opinion and support its foreign policy objectives. Here are some key aspects of the public
diplomacy of the U.S.:

- Cultural Exchange Programs: The U.S. government, through organizations like the
Department of State and its Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, sponsors
various cultural exchange programs. These initiatives bring foreign students, scholars,
artists, and professionals to the United States, allowing them to experience American
society and culture firsthand. Examples of such programs include the Fulbright
Program, International Visitor Leadership Program, and the Kennedy-Lugar Youth
Exchange and Study Program (YES).

- Educational Partnerships: American universities and educational institutions play a

significant role in U.S. public diplomacy. Many institutions attract international
students and researchers, fostering academic and cultural exchange. The U.S.
government often supports these partnerships through scholarships, grants, and
collaboration agreements.

- International Broadcasting: The U.S. government operates media outlets like Voice of
America (VOA), which provide news, information, and analysis to global audiences.
These outlets aim to provide accurate and unbiased reporting to counter
disinformation and promote democratic values.

- Digital Diplomacy: The U.S. government leverages digital platforms and social media
to engage with global audiences. Platforms like Twitter, Facebook, YouTube, and
Instagram are used to share information, promote policies, and interact with
individuals around the world.

Case Study: France

France has a long and rich history of public diplomacy, dating back to the 17th century when
the French government began to establish cultural centers and libraries around the world. In
the 20th century, France's public diplomacy efforts intensified, as the country sought to
promote its culture and values in the wake of World War II.

Today, France's public diplomacy is guided by the following principles:

● Promoting French culture and values: France is a country with a rich and diverse
culture, and its public diplomacy efforts are designed to promote that culture to the
world. This is done through a variety of means, including cultural exchanges,
educational programs, and the promotion of French language and literature.
● Building relationships with other countries: France's public diplomacy also seeks to
build relationships with other countries. This is done through dialogue, cooperation,
and the exchange of ideas. France believes that strong relationships between countries
are essential for peace and stability.
● Influencing international opinion: France's public diplomacy also seeks to influence
international opinion. This is done by promoting French values and ideas on the world
stage. France believes that it has a responsibility to use its influence to promote peace,
justice, and human rights.

France's public diplomacy efforts are implemented by a variety of government agencies,

including the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Culture, and the French Institute.
These agencies work together to promote France's culture, values, and interests around the
world.

France's public diplomacy efforts have been successful in promoting the country's image and
values around the world. France is seen as a leading cultural and intellectual powerhouse, and
its public diplomacy efforts have helped to strengthen France's relationships with other
countries.

Here are some of the specific programs and initiatives that France uses to promote its public
diplomacy:

● The Institut Français: The Institut Français is a network of cultural centers that France
has established around the world. These centers offer a variety of programs and
activities, such as language classes, cultural events, and educational workshops.
● The French Language Abroad Program: This program provides financial assistance to
French language schools around the world. The goal of this program is to promote the
study of French language and culture.
● The French Government Scholarship Program: This program provides scholarships to
students from around the world to study in France. The goal of this program is to
promote cultural exchange and understanding between France and other countries.
● The French Government Cultural Fund: This fund provides financial assistance to
cultural projects around the world. The goal of this fund is to promote French culture
and values.

These are just a few of the programs and initiatives that France uses to promote its public
diplomacy. France's public diplomacy efforts are comprehensive and wide-ranging, and they
have helped to make France a leading player on the world stage.