TOPIC 1.1: CELL SPECIALIZATION Stem Cells Stem cells are unspecialised cells that have two key qualities: 1. Self-Renewal ~ They can continuously divide and replicate 2. Potency — ‘They have the capacity to differentiate ‘There are four main types of stem cells during human development: + Totipotent — Can form any cell type, as well as extra-embryonic tissue + Pluripotent — Can form any cell type (eg, embryonic stem cells) + Mulipotent— Can diffesentiate into closely related cell types + Unipotent — Cannot differentiate, but are capable of self-renewal Stem Cell Therapy Stem cells can replace damaged or diseased cells with healthy ones ‘The therapeutic use of stem cells involves: + Harvesting stem cells from appropriate sources + Using biochemical solutions to trigger cell differentiation *+ Surgically implanting new cells into patient's own tissue + Suppressing the host immune system to prevent rejeetion Types of Stem Cells ‘Therapeutic Examples Example Condition ‘Treatment Stargardt’s Macular. ——_=Replace defective disease degeneration —_—_retinal cells Parkinson's Death of -—_—Replace damaged disease nerve tissue nerve ells Cancer of Replacement of + Monitoring new cells to ensure they do not become cancerous Leukemia Ganroy NePlacement o Ethics of Stem Cell Use Source Growth Potential Tumour Risk Harvesting. Disadvantages Can be generated Requires destruction of the embryo Embryo ‘High (pluripotent) Higher isle cially by SCNT (results in the loss of a potential life) Umbilical Easily obtained and Cells must be stored from bith at cost Cord Blood 1° (nultiporent) Lower risk stored / preserved (aaises issues of financial accessibility) Adult Tissue Low (multipotent) Lower risk Invasive to extract May be restrictions in seope / availability Differentiation Gene Packaging All cells of an organism contain an identical genome — each cell contains the entire set of genetic instructions for that organism Differentiation involves the expression of some genes and not others in the cells genome (Le. selective gene expression) ‘The activation of different genes within a given cell will cause it to develop differently from other cells (ic. cell specialisation) @ (7 DE Oss pet > OE Qowratens Within the nuclei of eukaryotic cell, gene instructions (DNA) are packaged with proteins as chromatin + Active genes ate loosely packed as enchromatin + Inactive genes are packed tight as heterochromatinTOPIC 1.2: PROKARYOTIC CELLS Prokaryotic Cell Structure Prokaryotes are organisms whose cells lack @ nucleus + They belong to the kingdom Moneta (Le, bacteria) Prokaryotic cells share the following structures: + A single, cireular DNA molecule (genophore) + A peptidoglycan cell wall and 70S ribosomes Prokaryotie cclls may also contain the following: + Pili (for attachment or bacterial conjugation) + Flagella (a long whip-like til for movement) + Plasmids (autonomous DNA molecules) Prokaryote Micrographs Nucleoid (yellow) Bacterial Conjugation (pili = red) Prokaryotic versus Eukaryotic Cells Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ according to a number of key features: + DNA (composition and structure) + Organclles (types present and sizes) + Reproduetion (mode of eell division) + Average Size (exceptions may exist) DNA is naked DNA bound to protein POSrY DNA is circular DNA js Hnear Usually no introns | Usually contains introns No nucleus Has a nucleus 708 ribosomes 80S ribosomes - Via binary fission | Via mitosis and meiosis MeAAMMRMI Single chromosome | Puised chromosomes Larger (~10 — 100 uM) Cell Wall (0-919) oe 88 Fagella (whe) Bacterial Cell Division Prokaryotes divide via a process of asexual reproduction known as binary fission In this process + The circular DNA is copied + ‘The DNA loops attach to the membrane + The cell clongates, separating the loops + Cytokinesis occurs to form two cells DNA replication Call growth Cytokinesis + oeOPIC 1.2 Eukaryotic Cell Structure Animal Cell (exocrine gland cell) ER (rough) ‘Mitochondrion Plant Cell (Palisade mesophyll) ‘Organelles Animal versus Plant Cells ‘Organelles are compartmentalised structures that serve specific purposes Animal Cells Plant Cells Examples of eukaryotic organelles include: No chloroplast Have chlorophst + 80S ribosomes — Responsible for protein synthesis (translation) + Nucleus — Stores genetic information (site of transcription) No cell wall Cell wall (cellulose) + Mitochondria ~ Site of aerobie respiration (ATP production) + Endoplasmic reticulum — Transports materials berween organelles No plasmodesmata Plasmodesmata * Golgi complex ~ Sorts, stores, modifies & exports secretory products + Centrosomes ~ Involved in cell division (mitosis and meiosis) ‘Temporary vacuoles Large central vacuole ‘Organelles found only in specific cell types include: Cholesterol present No cholesterol in + Chloroplasts — Site of photosynthesis (plant cells only) + Lysosomes ~ Breakdown of macromolecules (animal cells) in the cell membrane Glucose — glycogen. the cell membrane Glucose — starch,TOPIC 1.3: MEMBRANE STRI Phospholipid Bilayer Structure of Phospholipids: * Contain a polat (hydrophilic) head composed of phosphate (+ glycerol) * Contain two non-polar (hydrophobic) tails, each composed of a fatty acid chain + Hence, phospholipids are amphipathic (have hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts) Arrangement in Membranes: + Phospholipids spontaneously arrange into a bilayer + ‘The hydrophilic phosphate heads face out into the surrounding solution, while the hydrophobic fatty acid tails face inwards and are shielded from the polar Huids Properties of the Phospholipid Bilayer: + The bilayer is held together by weale hydrophobic interactions between the tails + Individual phospholipids can move within the bilayer (Aluidity and flexibility) + Amphipathic properties restrict passage of certain substances (semi-permeable) Cholesterol ‘Membrane Proteins Cholesterol is a fundamental component of animal cell membranes Membrane proteins are diverse in terms of + Iris not present in plant cell membranes (as they have a rigid cell wall) _ their structure and position in a membrane Cholesterol reduees membrane fluidity and permeability to some solutes ‘Membrane proteins serve many functions + Italso anchors certain peripheral proteins and prevents crystallization 5 paces + Enzymes + Transport + Recognition + Anchorage + Transduction Fluid Mosaic Model Membrane Models Cell membranes are represented as a fluid-mosaie model Membranes appear trilaminar when viewed with an electron + Fluid — membrane components can move position microscope (ttilaminar = three distinct layers) *+ Mosaic — phospholipid bilayer is embedded with protein Davson-Danielli proposed a model whereby a phospholipid ‘This model was proposed by Singer-Nicolson in 1972, bilayer was flanked by two protein layers (sandwich model) following the falsification of the Davson-Danielli model ‘This model was falsified based on the following findings: integral protein ise + Fluorescent tagging showed the proteins are mobile + Not all membranes have a constant lipid : protein ratio a t a phospholipid peripheral protein “Trilaminar appearance Sandwich ModelTOPIC 1.1: CELL THEORY Cell Theory Functions of Life According to the cell theory: Organisms consisting of only one cell carry 1. Living oganisms ace composed of cells (or cell products) out all the life functions in that single cell 2. The cell is the smallest unit of independent life n + Metabolism 3. Cells can only arise from pre-existing cells + epeodction . + Sensitivity ‘Caveats to the cell theory include: i reaeenan + Striated muscle ~ composed of fused cells that ae multinucleated + Bxerction + Giant algae — unicellular onganisms that ate very large in size (~7 em) + Nutrition we + Aseptate hyphae — lack partitioning and have a continuous eytoplasm + Growth Cell Size Surface area to volume ratio is important in the limitation of cell size Small $A:Vol Ratio Cells need to exchange materials with the environment in order to produce F membotic rate the chemical energy requited for survival (via metabolism) 1} matesil exchange + The rate of metabolism is a function of a cell’s mass / volume ‘Low survival chances + The sate of material exchange isa function of a cells surface area chang: a Large SA:Vol Ratio As a cell grows, volume (units?) increases faster than surface area (units?) + meubotic rte + If metabolic requirements exceed material exchange, a cell will die F material exchange + Hence, cells must stay small or increase theit SA:Vol ratio to survive High survival chances Magnification Microscopes ight microscopes use lenses to bend light Calculating Magnification (MIA): 8 ‘Magnification = Image Size * Actual Size * Can view living specimens in natural colour + Have lower magnification and resolution Calculating Actual Size (ATM): ‘Actual Size = kage Size + Magnification BB Electron microscopes use electromagnets to focus electrons + Can only view dead specimens in monochrome + Have higher magnification and resolution SD * Can show cross-sections (TEM) or surface renderings (SEM) Ja multicellular organisms: + Cells may be grouped together to form tissues Emergent Properties + Tissues may interact to form funetional organs ‘An emergent property is a function that is present in multicellular ‘ongzinisms, but is not present in its individual component cells Emergent properties arise from synergistic interactions between the individual cells to produce entirely new aggregate functions An example of an emergent property is the increased levels of antibiotic resistance that can be seen in bacterial biofilms + Organs may combine to form body systems Muscle mip Cardiac my Heart mb Vascular eit (Cal) (Fissue) (Organ) Gystem) ‘The whole is greater than the sume ofits parts! Axistotle