This unit provides you a vibrant

understanding of virtue ethics

and the highlights of the
biography of the proponents.
The criticism of virtue ethics is
also provided in this unit as well
as the ways on how to manifest
these virtue ethics in your life.
At the end of the unit, I am
able to:

1.Articulate what virtue ethics is;

2.Critique virtue ethics; and
3.Make use of virtue ethics.
 It is a moral structure wherein hypotheses underline the
purpose and significance of one's character and virtue so as

Virtue to evaluate the integrity of their actions.

It focuses on the improvement of an individual's general
righteous character or greatness. (Kraut, R, 2018)
Ethics
 Roots of Virtue Ethics

• The study of Virtue originated in Ancient Greece.

• For the Greeks, a virtuous individual is the one who routinely

checks his/her conduct and corrects them accurately. Such
an individual would have had a happy and meaningful life.

• The theories of Classical Greek Philosophers would

eventually be used by Catholic Philosophers and
Enlightenment Philosophers
Lesson 1:
Aristotle
 BIOGRAPHY
• A philosopher who lived in Greece sometime in 384 and
322 BCE.

• He contemplated reasoning under Plato in “The Academy”

and founded “The Lyceum” on the Lyceum Temple in
Athens.

• He centered on “what makes a human life good or worth

living” notably in his book called “Nicomachaean Ethics”
which he named after his child Nicomachus.

Aristotle • For him, a good life is attainable when people use their
capacity to reason
 Teleology
• It comes from the Greek word telos meaning “end”, “goal”,
“purpose”.

• According to Aristotle, all things have purposes,

objectives, or ends which must be accomplished to its
benefit.

• Aristotle likewise considers it an Intellectual Virtue when

people realize their actual functions to be able to accomplish
goodness or greatness in their lives.

• It is also considered the Consequentalist Theory.

 Golden Mean
• Aristotles states that virtue is a mean. It is a condition of
clarification and apprehension from pain and pleasure.

• Basically being morally good meant striking a balance between

two vices. You could have a vice of excess or one of deficiency.

• The Golden Mean is a sliding scale for determining what is

virtuous.
Examples of Aristotelian Virtues
 SUMMARY
• The basic principle of Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics is that a
virtuous individual is an individual who uses his/her
capacity to reason what would lead him/her to
happiness.

• A successful person is a person who knows his/her

telos and is influenced by it.

• Virtues are balanced qualities. It becomes a vice

when it is practiced in excess or deficiency
 Lesson 2:
Thomas Aquinas
 BIOGRAPHY
• Thomas was born in Roccasecca, Italy between 1224 and
1226. He began his studies in Monte Cassino, Rome.

• He then went to Naples where he was introduced to the

works of philosophers like Aristotle, Maimonides, and
Averroes

• Much to the displeasure of the family, he went on to join

the Dominican Order and became a priest.

• He continued his studies under Bishop Albertus Magnus,

St. Thomas who would also be declared a saint.
Aquinas
 BIOGRAPHY
• Thomas would eventually devote his life contributing to
Catholic Theology and Moral Philosophy. He is well known
for attempting to bridge religion with science. Faith,
according to him, must be built upon reason.

• His two notable works of art are Summa Theologiae and

Summa Contra Gentiles.

• Fifty years after his death, he was proclaimed a saint by

Pope John XXII. He would also be declared “Doctor of
the Church” by Pope Pius V on 1567 and ‘Patron Saint
St. Thomas of all Catholic Universities” by Pope Leo XIII on 1880.
Aquinas
Thomas Aquinas’ Laws
• The whole of creation is governed by laws

• Law is not just about commandment but rather about a

rational or reasonable principle of order. It is a rule or
measure of human acts whether it conforms to the
common good

1. Ordination to reason
2. Ordering to the common good
 Eternal Law
• Beginning and end; source of order; everlasting not
fully understood by the human brain

• It can be called law because God stands to the

universe which he creates as a ruler does to a
community which he rules.

• The three following laws are always based upon the

Eternal Law
 Natural Law
• Rational creatures (man) participation in the Eternal
Law.

• It is not imposed by us by God but the design of our

being.

• To use our reason to ordering ourselves and one

another towards their ulttimate end/perfection

• It also includes the natural tendencies we share with

animals but with the guidance of reason
 Natural Law: Spiritual Nature

• We are the only creatures endowed with the

spiritual nature that helps us to understand
the world and to make free choices

• It gives us a higher perspective of our bodily

inclinations, e.g. why we have the freedom
not to eat even uf we are hungry
Natural Law’s Principles

1. The Inclination to Do Good - to what perfects us

2. The Inclination to Self- Preservation - food, shelter,
safety
3. The Inclination to Sexual Union - to produce
offspring
4. The Inclination to Knowing the Truth
5. The Inclination to Live in a Society - friendship,
justice

They give us an orientation to what would make us happy

and free. Sin distorts these inclinations
 Divine Law
Divine Law comes from the Eternal Law
revealed to humans through revelation.

Things we cannot discover on our own

reasoning and which leads us beyond our
nature; to achieve communion with God

It is divided into the Old Law and the New

Law.
Old Law - Ten Commandments/Prophets
New Law - Jesus’ Teachings
 Human Law
• Application of the natural law on various levels of
particular communities

• These laws should be instruments in the promotion of

the common good

• Only applies to its jurisdiction

• Can only be just if it is in accordance with the natural

law. If not, the human law is not morally binding
Thomas Aquinas’ Four Cardinal Virtues

• Thomas characterized Virtue as influencing our mind,

will, and even our passions. It moderates our passions
for us to be able to do the right thing.

• In his book Summa Theologicae; he wrote four virtues

that would help us to live ethically.

• These are Prudence, Temperance, Courage, and

Justice.
Thomas Aquinas’ Four Cardinal Virtues

PRUDENCE
• The right reason about things to be done. We learn it
from our elders or our experience.
For example a girl named Aria needs to go to a sleep-over with her cousin yet
she has a test the following day. She begins to consider the following options
• She would go to the sleeping party then breeze through her test the following
day.
• She would cheat on the test.
• She would read for a while and then go with her books and notes.

Of all three options, the third is the most prudent.

Thomas Aquinas’ Four Cardinal Virtues

TEMPERANCE
• The virtuous moderation of sense pleasure. It guides
us to control ourselves for something better.

For example two children were subjected to an observation test. Each were
placed in a different room. In the test, each sat on a desk. A cookie was placed
on each desk. Both children were told to wait for the signal before eating the
cookie. The first child got impatient and ate the cookie. The second child waited.
As such the second child was rewarded with a bowl of cookies.
Thomas Aquinas’ Four Cardinal Virtues

COURAGE
• It helps us to not be afraid to choose what is prudent,
right, and just. It is not merely being brave as
mindlessly taking risks but the virtuos resolve to
achieve a good that is difficult to obtain.

Ever since the resurrection of Christ, Christians were tortured, ridiculed,

mocked, and killed for their faith. Even though they were given the option to be
released if they recant, they refused
Thomas Aquinas’ Four Cardinal Virtues

JUSTICE
• The constant and firm will to give their due to God and
neighbor. It disposes one to respect the rights of each
and to promotes equity with regard to person and to
the common good.
The recent trend of setting up community pantries motivates people to be just.
Voluntary giving and receiving resources according to one’s needs is a good
example of justice,
 SUMMARY
• The basic principle of Aquinas’ Virtue Ethics is that a
virtuous individual is an individual who is guided by
laws and cardinal virtues

• All laws are in accordance with the Eternal Law.

• Natural Law defines who we are

• There are four cardinal Virtues that would help a man

to become righteous; Prudence, Courage,
Temperance, and Justice
 Lesson 3:
Immanuel Kant
 BIOGRAPHY
• Immanuel Kant was considered as one of the greatest
philosophers in the Enlightenment Period

• He was born from a German artisan family in Königsberg,

Prussia, on April 22, 1724.

• He first studied in the Lutheran Collegium Fridericianum

where he was taught strict tenets of the Lutheran faith.
However, he preferred to study Latin Classics instead.

• At his college years, he went to the University of

Königsberg where he eventually turned to philosophy,
Immanuel Kant mathematics and physics
 BIOGRAPHY
• He was very much interested with the works of Rationalist
philosopher Christian Wolff and Physicist Isaac Newton

• His writings contributed to the field of metaphysics, physics

and moral philosophy.

• Some of his ideas on moral philosophy is included in his

books like The Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals
and Lectures on Ethics

• According to Kant “Moral law is a truth of reason, and

Immanuel Kant hence that all rational creatures are bound by the same
moral law” (Jankowiak, n.d.).
Kant’s View of Ethics
• He views human actions as Deontological “duty focused”,
whether our actions are in conformity with one’s duty

• GOOD WILL
Will’s actions that conform to one’s duty because it is
their duty to do so.

1. Actions must conform to the Moral Law

2. Person must have right motive (Doing one’s duty)
 Foundation of Morals
Accroding to Kant there are things that we ought to do morally and things we
ought to do for other non-moral reasons. Both are called imperatives.

HYPOTHETICAL IMPERATIVES CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVES

These are “commands” we follow to These are “commands” we should
fulfill a desire. Most of the time our follow even if we do not desire it.
decisions are influenced by our According to Kant, these commands
wants and needs. So, these are known by reason alone,
decisions are more on practicality regardless if you are religious or not.
rather than morality These impertives are understood in
four formulations
 CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVES: Formulation 1

Definition of FORMULA OF UNIVERSALIZABILITY

Terms: • “Act only in accordance with that maxim through which you
can at the same time will that it become a universal law
• Maxim - a rule
or principle of without contradiction -Kant
action
• If you do something then everyone must do it. There are no
• Universal Law exemptions
- something that
must always be
done in similar • For example: While at checkout in the grocery store, you
situations noticed that the bagger accidentally placed items in your bag
even if you have not purchased them.
 CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVES: Formulation 2

Definition of FORMULA OF HUMANITY

Terms: • “Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your
own person or in the person of another, always at the same
• Mere means -
to use time as an end and never simply as a mere means -Kant
something for
your own • In encountering people always remember they have their own
benefit and not goals and values. They did not exist for your benefit alone but
for the benefit of
independently
the thing you
are using
 CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVES: Formulation 3 & 4

3. The Formula of Autonomy: "So act that your will can regard itself at the
same time as making universal law through its maxims." - Kant

• People make moral decisions if they decide freely and not influenced
by external factors

4. The Formula of the Kingdom of Ends: "So act as if you were through
your maxims a law-making member of a kingdom of ends." - Kant

• Always follow principles that every rational person can follow.

 SUMMARY

• The basic principle of Kant’s Virtue Ethics is that a

virtuous individual is an individual who acts not for
his/her own interests but for the sole purpose that it is
the right thing to do (Goodwill)

• People base their decisions between two things,

based on needs (Hypothetical Imperative) or based
on reason (Categorical Imperative)
 Lesson 4:
Rights Theories
DEFINITION OF RIGHTS
• Human rights is the "fundamental good that all individuals in
every nation and society supposedly have, basically on the
grounds that they are individuals” (Nickel, 1992)

• Some laws and foundations that give importance to human

rights are:
• Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)
• European Convention on Human Rights (1954)
• International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights (1966),
• International Bill of Rights
 TWO KINDS OF RIGHTS

MORAL RIGHTS LEGAL RIGHTS

These are rights granted to any Legal rights are granted to people
human simply because they are under a legal system (authority,
human. Moral rights are grounded government). These are enforceable
in moral reasons and do not need to by law which recognizes and
be enforced by law. protects it.
 1. Legal Positivism,
2. Interest Theory,
RIGHTS 3. Will Theory
THEORIES
4. Human Rights Doctrine
5. Natural Law,
 RIGHTS THEORIES
LEGAL POSITIVISM
• It is the theory that argue that rights only exist in
the legal system.

• Jeremy Bentham is one of the philosophers who

developed this theory in the 19th century.

Jeremy
Bentham
 RIGHTS THEORIES
HUMAN RIGHTS DOCTRINE

• It is the claim that there exists a rationally

identifiable moral order,that applies to anyone,
anywhere, anytime. Rights are objective valid and
universal
 RIGHTS THEORIES
INTEREST THEORY
• Also called the “benefit theory”, it believes that it is everyone’s basic
duty to respect the interest of others (life, liberty).
• John Finnis, a contemporary interest theorist, identified seven
fundamental interests, as providing the basis for human rights
1. life and its capacity for development
2. the acquisition of knowledge, as an end in itself
3. play, as the capacity for recreation
4. aesthetic expression
5. sociability and friendship
6. practical reasonableness, the capacity for intelligent and
reasonable thought processes;
John Finnis 7. religion, or the capacity for spiritual experience.
 RIGHTS THEORIES
WILL THEORY
• Also called the “choice theory”. British scholar, Herbert
L.A. Hart, is credited with developing the theory. He is
inspired with the philosophy of Kant which points that
Freedom is the most basic right.

• To say we have a right for something means we have the

means to control it. e.g Right to housing = Only you can
manage your house
Herbert L.A.
Hart
 RIGHTS THEORIES
NATURAL LAW
• All people have inherent rights, conferred not by
act of legislation but by "God, nature, or reason."

• The natural rights are: Right to life, Property,

and Liberty.

• Violations of these rights means that you violate

Thomas
someone’s very existence or humanity
Aquinas
 Lesson 5:
Utilitarianism
DEFINITION OF UTILITARIANISM
• Theory founded by legal philosopher Jeremy Bentham, in
his book "An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and
Legislation."

• Utilitarianism believes that morality aims to make life better

by increasing happiness and reducing suffering.

• “Do what produces the best consequences”

• It is also called egoism or consequentialism

 FRAMEWORKS OF UTILITARIANISM

ACT UTILITARIANISM RULE UTILITARIANISM

An action is right as it conforms to a
It means choosing the action that
rule that leads to the greatest good.
produces the greatest good for the
Evaluates the moral rules then
greatest number. Evaluates
evaluates individual actions if they
individual action
followed the rule that would produce
more utility;
 PRINCIPLES OF UTILITARIANISM

1. Pleasure or Happiness Is the Only Thing That Truly Has

Intrinsic Value.

2. Actions Are Right Insofar as They Promote Happiness,

Wrong Insofar as They Produce Unhappiness.

3. Everyone's Happiness Counts Equally

 IMPACTS OF UTILITARIANISM

LAW POLITICS ECONOMICS

The principles of utilitarianism Utilitarianism is useful in The cost of labor in
became useful in terms of asserting the best action for a production is paid more
punishment for an individual society based on the utility of attention compared to the
which aims to separate him an individual and the commodity. Modern
from society or reform him. authority of the government. utilitarians believe that
This accounts for the greater It advocates for a system government intervention is
good of most people if the where the interest of the important to ensure further
criminal is put away. larger society matches the good
government’s intent