6.

1 INTRODUCTION

Vibration measurement is an important area or study to experimentally

of a vibrating body. While

developing analytical olutions, largedetermine t
a
th.
parameters
assumptions and simplification are done.
However, a real time study ofa svct
ystem woul
number
of
analytical results give
lot of data, which may not always completely agree with the analytical resultsgve a
ue to the
to measure small and rapid vibration, esneciallto the
approximations. It is thus important,
relevant data for further analysis.
speed machinery, so as to obtain
Many a times, the vibration analysis cannot be done in a laboratory, as it wo
possible to move large structures. In such cases, field tests are the only solution.
would not be

In current times, vibration measurement has become all the more important with
trends to produce high speed optimised Some
the
equipment. of the major reasons for vibration
measurement are listed below:

1. Economical products made from light weight materials having

and running at high speeds result in resonant
optimum section
properties
conditions, thereby reducing the reliability
of the system. In such cases
measurement of natural frequencies or other parameters
becomes important to ensure that
the observed values do not deviate substantially from
the analytical values
predicted by the designer.
2. The natural frequency measurement is
also important to ensure that other
are not made to run at nearby machines
speeds which may create resonating conditions.
3. The amplitudes of vibration
form the basis of
forces produced in the determining the magnitude of the dynam
system, which is an important
parameter for the system desig
4. Vibration measurement also
establishes the validity of the results
process. It would automatically obtained by the analyu al
modelling the system are correct.guarantee that the assumptions chosen by the Oesg ner n
5. In many cases, the
successfully undergosurvivability a of
system is decided by the fact that tne m can
vibration test at
a
adverse conditions. sy
6. Ina vibration
test, a certain
input given
data helps in identifying importantissystem parameters
and the such as mass, stiffness au
easured. This
corresponding output is mea
7.
damping
Vibration measurement also
and to helpthe technician serves as a tool to monitor the chine
in and condition ofa
state and
predicting the possibility of failure conai c o np o n e n

A
typical vibration measurement of a particula
body,to which is connected a vibration scheme is shown in Fig,g. 6.1.1. ItIt consists of thevibra
a mechanical
quantity such as pickup or a
displacement, velocity,transducer. consiststransfor
This is a device
e v i c ew h i c h it r a n s f o r m s

acceleration or force intowollsnla electrn

a l le l e c t r i c a l

a
 altage Ieasurer
Measurement 67
or current. "This
output from the
transducer
hence would require a signal is not
strong enough for recording ar
the signal conversion conditioner or a signal
unit can then be conversion instrument. The
used to display the output fro
recording unit such as a computer. Further values or canbe recorded
determine the analysis
vibration response and other of the recorded data can then be doneby t
characteristics.

Vibration
Vibrating Transducer or
Machine Pickup

Signal
Conversion
Instrument

0.72
DisplayUnit
Recorder

Vibration Measurement Scheme

Fig. 6.1.1

Besides these, vibration measurement includes frequency and damping

measurement

earlier in the article om

An experimental setup to determine damping coefficient was explained
Ogarithmic decrement and has not been repeated in this chapter. In a vibration lab, equipmen
ucn as exciters and analysers are used to study the response of systems.

called
the parameter measured, the
vibration measuring instrument can be
Depending on
instrument is meant to record the
aVibrometer, a velocity meter or an accelerometer. Ifthe
then the suffix meter is replaced
graph. (eg. vibrograph).
by
dla and not just display it,
be broadly classified into four types a=
can
general vibration measuring equipment
of the accuracy, sensitivity of the vibratio
In
on the basis
in Fig. 6.1.2. Their choice is made
Wn medium.
ponse and the kind of vibrating
 Classification of Vibration
Measurement Instruments

Contact 1ype:
compact in
Indicating Type:
hese instruments are 0.72 These are the instrumentg u
do not influence can display the
size so that they data
the response of
the system as
measured. However, thebeino
they are in direct
contact with the
cannot be recorded for dataAta
vibrating medium. Eg. later use
use.
Accelerometer. Recording Type
Non Contact Type: These instruments have
the
Suitable if contact type is not ability to display and to
als
possible due to vibrating
the record the data for future
medium being very fragile. analysis or comparison.

Real Time Based: Active System:

9V These instruments are These instruments require a
microprocessors based and can source ofelectricalpower to carry
calculate the response and exhibit out measurement. Eg. FFT
the data in real time.

Instruments which are not rea!

Passive System:
These instruments are handy and
time based and can only display do not require any outside power
the parameter being measured Source to function. Eg. Frequency
and cannot calculate any other such a5
measuring equipment
parameter instantaneously. Frahm's Tachometer.

Classification of Vibration Measurement Instruments

Fig. 6.1.2
6.2 SEISMIC VIBRATION
MEASUREMENTS
The seismic
pickup is one of the most
The constructional details of this kind frequently used apparatus
of
to measure
earthquake tremors. It consists pickup is very similar
similar toa
to a seismograpl
of a very large inertia memberseichhich is very
i s verydelid

suspended with a very low stiffiness wled witn

ith oil. The

in the casing provides for spring (refer Fig. 6.2.1) in a t oo b s e r v e

damping.
as en As the
casing eristies
of

vibrations, its size

vibrations, its size must be
must be as small as objective
e objective of a seismic vibration pickup
of a seismi e n c e t h e character.whose

vibrations of the system on which it is possible, so as not to the body

vihrations are to be Observed. mounted. The pickup is then mounted
on
oft h ef o r m

Assuming that the body has har1m mouhrations

1armonic vibrations
The

y =Y sin ot, it is clear that would support

be a
pickup works on the Dasi or case of forced
forced vibrations
vibratior with
observing the motion of the mass (inertia me
excited

ofthe
po
m e m b e r )
 Chapter 6: Vibration Measurement 677

Signal Coil

Suspension Spring
Oil Filled Casing
Mass
Y Vibraing B
Vibrating Body

a) Constructional Details bVibraiom Madel

ofa Seismic Pickup
Fig. 6.2.1

We know that the natural frequency ofsuch a system is giVen by:

m
By keeping a very low stiffness and a relatively high mass, the naturnl qnenzs at thE
ickun
pisckupasiderably
will be very lov V. For the pickup to be effective, it is importan1 shal is nauren
lower than the excitation frequency. This ensuresthat the ampituse v i r m i

Suspended iy aaSiETmE
DE 2alytical mass is very
equations. Small. This phenomenon can be beter expiainad

from
Equation (4.12.15), we have
D = YPQ
6
D F0
As mentioned Thar i
measured, It should e naed
Sion is at a , the motion on the
mass is
and henkë L *
very is not practizel
Evel and direct
measurement
uCer to This oouldbeeiamntmamI.
convert DTSIcal
the p variable into an electrical signal.
times. a signal
ari s wrunë
a
he inductive rype) or piezoelectric. Many min
n
casing.
h n g . The mo
move
Ovement of the mass relative to
the ooil
r e o r e d This mUn
produrs
is
o
visuaiy r
ensed, amplified, and then displayed
.waive
Yiveam vihraTin anmzituR

the amplitude D'. However,

As excidiscussed to m e a s u r e
the specimen
be kept ver
irua s 3mNan

itation before, the natural freq

frequency. nCy ofthe p ratioPis fairy hgh. CSET I*
equency ofthe pickup is to
y . T h i s ensures that the frequency atio
 678 Dynamics of Machinery

graph (Fig. 6.2.2) of D/Y'versus'r. It for higher frequency

is seen that ratin
the value ofh
almost tends to one. Normally, for a damping factor in a range of 0.55 to ocevalue of'Dy
fairly linear beyond a frequency ratio of
1.6 and is almost equal 3, the o
to 1. Thie
amplitude of the mass 'D' observed would be almost equal to the amplitude oft mean tha
that the
hence this is the ideal range for the pickup to work effectively.

1.25

S0.55
1.00 =0.60
0.65
0.75

0.50
0.25

0 1.6 2 3
Frequency Ratio'r

D/Y' versus
frequency ratio 'r"
Fig. 6.2.2
The principle of a
such seismograph is the basis for the various vibration measurement
as a
Vibrometer, Velocity pickup and devie
Accelerometer.
a). Vibrometer:
A Vibrometer is an
instrument to measure the ninepart.
As the naturalfrequency of the displacement of a
vibrating
vibrometer is low as compared to that of the on to be
to
measured, it is observed that vibra
Recorded Value
-

Actual Value
Thus, at high
natural frequency is frequencies,
designed
the seismic mass mains stationary. Generally, the instru
twice
remains statior
as slow as Since there
is no relative motion for the slowest vibration to be
and casing represents large re between
values of'r (as 'D/Y' enlibrated
the mas
the
mass

1), the relativee motion

=

display the amplitude ofamplitude of motion. This can be sensed, motion olibrated to
vibrations. When the ratio amplified an
'D/Y' cannot be one, the
Recorded Value
Actual Value 22
 Chapter 6: Vibration Measurement 679
The error would be maximum when this ratio is maximum. As seen earlier, the above
maximum, when
ratio is
1
(from equation 4.11.9)
I-2
and,
Y (from equation 4.11.10)
max 251-
b). Velocity Pickup:

The same setup as used for a vibrometer can be easily used for velocity measurement. In
in which a magnet is
this case, use is made of a secondary strain sensing transducer, of the type
rigidly fixed to a seismic mass in a coil fixed to the frame. Then the output voltage at the two
ends of the coil will be proportional to relative velocity. As 'r is large, ('D/Y'» 1). Therefore,
the relative velocity so obtained is equal to input velocity. The output voltage can then be
amplified and calibrated to display the input velocity. The same equations as determined for
be used to determine true velocities.
vibrometer can

c). Accelerometer:
An accelerometer is an instrument which records the acceleration of the body. In this
case the natural frequency of the accelerometer is kept very large as compared to that of the
vibration to be measured. This can be done by using a very light mass suspended on a fairly
stiff spring. Suitable amount of damping is introduced to ensure that the magnification factor
=1. This can be done by knowing the range ofthe possible values of"", and then reversely
calculating the value of'' for which 'N is 1.

For
a-r2} (2Er)
(1-22+(28r2 1
1-22+A+4 ?2 = 1 6
422 = 2 r2-

2 2-2)

(6.2.1)
2
that 'Q' =1. However, the
USing this value of E, for the given value of r will ensure
some errors will be
and therefore,
n t is to cater to a range of different values of 'r,
ratios.
ntroduced, if we consider 'Q'= 1 at different frequeney

D
 680 Dynamics of Machinery
oY
D = r2QY =

Do 2Y2
Or,
=
Actual Acceleration x
Recorded Acceleration

Recorded Acceleration
2
Actual Acceleration

g=0
1.04

1.02

1.00

0.98
0.6
0.96
0.94
G0.92
0.90 0.65
0.88

0.86
0.84 0.707
0.82

0.80 Vg =0.75
0 0.1 0.2. 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Frequency Ratio (r)
Acceleration Error with
Frequency Ratio for Different Values of atio
Fig. 6.2.3 Damping
Ifthe value of Q is close to
at 1, then the error is not 6.2.3 that
=
0.707, the value of Q is seen in Fig alue of2
It is seen
very large. It
very close to 1 for the
isapproximated as one, the errors operating rse of
zone shown. As thedov not vary
much from the assumed in general f do not vary
values. Therefore, the may not be very large if r ana
above equation can be simpin fied to :
D

D =
r2 Y =
Y
or,
Do =02 YY
 Chapter 6: Vibration Measurement 681

Recorded Acceleration Actual Acceleration (when Q s 1)

noted that
hould be noted
should
that 'o2Y
is the acceleration amplitude of the body. Hence, D is
It
to the acceleration as 'on is a constant. The natural frequency of an
roDortionalbe atleast twice as high the frequency of the vibration to be measured.
d i r e c t l yp r o p o r t i o

eleration should

Tn
=
0,000 Hz).
Generally,
converted into an electric signal through winding coils,
The relative motion is generally values of
can be sensed, amplified and calibrated to give the
togenera
arate a voltage, which
acceleration.

in a vibrometer/velocity pickup and accelerometer is

in the working
The major difference ratio zone, whereas the
nentioned
range.As mention
earlier, the accelerometer worksS in low frequency
zone. Fig. 6.2.4 shows the typical
hrometer/velocity
vibrometer
pickup in the higher frequency ratio
zone of these.
working

Vibrometer/ Velocity Pickup

O.25
-0.5
5
0.7

= 1.0

4
3
0 1 2
Frequency Ratio (r)

Instruments
Working Zone of
Fig. 6.2.4
 Machinery
682 Dynamics of
VIBRATION
PICKUPS
TYPES OF
6.3
methods are used to convet
earlier that various the vibration par
It was mentioned b).
into an equivalent electrical signal. This is normally done by using transdue
which the transducers
areused along
are called as a
with other

pickup.
components, which
transducers
These transducers can
can be
devisen a
permit processi
transmitting of a signal contact
contact type. ttype or non
Contact type transducers such as LVDT and electromagnetic/ inductives
coil or a permanent magnet or the core. The strain
of a type:are basel
on the movement
guage type
are also contact type transducers and are attached to the test specimen.
have the effect of loading the test specimen, thereby theinfluencingtype .Contact transducer,
transducer
nsducar
parameters recorded
are also not suitable in measuring vibrations in rotating members. On the other
contact or non intrusive or proximity transducers rely on the principle of change ino hand, no
or reluctance or the loss of eddy current field in the measurement circuit
fchange in capactansce
due toa chanoe
member. Some of the important types of vibratioshe
In
gap between the transducer and the test
pickups and their principles are discussed below

a). Strain Guage as a Vibration Pickup:

This kind of a pickup uses a strain
guage made from a copper nickel alloy which is
mounted on an elastic element of the
variable resistance transducer
spring as shown in Fig. 6.3.1. They are also called as
pickups. The strain at point is proportional to the deflecton
ofthe mass. Strain influences the resistance of the any which can be sensed by a
guage Whearstonc
bridge.This change influences the
of displacement. output voltage which can be calibrated to show the magnius

Mass Strain
Guage Output
Terminals
Cantilever
Beam

Vibrating Body
Strain Guage
Vibration Pickup
Fig. 6.3.1
 Chapter 6: Vibration Measurement 683
Electromagnetic Transducer as a Velocity Pickup
ctrodynamic or El

b)
Sensing
Coil

SNNS

Magnet
Sensing Mechanism in an Electromagnetic Transducer
Fig. 6.3.2

In these transducers, a coil is made to move in a magnetic field or conversely a magnet is

made to move in a stationary coil.Fig. 6.3.2 shows the sketch of the sensing mechanism of the
nickup. When the coil is moved relatively in a magnetic field, a voltage is generated in the coil.
The magnetic field maybe produced by either a permanent magnet or it can be electromagnetic.
The magnitude of voltage generated by the coil is directly proportional to the relative velocity
of the coil. This makes it possible to calibrate the voltage to the velocity and hence
electrodynamic or electromagnetic transducers are used as velocity pickups.

e). LVDT:

Input
Voltage
Secondary Coil Secondary Coil
Magnetic
Core

Displacement
Primary Coil

Ouput
Voltage

Schematic Sketch of LVDT

Fig. 6.3.3

ALinearly Vari
y Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT) has a primary coil in the centre and
 684 Dynamics of Machinery
freely move axially in betu.
can
tweentthese coile
coils at the ends. A magnetic core
two secondary is applied to the nethese
to the
alternating input voltage prin nary
as shown in Fig. 6.3.3. When an
it and the secondary coil. When tha
the Coil coil, the
coupling between
varies the The secondary coils a
ore is in
magnetic core
the secondary coils is equal. secondary
coils the are connected
centre position, the coupling to when the core is at the Centc
voltage is zero,
in opposite phase and hence the output As tho
the centre position, the coupling to one secondary coil incra
from
would increase the voltage in one coil and rod. Wera
core moves away

it would reduce for the other. This te

other. The output voltage is thus directly proportional
to the displacement ofof theco
core.
are suitable for high frequency applications
LVDT
are insensitive to temperatures and

d). Piezoelectric Acelerometer

Spring

Piezoelectric
crystals Mass
Output
Terminals
Base

- Vibrating Body

Piezoelectric Accelerometer
Fig. 6.3.4
Of the contact
type transducers, those based on the piezoelectric
These can be built are opular
in
not influence the masscompact sizes having
of the vibrating body.low
principle
The constructional details of a conpithium
mass to ensure that the
po does
equipment
piezoelectric accelerometer is shown in Fig. 6.3.4. uctional details of a compression type
sulphate and Rochelle salt have a Piezoelectric materials sucn as lithium

This charge
disappears property of generating an electrical harge when
when the mechanical charge
defomed
def
is influenced
by the magnitude force loading is removed. The magnitudeCehee chargecharg
of
vibration characteristics. Fig. 6.3.4 acting on it. This property is used in o ining the
derei against
piezoelectric crystal. When the base shows athesmall mass which is spring
bring loaded again
the mass, changes the vibrates, mass vibrates. The in eleration
change inaence the
or
acceleration

output voltage from the magnitude

of force ge
exerted on the crystal. This
crystal which on calibration
inthe system. Piezoelectric crystal. would inf
wouCacceleratio
would give the
n i t u d e o f c e l e r a t i o n

work well in high accelerometers are compact, rugged andmagnituunsitivity

frequency range. have
itivityand

high
 Chapter 6 : Vibration Measurement 685

OPTICAL RECORDING INSTRUMENT

6.4

Test Specimen

A Mirror
Light
Beam

Photo
Sensitive Reflected
Paper Light

Rotating
Drum

Optical Recording Instrument

Fig. 6.4.1

Optical devices which are based on principles of light and are non contact type recording
instruments. Amirror is connected to the vibrating body through a linkage. The instrument uses
a light signal which is reflected through a mirror on to a rotating drum. A photo sensitive paper
is fixed on the drum to record the vibratory motion.
or
film Themajoradvantage of this kindof
an instrument is that it is insensitive to frequency ratio, as they have negligible inertia. A
Sketch of an optical recording instrument is as shown in Fig. 6.4.1.

6.5 VIBRATION FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT

6
Besides measuring the amplitude, velocity and the acceleration of vibrations, it is
portant to find the frequency of vibrations. Most frequency measuring instruments of the
chanical type are based on the principle of resonance. These are usually one of the two
kinds as discussed below.

Single Reed Frequency Meter or Fullarton Tachome

This instrument consists of a length cantilever strip or a reed of spring steel as

variable
i n Fig. 6.5.1. One end of this strip is clamped, and its free length can be changed by a
nanism. Changing the length directly affects the natural frequency of the strip.
686 Dynamics of Machinery

Variable Cantilever Calibrated Scale Head-

Strip (Reed)
LLALLLAMLALAAA A L AL L A M M A N E L a M A M L A A M A A

Pointer
Thumb Nut
Meter
Frequency
Single Reed
Fig. 6.5.1

with the vibrating hod.

is then pressed firmly in contact
The clamped end of the strip
to change its free length. This is done till the free end
and the screw mechanism is manipulated of the cantilever is equal to the
deflection. At this instant, the natural frequency
shows large of frequency.
then calibrated in terms
exciting frequency.The length of the reed is

Tachometer:
b). Multi-Reed Instrument or Frahm's

Reed

Mass

Multi-Reed Instrument or Frahm's Tachometer

Fig. 6.5.2

This instrument contains a number of reeds, with white tips arranged in a box will dull
interior (Refer Fig. 6.5.2). Each reed is in the form of a cantilever carrying small massesat ther
the
free ends, thus having a different natural frequency. When this instrument is attached to
vibrating body, the reed whose frequency is closest to the excitation frequency will exhio
ed
maximum amplitude while the other reeds would hardly move. The frequency of this tc
would then be the frequency ofthe vibrating body. The swinging white tip can be easily observeu
against the dark interior andifthe reeds are calibrated, then their frequency can be easilyreu

c). Stroboscope:
urce
This is a non contact frequency measurement instrument. It consists of a light sou
oduced
which emits light pulses intermittently. The frequency at which the light pulses are
can be altered and read from the instrument. The instrument uses the
proaf
principle ofpersistc body
vision to measure frequency in a rotating body. To do so, a desired
point of the Vibra
is viewed with the stroboscope. This point will appear
stationary, if and onlyifthe frequc
rotation and the frequency of the pulsating light is the same. The stroboscope can i
a s u r e

frequencies above 15 Hz.

 Chapter 6: Vibration Measurement 705
The electrodynamic exciter has two natural frequencies. The low stiffness of the flexible
Support ensures a low natural frequency, whereas the other frequency due to the moving element
maybe designed very high. The operating zone of the exciter would then be in between these
two frequencies as shown in Fig. 6.7.4. Typically, these exciters can generate forces as
30 kN with a displacement of about 25 mm and work in the frequency range from 5 Hz to 20
high as
KHz. The magnitude of the force is however restricted by the considerable heat produced in the
Proper cooling needs to be designed to reduce the temperatures in the coil.

The electrodynamic exciter is to be physically connected to the member under test and
the excitation occurs through this connection. However, if the test specimen is comparatively
small, then the stiffness and the mass of the exciter may considerably influence the characteristic
of the test specimen. In such cases, smaller sized non contact shakers are used. These can be
used to excite small test specimens which are made from magnetic material. The exciter uses a
strong magnet which is placed in the proximity of the test specimen but without any physical
contact. When the current flows through the coil, the moving element and the magnet vibrates
harmonically. The non contact magnetic bond between the permanent magnet and the test
specimen results in the test specimen moving harmonically creating excitation force.

6.8 VIBRATION METER

0.02
VEL

ACCEL- FDISPL
NORMAL PEAK

6
RESET

ON

OFF

Vibration Meter
Fig. 6.8.1

With the advent of modern electronics, the vibration measuring equipment have undergone
a tremendous change. A convenient measurement and display device is a vibration meter as
 unit which can be connee
in Fig. 6.8.1. This is hand held light weight
a ted to the
the
shown meter has aa digital disnla
display
cable. The vibration
piezoelectric accelerometer through a
or acceleration.
Besides this, itis accompanied and Cn
is accompania can
be set to read the displacement, velocity
which allow the technician to 'listen'tothe
with anan
with
he
electronic stethoscope with headphones,
This human interface helps
in prediction the e exact vibrations
exact nons
and confirm the values displayed. nature of
a problem based on the experience
of thé technician.

The vibration meter can be used to in predictive maintenance which is aimed at im improvi
It can measure the overall vibration
machinery reliability and enhancing productivity. level
over suitable frequency ranges. These readings can then be compared with severity chara
ts as
defined by ISO 2372 which would give the condition of the machine. Most vibration met
neters
can also be connected to a computers to collect and store the data being measured.

6.9 FFT SPECTRUM ANALYSER r iPsyith

In a real system, the vibratory signals received from the machine under steady runnino
conditions with respect to time domain are called as signature. This response is generally
periodic as the disturbing forces may have different frequencies and harmonics. Rarely would
thesignature be harmonic. This signature obtained from the meters would help in giving the
mean, rms or peak values of amplitudes, velocities and acceleration. However, the
response
along the time domain would not help in sensing the causes of vibration. A typical acceleration
response as read along the time domain is as shown in Fig. 6.9.1 (a). This response needs to be
analysed and converted to the frequency domain as shown in Fig. 6.9.1 (b) and is
the spectrum. referred to as

Time
(a) Acceleration along time domain

24 Hz
Frequency
(b) Acceleration along
frequency domain
Fig. 6.9.1
For the case considered in Fig. 6.9.1, it
can be seen that the acceleration reaghes a
 Chapter 6:Vibration Measurement 707
t e at about a frequency of 24 Hz. The operating speeds of major sources of vibrations like
ntors can then be checked and a particular motor can be identified which has a rotational
mot

eed of about 24 Hz. Thus, the acceleration spectrum allows the technician to identify a
Corrective action such as motor
narticular motor which would be the cause of vibration.
or change in operating speed of the motor can then be suggested to avoid
resonance.
renlacement
used. The data obtained
To generate this kind of data for analysis, spectrum analysers
are raw

a vibration meter or a transducer are in time domain. This signal is then analysed by an
from
is then presented in the frequency domain.
analyser and the data
this series, any
a is made of the Fourier series. As per
periodic motion, use
To analyse cosine terms. Thus
the
be represented by an infinite sum of sine and
periodic motion can
mathematical equation and the
transformations of
can be converted into a
vibrations signature domain and vice
conversion from time domain to frequency
would allow the
this equation
versa.
last
m e a s u r e m e n t have improved
vastly in the
for vibration
The instruments required Transform) Spectrum
these is the FFT (Fast Fourier the
among information and c a n give
few years. The most accepted store of
analyser provides huge a
later u s e . FFT uses
fast
Analyser. The FFT spectrum motion in real time and store the data for
the dynamic from time domain
complete idea of transform data using Fourier transforms
be used to
microprocessors to
instantaneously
The data analysed through FFT c a n
v e r s a in real
time.
domain and vice numerical o r graphical
to frequency ratios, and other mode shapes in
frequencies, damping hardware.
find the natural
software and
form, using the
necessary

Spectrum

Test Specimen

Accelerometer

Force
Transducer Frequency
Power
Amplifier
and Signal
Conditioner

+MIWMOMAM :

Exciter

Data
Time Domain
Acquisition|
Software
Spectrum (FFT) Analyser

Experimental
Setup using FFT
Fig. 6.9.2
 Dynamics of
Machine
t h e
e x p e r i m e n t a l
e x p e r i m e n t a l
setup is
setup hematically
c m a t i c a l

and
the
developedfor creating thOwn
develoned
nown in
708
of
c o n v e r s i o n

cessors
p r o c e s s o r s
w h i c h .a
which re
are
generate a se
the neces
s e d to
The
method

of
fast
than
used
be u to stor ffor futuredata
te
a points
6.9.2.
The FFT
comprises
analog
data
which c a n
an
can
digitally stored
be digitally analysis
The is
Fig. time
mode. Transform)
Transform)
system which onnecte to a computer,
oa

real
data in
Fourier acquisition

(Discrete
using a
data
used to
observe the he trends of vibratio
using a DFT

is
recorded
digitally
sers
can
also be
graphically
with with the previous signals.
results. This
This data analysers
FFT and compared
Computer
based
can berecorded
recor

and correcti
ocedures can then be
employed
signatures machine
Vibration
state of the
the
would
highlight vibration.
of
the source

detecting MACHINEES

M O N I T O R I N G
OF
VIBRATION

6.10 v i b r a t i o n s to begin with, as

th.

do not have large are

when installed
are subjected to wear, fatigue, foundar
New machines the machines
However, with use, i n i t i a t i o n of cracks, imbala.
accordingly designed. between mating parts,
misalignment,
clearances
v i b r a t i o n s in the machine. As the
machi
settlement,
which are the s o u r c e s oflarger
to failure.
and other such factors, increasing, finally leading
these vibrations keep on
life increases,
machine by aural means. Careful listening
A skilled technician can monitor the state ofthe
reveals a lot about the
state of the machine. In some cases, where
the machine
to the noise of to detect sounds
technician may use the help of microphones
accessibility is restricted, the corrective and
areas of the machine. Necessary
which can point out the possible problem
and magnifying
preventive action can then be taken to eliminate these problems. Stroboscopes
method ofmonitoring also require
glasses can be used to visually monitor large deflections. This
a skilled technician who can detect the source of vibrations before they cause a failure.

To develop modern methods of vibration monitoring of machines, research is being carried

Out to identifythe changes in vibration levels, how they can be identified and interpreted. tnc

methods implemented to do so are explained below.

a). Time Domain Analysis:

in many cases, it is seen that the vibration sienature obtained is periodic in nau The
time domain
analysis uses the time history of the signal be
noted.To understand the and any transient impulses
interpretation of time domain analysis, consider the case
gears. If the pinion were to
g
wOuld be repeated with develop a crack, the transducer would record s e which
the time an i
to
identify a crack in a particularperiod of the pinion. This periodicity would help the hnician
tooth of the tce
pinion.
Another form of time based
meter. ISO2372 has vibration monitoring ration
created vibration is by using the readout from a
readout
the condition of a
machine by severity charts which can be used as a i determine
determine

the criteria set comparing

by the standards. This is the rms value of the guldcvelocitywith
machine. However, this method one of the measured vibratoy velocitywIu
the
does not easiest n i t o r the
state of
methods
individual component, as the give the necessary to
monito
ure of
of an
a ilure
signal obtained is that
ofa complete
warning of a possi
system.
 Chapter 6: Vibration Measurement 709
Vibration analysis
Jihration analys can also be carried out by
using certain patterns called as Lissajous
formn of analysis Is used in identifying faults in a
This form
This
figure
r e s .

i g u n

amalysis. The method involves the use of two transducers

as rbital analysis.
rotating system and is also called
asorDof
ifference 90°
of90 as shown in
Fig. 6.10.1. The readings are then fed to an arranged with a phase
difter
resulting rbital graph plotted. Any change in the pattern of these oscilloscope
orbital grap) is and the
figures
nrovide considerable information about the rotor dynamic behaviour.
or orbits can be
For example,
ser Fig. 6.10.1
consid
(b), where it is seen that orbit diameter has increased in the vertical direction.
e would mean a larger clearance in the vertical direction.
This

Proximity
Probe 2

Proximity
Probe 1 Oscilloscope
:

(a) Setup
Worn
Bearing Scratch
Excessive
or Crack Preload

Baseline
Orbit
(c) (d)
(b)
Orbital Analysis
Fig. 6.10.1

b). Frequency Domain Analysis:

frequency spectrum
is a plot of the amplitude of
The frequency domain analysis or
time domain signal using a FFT
IDration versus the frequency. This can be generated
from the
vibrations
6
useful information in detecting
PCtrum analyser. The frequency spectrum gives earlier in article 6.9. It thus
works as a
as seen
component of the system As the
L by particular
a
condition of its major components.
and gives status and
t h chart of the machine peaks relate to various
machine components. The fault
various and pulleys can be
PECtrum is studied, the
like bearings, fans, pumps, gearboxes,
encies of standard componentsworked out. This would allow the technician to detect
Com formulas
ared with standard whirl and loosening
of parts.
misalignment, resonance, oil
ance,

c).
Cepstrum Analysis: individual components like gear
the faults of
A helps in identifying
spectrum analysis
 710 Dynamics ofMachinery
boxes. However, the analysis gets complicated ifa particular gear is to be id
dentifie
having multiple gearpairs. In such cases a Cepstrum procedure is used. A Cened ina
the spectrum ofa spectrum. This analysis can detect any periodicity of theum ise
a
faulty part of a component such as a blade of a fan, gear tooth of a gear and so um causedntalyty
cepstrum is obtained by rearranging the letters of the word spectrum
on. The word
EXERCISES ?
1 What is the
importance of vibration measurement ?
2 Drawa neat sketch and
explain the typical arrangement of avibration
3. What are seismic
measuring equipment ? What is the principal behindmeasurement system
measuring instrument? its use as a vib.
4.
Clearly explain the working vibration
5. What are the different principle of a vibrometer, velometer and
types of Vibration
pickups ? accelerometerer.
6. Draw the
diagram of the strain guage based Explain any two in detail.
which it works. instrument and discuss the basic
7.
Explain the working of an principle on
8. What is an LVDT and electromagnetic transducer or velocity
9 With a neat sketch
how does it work ? pickup.
accelerometer. explain the working and
constructional details of
10. Write a short note a
piezoelectric
Explain the working offrequency
on
11. measurement.
12. a single reed frequency
Explain the working of multi a
meter.
a stroboscope and how reed or Frahm's Tachometer.
13. What is
14. What are vibration is it used ?
exciters ?
15. What is an Explain the types of
16. What are electrodynamic exciter ?
vibration meters ?
mechanical vibration exciters.
17. What is the
18. What are significance of the Fourier series ?
19.
FFT Analysers ?
Explain frequency
how
20. Drawa
neat sketch spectrum can be used to
of the experimental detect vibration
analyser.
21. Write short setup of for vibration related faults sy in a stem.

22.
note a
vibration on measurement
asurement using annt
using an
22 What do you
useful in understand by timemonitoring of machines.
domain and
predicting vibration failures?
23. What do frequency domainin analysis
analysis ?? How they
you understand by orbital How are
24. Define the term
Cepstrum. analysis ?