2. Answer the guiding questions found in Ch.

13 reading guide

In what ways did European empires in the Americas resemble their Russian, Chinese,
Mughal, and Ottoman counterparts, and in what respects were they different? Do you find
the similarities or differences more striking?

The empires that emerged in America and the empires that emerged in other territories
featured many similarities and differences. One similarity between all of these empires was that
each of the empires trying to expand and gain more land. Additionally, the European empires in
America and the Ottoman empire used the practice of enslaving members of other cultures. In
the Ottoman empire, those who were Christians from the Byzantine empire engaged in the
practice of Devshrime for more opportunities as Muslims since they were slaves. In the
Americas, the Great dying had resulted in a large population decline in big American cities, and
so to tend crops like sugar, which allowed south America to prosper, the Americans enslaved
Africans. One difference between the Americas and these other Empires was that the European
empires in America were constructed off of transoceanic state-building from Spain and Portugal.
The Other empires that were not in America however, were all land-based empires and so they
gradually conquered locations that were located in the Afro-Eurasian region to expand the
empire. Personally, I do not find either of the similarities or differences striking and I believe that
due to a natural selection of the environment and geography, the similarities and differences were
bound to occur.

What enabled Europeans to carve out huge empires an ocean away from their homeland?

The Europeans already had a general sense of Geography, and since they were set on
wanting to expand their territory they went to the western hemisphere. The reason that the
Europeans living in Spain and Portugal did not go to the east is that the already very powerful
Ottoman empire stood, and if they tried to conquer where the Ottoman empire already was, they
would get conquered. Additionally, the Americas featured a variety of new natural resources that
were not seen as frequently in the east. One example of this is sugar, which was very common in
brazil and it had fostered an economy for the European empires in America.

What large-scale transformations did European empires generate?

When the European empires appeared in America, they brought many large-scale
transformations. For example, the Native Americans living in the Americas had not previously
been exposed to diseases, and so with the European expansion into the New World, a large
portion of the Native American population had been killed due to the Great Dying’s many
diseases. Additionally, the European empires created many new societies in both North and
South America, and this introduced violence and slave labor, while also causing a “boom” in the
American economy.

What was the economic foundation of colonial rule in Mexico and Peru? How did it shape
the kinds of societies that arose there?

The economic foundation of colonial rule in Mexico and Peru revolved highly around the
production of agricultural goods. More specifically, the land in the Americas featured a suitable
environment for the production of sugar and other products that were more scarce in Europe like
cotton and tobacco. The fact that the economy was highly dependent on agricultural goods meant
that there had to be a lot of labor in the surrounding societies to expand the empires. Because a
large portion of the population had died due to diseases from the Great Dying, slave labor was
introduced into society, and enslaved native Americans had children with enslaved African
Americans which furthered slave labor and the economy. This difference in ethnicity also
accounted for a distinction between societal classes in Mexico and Peru.

How did the plantation societies of Brazil and the Caribbean differ from those of southern
colonies in British North America?

Several reasons contribute to the difference in societies of the British American colonies
and the southern colonies. One reason is that the plantation sites in Brazil were entirely focused
on the production of sugar since that was the region in which sugar was mostly available at the
time. On the other hand, the British colonies of North America had a much colder and drier
climate, so sugar plantations could not exist there. Instead, these British colonies thrived off of
tobacco production. Also, the plantations in North America were labored by black African
American slaves, but in South America, Native Americans were also enslaved in addition to
African Americans. As a result of this, the Native Americans and Africans had children together
which accounted for more interracial slave labor in the Southern Colonies.

What distinguished the British settler colonies of North America from their counterparts in
Latin America?

Many of the differences had to do with geographical luck and contrasts between the
British Settler colonies and the southern colonies. In South America, the climate which much
more tropical and warm allowing the production of different crops and resources to be grown. In
North America though, the climate was different and it had a variety of high and low
temperatures while also containing an arid climate. Another difference between the two is that
they both handled the aspects of slave trading very differently. In North America, black Africans
were subject to slave labor since there was no racial diversity compared to that in the Southern
colonies.
In what ways might European empire-building in the Americas be understood as a single
phenomenon? And in what aspects should it be viewed as a set of distinct and separate
processes?

European empire-building in America can be recognized as a single phenomenon largely

because all over America, there was a demand for an increase of land, and power. All the
different empires and colonies scattered throughout the had one goal of trying to expand. Despite
this general claim though, each of the colonies had been working differently to try and expand
power. For example, while both offered slave labor, the south was much more tolerant with their
slaves, while the north tortured them, and different processes were involved in how the different
Empires were able to expand.

What motivated the Russian empire-building?

Russian empire-building had been motivated as a result of wanting to expand in parallel

to the Rest of the World. Additionally, with the Great power of the Ottoman Empire, the
Russians sought the opportunity to expand Orthodox Christianity, which was their primary
religion. With fur being in high demand by the rest of the World, the Russians had established
Siberia as a starting point for Russia, where the economy had thrived off of marketing
fur-bearing goods.

How did the Russian Empire transform the life of its conquered people and of the Russian
homeland itself?

After Siberia was established in Russia, Russia had to continue to expand while also
changing the lives of the conquered people. One way in which the conquered people were
affected was through the Russian tribute system of Yasak. Conquered people who came from
other cultures and religions were forced to pay Yasak to the Russian Empire, however, those who
would convert to orthodox christianty could be exempt from paying this tribute, and they could
even get additional tax breaks. Additionally, Russia offered economic opportunities for the
conquered people. This not only promoted the spread of orthodox Christianity but also furthered
Russian expansion by unifying the people.

What were the distinctive features of Chinese empire building in the early modern era?

Like the post-classical period in China where Chinese society had expanded, it remained
in continuity with the development of the Qing Dynasty in the Early Modern time period. One of
the distinctive features of Chinese empire building during this time period was that the Qing
dynasty had greatly expanded the Chinese military which was not the primary focus during the
post-classical period. Additionally, the Qing dynasty had brought about the addition of many
non-Chinese residents living and sharing their culture with China, however they were not
allowed to get romantically involved with the Chinese.

How did the Mughal attitudes and policies toward Hindus change from the time of Akbar
to Aurangzeb?

When the Mughal empire was established, it united both Muslims and Hindus with each
other. Akbar had realized that in his Mughal empire, the majority of the population was
non-Islamic and so he accommodated these standards by removing the mainly Islamic influence
and allowing other cultures to diffuse by promoting tolerance and removing the religious tax,
jizya. Aurangzeb on the other hand completely differed in his views from Akbar; instead, he
wanted to bring back the Islamic culture to the Mughal empire. He reimposed Jizya on
non-muslims living in the empire, and he also removed Hindu music and dance entirely from
society.

In what ways was the Ottoman Empire important for Europe in the early modern era?

On a global scale, the Ottoman empire is largely regarded as one of the most powerful
empires of the Early Modern area, and it was important for Europe in many ways. For example,
during the end of the post-classical period in Europe, the Byzantine empire was already falling
apart, and so the Ottoman empire saw this as an opportunity to expand into Europe. With the
Ottoman empire conquering Constantinople, it accounted for the Turks becoming large traders in
Europe since Constantinople was generally regarded as the center of all trade. Additionally, this
new presence established in Europe meant that the Turks would be able to expand their empire
and spread their Islamic influence into other territories outside of Europe.

3. Define the What’s the Significance terms on p. 588

1. Cortes: From the period of 1450 - 1750, the Americas were growing stronger, and there
was a conflict between different Hispanic regions. Hernan Cortes, along with the many
Aztecs, had led the Spanish conquest in South America against Mexica domination.
During one of his Final Attacks, Cortes’s army contained more people from the Aztec
empire than it did of the Spaniards. Cortes was important because he created the Spanish
Mesoamerican empire and this empire was able to take down the current Aztec empire at
the time. As a result of this, many former Aztecs joined the Spanish Mesoamerican
empire which became a prominent trading empire of the Incas. (Land-based)

2. Dona Marina: Dona Marina, born in 1505, was the daughter of an elite family between
the Maya and Aztec cultures. When her father died, her mother gave birth to another son
with a new man, and to protect this boy, her mother had to sell Marina into slavery, where
 she ended up coming into possession of Tabasco, a Maya chieftain. Later in her life,
Cortes’s troops conquered Tabasco, and consequently, Tabasco had to give up Marina to
Cortes. Dona Marina is important because she became of service to Cortes. She was also
culturally aware of her surroundings allowing her to discover spies and plots that could
have affected Corte’s defeat. She is also recognized as a controversial figure because it is
debated whether she is a Victim or a skillful survivor doing what she needs to do.
(Transoceanic)

3. The Great Dying: The Great dying occurred as a reuslt of Afro-Eurasian diseases that
had spread to the Americas. These different diseases consisted of, measles, typhus,
influenza, malaria, smallpox, and yellow fever. Since the African and European people
had been relatively isolated from the Native Americans and Hispanics when they to the
Americas, they brought all these different diseases, and as a result, large American cities
lost almost 90 percent of their current population. The Great Dying was significant during
the New age period because it was just one of the major effects that took place as a result
of Afro - Eurasian contact with the Americans. (Transoceanic)

4. Little Ice Age and General Crisis: As a result of the low population from the Great
dying, there was a large desertion of farmland in Native America. Because there were
fewer people around to tend to the corps, it meant that there was an overall period of
cooling on the planet. This cooling period, caused by there not being enough crops to
take in larger quantities of carbon dioxide, became known as the Little Ice age. The Little
Ice age and general cirsis are significant because they display how - much like the Great
Dying - cross-cultural human contact can result in drastic changes worldwide.
(Transoceanic)

5. Columbian exchange: The Colombian exchange was a network of colonial areas and
civilizations across the Atlantic Ocean. Afro-Eurasian countries would trade slaves for
goods and other resources from the Americas. Additionally, many new societies were
created and cultures spread across the ocean. The Columbian exchange was important
because, in contrast to the Great Dying which showcased the negative effects of
cross-oceanic cultural engagement, the Columbian exchange showed some of the positive
effects and developments of empires. Additionally, it fostered the development of most of
the trans-Atlantic trade, and it accounted for the diffusion of different cultures.
(Transoceanic)

6. Peninsulares: Pennisularles is a term that was used to describe the superior Spaniards
born in Spain. In turn, since pennisularles were born in Spain themselves, many of the
Spaniards who were not born in Spain felt threatened by their more prestigious
 occupations and wealth. Pennisulares were important during this period because they
represented one of the groups that showed that a social split had occurred. (Land-based)

7. Mestizo: One of the main problems concerning Hispanic men from 1450 through 1750,
was that there were very few Hispanic women. As a result, a new demographic of
Hispanic men and Indian women occurred. Mestizo is the term given to this mixed race.
As time passed, Mestizo became the leading race inside Mexican households, however,
many Spaniards looked down upon them regarding them as illegitimate. Despite this
though, the Mestizo race had become very useful to Spainiards and they worked many
important jobs and completed many important tasks. This race of people was significant
during this period because they demonstarted that despite being a cross-cultural blend,
the Mestizo was still important in Mexican society. (Land-based)

8. Mulattoes: During this period, along with the Mestizo, there were many other interracial
mixes between humans. Mullattoes was the term used to describe the children of the
Portuguese and Africans. This racial group was significant because in addition to the
Mulattoes, many other racial groups had emerged during this period, and the Mullatoes
were a prime example of the effects of interraical sex. (Land-based)

9. Plantation complex: The plantation complex was built across the Americas, and it was a
network based on African slave labor. Extending from the British colonies of North
America, all the way down to South America, it consisted of slaves on plantation sites
tending to tobacco, cotton, rice, and other major economic crops. In addition to this, the
guidelines for the slave trade across the Plantation complex were different across the
countries. In the North, slaves were recognized as black Africans, however, the south
included many interracial mixes of Americans. This accounted for slavery being different
and diverse across the north and south and the Plantation complex was important because
it was a major use of slave labor to produce economic goods. Additionally, this complex
was significant because, at a time when a large amount of the American population had
been wiped out by violence and disease, there was a lack of labor, and so the plantation
complex contributed to an expansion in the Americas’ economics. (Transoceanic)

10. Settler colonies: Settler colonies were a distinct type of colonial society that appeared in
Northern America. These settler colonies were the colonies that contained European
American populations and until the 18th century, they were seen as inferior to the South
American empires. When the British had come to colonize the land in North of South
America, this land was seen as “the unpromising leftovers” of America, and so these
settler colonies were very late in terms of New World development compared to the
South American empires. The Settler colonies were important because they became the
 basis for what the U.S.A. is today due to the need for independence and an economically
successful change in America. (Land-based)

11. Siberia: In addition to the western world becoming more developed from the period of
1450 - 1750, the east had also seen many advances. At around the same time, Colombus
made his way to the New World, the Russian empire started to expand at an increasing
rate. Siberia was known as one of the regions in the emerging Russian state, and it
became known primarily for its opportunities for Fur-bearing animals, which during the
period, were highly demanded by the rest of the world for their fur. Additionally, it
contained other opportunities for farming and becoming politically proficient. Siberia
was important because it was one of the first regions in Russia that really fostered
economic development, allowing Russia to become the world’s largest state.
(Land-based)

12. Yasak: Along with the ever-expanding Russian empire, the native Russian population
had created a tribute system in Siberia where Yasak (the tribute) was paid. As a result of
Yasak, Siberia was able to produce even larger quantities of fur than it was already
producing, this, in turn, allowed Russia to expand even further on a global scale. Because
yasak and tax became very high in Russia, those who converted to Orthodox Christianty
could be exempt from paying this tribute. This went hand in hand with the destruction of
many mosques across Europe forcing many settlers to live in Russia and convert to
Christianity. Yasak was important during the period in Russia because, in addition to
expanding the economy, it also fostered the spread of Orthodox Christianity across
Russia. (Land-based)

13. Qing Dynasty Empire: As Russia and the Americas expanded during the Early Modern
period, China also featured many societal developments. Despite the decline of a
maritime empire in the Indian Ocean during 15th century China, China established a new
empire in the 17th and 18th Centuries, and this became known as the Qing Dynasty. The
Qing Dynasty had first emerged from a nomadic origin, however, later they conquered
China, and to maintain their ethnic diversity in China, they prevented interracial marriage
between themselves and the Chinese. In addition to this, the Qing Dynasty greatly
expanded the Chinese military and they also conquered land using their advanced
techonolgies. The Qing Dynasty was important because, unlike the many nomadic groups
that China had interacted with in the 15th to 18th centuries, the Qing dynasty conquered
China effectively resulting in many cultural, political, and economic developments in
China, parallel to things happening in the rest of the World. (Land-based)

14. Mughal Empire: As much of the world was developing, India also featured its
cross-cultural developments during the Early Modern period. The prominent empire
 established was the Mughal Empire, and they were an additive of the already diffusing
Hindu and Islamic cultures in India. The Mughal empire was important because in a time
of clashing cultures, in the 16th century, the Mughal conquest brought a period of
political unity to India. (Land-based)

15. Akbar: Akbar became known as the most famous emperor of the Mughal empire.
Because India was religiously divided, only about 20 percent of the people living in
Mughal India at the time were Muslim. As a result of this, Akhbar implemented many
features to accommodate this Hindu Majority. One of the main policies that Akbar is best
known for is his removal of Jizya (the tax on non-muslims in India) and his overall
religious tolerance. Additionally, Akbar softened up some of the Hindu restrictions on
women which allowed for the diffusion of cultures between Hindus and Muslims duirng
the Early Modern period in India. Finally, his religiously tolerant policies led to him
implementing learning centers where different religions could be practiced, and he
removed many ulama (religious schools). Akbar was important during this period
because, in a period of disunified India amongst the people, he was regarded highly by
many people for his religious tolerance of the Mughal empire. (Land-based)

16. Aurangzeb: Unlike what Akbar had thought would bring unity to India under tolerance
and accommodation of many cultures, the Islamic emperor Aurangzeb had wanted to
enforce Muslim dominance across India. While Akbar brought music and dance,
Aurangzeb sought to remove all of it and the Hindu dancing girls had to either get
married to Muslims or leave the Mughal empire. Jizya was reimposed to Non-muslims
living in the empire and Aurangzebs religious practices fostered a large increase in the
amount of Muslims in India. He was significant because, at a time when the Mughal
empire was religiously tolerant, Aurangzeb reversed this tolerance through his different
policies. (Land-based)

17. Ottoman Empire: Similar to the Mughal empire, the Ottoman empire was also created
based on the Turkish tribes. From the 14th to 20th century, the Ottoman Turks created a
lasting empire that featured many Islamic additions. The Ottoman Empire had been
created in Anatolia but over years, it spread across Europe, the middle east, and Africa.
As time progressed in the empire, it had become extremely politically stable and
resultingly, this furthered the expansion and spread of Islamic culture across
Afro-Eurasia. Due to the empire's Islamic nature, Turkish women were granted more
power than they were in other cultures, and many women were able to fight and protect
their legal rights. The Ottoman empire was also prominently known for conquering many
other large empires. For example, the Ottoman empire traveled to Europe intending to
deter christianty. As a result of this, Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine empire
was captured by the Turks, and many former Byzantines had become Muslim. One of the
 specific Islamic practices, Devshirme involved converting thousands of young Christian
boys to Muslim. The Ottoman empire was significant because like the Mughal empire, it
created a long-lasting empire that expanded Islamic nature across all of Afro-Eurasia.
(Land-based)

18. Constantinople: During the Postclassical period, Constantinople was the capital of the
Byzantine empire and it was a very powerful central area, however, it had started to
decline with the rise of other nations. In the Early Modern period, Constantinople was
seized by the Ottoman Empire, and once the Ottoman empire had conquered
Constantinople it marked an end to Byzantine power. Because Constantinople was a
central trading center in Europe, now that the Ottomans had control of it, they were able
to expand into other parts of the world, and they were able to spread their Islamic
influence to all those living in Europe. Constantinople is significant to the spectrum of
World history because it shows how a strong empire can decline and eventually be
conquered. (Land-based)

19. Devshrime: In simple terms, Devshrime means “gathering”, however, the Ottomans had
made use of the practice in a very strategic way. The actual practice of Devshrime was
collecting groups of Christian boys, and training them under Islamic influence to become
soldiers. The practice itself was effective because many of the boys who were being
converted came from poor families that lacked opportunities; with Devshrime, the boys
that were seen as having the most potential were given roles similar to that of higher
Turkish officials and students like prestigious education. Through this practice, Christian
boys who were seen as slaves to an Islamic empire could serve a purpose in society.
Devshrime was a significant practice because it not only furthered Turkish society by
allowing Christian boys to be given opportunities as Muslims, but it also promoted the
spread of Islam across Europe, and ultimately it contributed to the fall of Constantinople.
(Land-based)

4. Review AP Topics 3.1 through 3.4 and identify which “Learning Objectives” and
“Historical Developments” relate to the information presented in Ch. 13.

3.1 Learning objective: Explain how and why various land-based empires developed and
expanded from 1450 to 1750.

This learning objective relates to the information presented in chapter 13 because many
different empires around the world found new ways to develop and expand during this period.
One example of this is in the Americas. Before 1450 - 1750, South America was ruled by many
non-unified empires (Aztecs, Mayans, Incas). During the Early modern period, however, the
Spainiards and the Portuguese had expanded into America because the Ottomans had already
seemed to be conquering much of the Eurasian world. As a result, instead of America being ruled
by different civilizations, colonies had been set up in both the Northern and Southern Parts of
America. Both of these regions featured many developments. Specifically, the development of
the slave trade had become more frequent in America due to the vast natural goods and resources
that America held. “Slaves worked on sugar-producing estates in horrendous conditions…The
extensive use of African slave labor gave these plantation colonies a very different Ethnic and
racial makeup than that of Highland Spanish America.” (W. Strayer 568 - 569) Another
land-based empire that developed in this period was the Ottoman empire. The Ottoman empire
had originally started in Anatolia, however, as the need for religious and political dominance
grew, the Ottoman empire used its advanced military tactics to expand across all of Europe, the
middle east, and Northern Africa.

3.2 Learning objective: Explain how rulers used a variety of methods to legitimize and
consolidate their power in land-based empires from 1450 to 1750.

This learning objective relates to the information presented in Chapter 13 because

different land-based empires used differently to gain power in the Early Modern period. For
example, In the Americas, European rulers had an internal sense of superiority over the native
Americans, and their use of gunpowder and other advanced military inventions allowed them to
be seen as a threat to native Americans which in turn, resulted in them being viewed as more
legitimate and powerful further expanding the land-based southern colonies. Additionally, during
this period, Russia also started to expand. Russia during this period was an Orthodox Christian
region, and so for them to consolidate power, they ensured a tribute system and created Yasak.
“They also demanded yasak or tribute, paid in cash or kind. In Siberia, this meant enormous
quantities of furs…” (W. Strayer 574). This tribute system allowed Russia to expand and become
more powerful as a land-based empire because non-orthodox Christians living in Russia at the
time could be exempt from paying Yasak if they became orthodox Christianity, and the more
orthodox Christians there were the more the Russian government could expand.

3.3 Learning objective: Explain continuity and change within the various belief systems
during the period from 1450 to 1750.

This learning objective relates to the information presented in Chapter 13 because

throughout not only this period, but also world history in general, there are always continuities
and changes in belief systems, and Chapter 13 of the textbook mentioned some examples. One
example in which a belief system had changed was in the Qing Dynasty. During the
post-classical period of China, while China had made some efforts to expand, and they were
trading with the outside world through trade routes, China in general had remained relatively
enclosed as a civilization. The Qing Dynasty, however, had brought great change to this belief
that China should be enclosed, and the Qing had allowed many other ethnic groups to expand
into China. Additionally, another example where belief systems had changed can be seen in India
and the Mughal empire. With the already expanding Islamic beliefs and influence across India,
the Mughal empire had adopted Islamic tradition even though the majority of those living in
India were Hindu. Former Mughal emperor, Akbar realized that this was the case, and instead of
enforcing and expanding Islam like what was already being seen around the world, he adhered to
a different belief system by accommodating the different groups of people living in India and he
removed many Islamic features in India. “In directly religious matters, Akbar imposed a policy
of toleration deliberately restraining the more militantly Islamic ulama and removing the special
tax.” (W. Strayer 581). This quote demonstrates how Akbar’s beliefs represent a change in the
Mughal empire because the Islamic influence had gradually been shifting away under his belief
system. This however all changed when Aurangzeb became ruler of the empire, and he once
again continued the spread of Islam into India.

3.4 Learning objective: Compare the methods by which various empires increased their
influence from 1450 to 1750.

This Learning objective relates to the information presented in Chapter 13 because, in

chapter 13, the textbook discusses how different emperors had increased their influence in
specific regions culturally and religiously during the Early Modern period. One specific example
that can be found in Chapter 13 is the establishment of Siberia and the Russian empire in the late
16th century. One of the main trading goods around the world was fur, and Siberia produced a lot
of it. Additionally, as the Russian empire expanded they had to find a way to convert those of
other religions to Orthodox Christianity, and so they created Yasak, which was the tribute that
non-orthodox Christians would have to pay unless they converted, in which case they could get a
tax break. In other parts of the world like the Ottoman empire though, different methods were
used to increase influence. The Turks had used advanced military tactics along with the practice
of Devshrime. In this practice enslaved Christian boys could work in an Islamic society and
based on their performance, they could be given higher education and official roles. “This was
devshirme… Technically the devshirme recruits were slaves, but they were quite different from
ordinary purchased slaves. They were absorbed into Ottoman society in distinctive and
privileged roles, and some of them were able to rise to very prominent positions, including that
of grand vizier, the chief adviser to the sultan himself.” (Strayer 586). This practice was highly
effective and it greatly contributed to the Turk's influence in Europe because rather than
conquering and killing, they were conquering and giving opportunities - like mentioned in the
quote - to Ottoman Christians. In short, all these different methods are what allowed different
empires to expand during the Early Modern period.