1.

Air Regulations

Aviation​ is the practical aspect or art ​of ​aeronautics​, being the design, development, production,
operation and use of ​aircraft​, especially​ heavier than air aircraft
"Aircraft​" means any machine which can derive support in the atmosphere from reactions of the air
other than reactions of the air against the earth's surface and includes balloons whether fixed or free,
airships, kites, gliders and flying machines;
" Aeroplane ​" means a power-driven heavier-than-air aircraft, deriving its lift in flight chiefly from
aerodynamic reactions on surfaces which remain fixed under given conditions of flight;
"Aerodrome​" means any definite or limited ground or water area intended to be used, either wholly
or in part, for the landing or departure of aircraft, and includes all buildings, sheds, vessels, piers and
other structures thereon or appertaining thereto;
"Balloon"​ means a non-power-driven lighter-than-air aircraft;
"Co-pilot"​ means a licensed pilot serving in any piloting capacity other than as pilot-in-command
but excluding a pilot who is on board the aircraft for the sole purpose of receiving flight instruction;
"Director-General"​ means Director-General of Civil Aviation;
DGCA ( Director General of civil avation)​ – The Directorate General of Civil Aviation is the
principal regulatory body of civil aviation. It is responsible for regulation of air transport services to/
from/ within India, for formulation and enforcement of civil air regulations ​(CAR)​, air safety and
airworthiness standards.
but also co-ordinates all regulatory functions with International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO).
"Solo flight time​"​ means flight time during which a pilot is the sole occupant of an aircraft

"Dual flight time"​ means flight time during which a person is receiving flight instructions from a
pilot on board the aircraft;

Aircraft Rule 1937 (part 9 rule 67 ) Log books and logs​-(1) The following log books shall be kept
and maintained in respect of all aircraft registered in India, namely:-

(a) a journey log book;

(b)aircraft log book;
(c) engine log book for each engine installed in the aircraft;
(d) propeller log book for every variable pitch propeller installed in the aircraft;
(e) a radio apparatus log bok for aircraft fitted with radio apparatus;
(f) any other log book that may be required by the Director-General.

Rule​ ​67A. Log Books of Flight Crew Personnel and logging of flight time –

Every member of the Flight Crew licensed under these rules shall maintain a personal log book, in the form
prescribed by the Director-General and all flight times shall be logged therein.

All entries in log books shall be made in ink.

Log Books shall be preserved for not less than 5 years after the date of the last entry therein.
Every member of the Flight Crew shall certify the accuracy of the entries in his log book with respect to
flight time at least at the end of each calendar month. The pilot-in-command during dual instruction shall
certify entries with respect to flight time during such dual instruction. At the end of every quarter in a year,
that is, at the end of March, June, September and December, log books shall be certified for correctness of
entries therein –

The holder of a Student Pilot’s Licence may log as pilot-in-command only that portion of the flight time
during which he is the sole occupant of an aircraft

The holder of a Private Pilot’s Licence may log as pilot-in-command only the flight time during which he
acts as pilot-in-command.

"Flight crew member"​ means a licenced crew member charged with duties essential to the operation of an
aircraft during a flight duty period;

"Helicopter"​ means a heavier-than -air aircraft supported in flight by the reactions of the air on one or more
power driven rotors on substantially vertical axis;

“Prohibited area"​ means an area over which the navigation of aircraft is prohibited under rule 12 .

(1) The area included within a radius of ​one mile from the Towers of Silence on Malabar Hills, Bombay
2) The area ​near Baroda aerodrome​ bounded by the following co-ordinates :
220 17' N 730 12' E 220 15' N 730 08' E 220 10' N 730 10' E
(3) The Area around ​Rashtrapati Bhavan​ bounded by the following coordinates:-
283700 N 771145 E 783700 N 771230 E 283545 N 711230 E
(4) The Area included within a ​radius of ten kilometers from Mathura Refineries
2723 N 07742 E
Absolute extending vertically from ground level to an unlimited upper level.
(5) The Area near ​Bhubaneshwar​ ​bounded by the following coordinates :-
2030 N 8600 E 2030 N 8548 E 2034 N 8545 E
Absolute extending vertically from ​Ground level to upper level of 50,000 feet​.
(6) The Area included within a radius of ​Ten kilometers from Kalpakkam nuclear​ installation located:-
12° 33’ 55” N 80° 10’ 3” E
Absolute extending vertically from ​ground level upto an upper level of 10,000 feet​.
“Take-off”​ –includes all the successive positions of an aerodyne from the moment it moves from rest until
the moment of starting normal flight;
“Landing area”​ –means that part of an aerodrome reserved for the departure or landing of aircraft;
“Air traffic control (ATC)​” –is a service provided by ground-based ​air traffic controllers​ who
direct ​aircraft​ on the ground and through controlled ​airspace​, and can provide advisory services to aircraft in
non-controlled airspace.
The primary purpose of ATC is to prevent collisions, organize and expedite the flow of air traffic, and
provide information for ​pilots​ .
Mayday –​ ​is an emergency ​procedure word​ used internationally as a ​distress signal​ in ​voice-procedure​ radio
communications​.
PAN PAN​ - ​Three calls of pan-pan are used in ​radiotelephone communications​ to signify that there is an
urgency on board ​aircraft​, or other ​vehicle​ but that, for the time being at least, there is no immediate danger
to anyone’s life or to the vessel itself.
The different categories of pilots licenses ?
Aircraft rule 1937
Schedule 2
SPL ​(Student Pilot’s Licence)​, PPL ​(Private Pilots Licence)​,CPL​( Commercial Pilot’s licence)​,
ATPL ​( Airline Transport Pilot’s licence)​ , IR ​( Instrument Rating)​ AFIR ​(Assistant Flight instructor’s
Rating), ​FIR ​(Flight Instructor’s Rating)
Section B SPL (Aeroplanes/Helicopters/Glider/Light Sport Aircraft)
E PPL (Aeroplanes)
J CPL (Aeroplanes)
L CPL (Aeroplanes) With Instrument Rating
M ATPL (Aeroplanes)
O IR (Aeroplanes)
Q AFIR(Aeroplans/Helicopters)
R FIR (Aeroplans/Helicopters)
S.N Category of licence Validity of medical Validity of
. fitness assessment licence

(i) Airline Transport Pilot’s Licence (aeroplanes) Twelve months Five years
(ii) Commercial Pilot’s Licence (aeroplanes ), Twelve months Five years.
Flight Radio Telephone Operator’s Licence
(iii) Student Pilot‘s Licence (aeroplanes ) Twenty-four months Five years
(iv) Private Pilot‘s Licence (aeroplanes ) Twenty-four months Ten years
Flight Radio Telephone Operator‘s Licence
(Restricted) .
SSR​. Secondary Surveillance Radar is There are however, certain reserved codes (squawks) that have
specific meaning, which you are required to know. The reserved transponder codes are:
Mode A code 7700​. This is the civil ​emergency code​ and is used unless a
specific identification code has been allocated by a radar controller and the
aircraft has been identified.
Mode A code 7600​. This is the squawk to indicate ​radio failure​ and should
be used at all times when a failure occurs regardless of the ATC service being
provided.
Mode A code 7500​. This code indicates ​unlawful interference​. A pilot may prefer to use the 7700 squawk
to indicate the severity of the situation.
Mode A code 7000​. This code indicates that the aircraft is operating in an area
where a ​radar service is available​ from an ATCU but the aircraft is not in receipt of the service. It implies
that the aircraft is operating under VFR.
Mode A code 2000​. This code is used to indicate that an aircraft is entering
an area where a radar service is available and will be requesting that service.
Usually used by aircraft entering a domestic FIR from an Oceanic control area.
Mode A code 0000​. This code is reserved to indicate that the ​aircraft transponder is in some manner
unserviceable or inaccurate.
 SPL, Requirements for issue , Renwal, validity and Privleges

Section B
Student Pilot’s Licence
(Aeroplanes /Helicopters/Gliders/Light sport aircraft/ Gyroplanes)

1. Requirements for issue of licence — ​An applicant for a student Pilot’s Licence (Aeroplanes/Helicopters/
Gliders/Light sport aircraft/ Gyroplanes) shall satisfy the following requirements:

(a) Age— The applicant shall be not less than sixteen years of age on the date of application.
(b) Educational Qualification— He shall have passed Class Ten or its equivalent examination
from a recognised Board.
(c) Medical fitness — He shall produce on a prescribed proforma a certificate of physical
fitness from an approved medical practitioner after undergoing a medical examination, during
which he shall have established his medical fitness on the basis of compliance with the
requirements as notified by the Director-General under Rule 39 B.
(d) Knowledge — He shall pass oral examination in Air Regulations, Air Navigation, Aviation
Meteorology and Aircraft and Engines as per the syllabus prescribed by the Director-General
unless he previously held a pilot’s licence of a higher category, or is able to produce evidence in
the manner prescribed by the Director-General that he is well-versed with the aforesaid subjects.

2. ​Validity —​ The licence shall be valid for a period as specified in Rule 39C.

3. ​Renewal—​ The licence may be renewed for a period not exceeding twelve months from the date of fresh
medical examination as specified in para 1(C) subject to the total validity of the licence not exceeding twenty
four months from the date of issue.

4.​ Aircraft Rating—​ The licence shall indicate the class and the types of aeroplanes or helicopters or gliders
the holder is entitled to fly. Only those types of aircraft may be entered in the licence in respect of which the
candidate has passed the examination in Aircraft and Engines mentioned in para 1(d).

5.​ Privileges—​ Subject to the validity of aircraft ratings in the licence and compliance with the relevant
provisions of Rules 39B, 39C and 42, the privileges of the holder of a Student Pilot’s Licence shall be to fly
within Indian territory only, as Pilot-in-Command of any aeroplane, helicopter, glider or light sport aircraft
or gyroplane entered in the aircraft rating of his licence :

Provided that :

(a) he shall fly at all times under the authority and supervision of a Flight Instructor or an Approved
Examiner;
(b) he shall fly under Visual Flight Rules only ;
(c) he shall not carry passengers, animals and goods or fly for hire, reward or remuneration of any
kind;
(d) he shall not undertake cross-country flights unless he has a minimum of ten hours of solo flight
time and has passed the examinations in Air Navigation and Aviation Meteorology.
Visual Flight Rules

VFR​. The symbol used to designate the visual flight rules.

VFR flight​ . A flight conducted in accordance with the visual flight rules
VISIBILITY 5000M OR 5KM 1000’ FROM CLOUD VERTICALY AND 1500’ HORIZONTALI

Ground Marking, visual and light signals with specific reference to visual flight and circuit flying
2. Air Navigation
 THE SHAPE OF THE EARTH

1. Is oblate spheroid, ​that is, a sphere which is slightly

2. flattened at its poles. This shape developed when the Earth formed from a gas-cloud as the spin
3. of the cloud caused ​higher centrifugal forces​ at the equatorial region than in regions nearer
4. the poles. The flattening is called ​compression ​and in the case of the Earth is approximately
5. 0.3% (1/300​th​).

6. The Earth’s polar diameter is 27 statute miles (or 23 nautical

7. miles or 43 km) less than its equatorial diameter.
8. Poles
9. The Poles are defined as the extremities of the axis about which the Earth spins​. The axis of
the Poles is inclined to the axis of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun at an angle of ​23½°

10. Cardinal Points​. E,W,N,S ​Quadrantal directions​. NE,NW,SE,SW

11. When viewed from above the North Pole, the Earth appears to rotate in an anti-clockwise
(counter- clockwise) direction.
12. hen viewed from above the South Pole, the Earth appears to rotate in a clockwise
13. direction​.
14. Equatorial diameter of the earth = 6883.7 NM
15. Polar diameter is 6860.5 NM
16. The compression is 23.2 NM
17. Compression ratio = Equatorial diameter - polar diameter / Equatorial diameter
The EQUATOR
The Equator​ is an imaginary line on the surface, equidistant from the ​North​ and ​South Poles​, dividing the
Earth into ​Northern​ and ​Southern Hemispheres​.​.
The MERIDIANS
Meridians are semi-Great circles joining the North and South poles​. All meridians indicate
True North-South direction. ​Every Great Circle passing through the poles forms a meridian
and its Anti-meridian​. ​The meridians cross the Equator at 90°.

The PRIME (OR GREENWICH) MERIDIAN

The meridian passing through Greenwich is known the ​Prime Meridian

LATITUDE

The latitude of any point is the arc (angular distance) measured along the meridian through
the point from the Equator to the point.
Maximum difference between Geocentric and Geodetic Latitudes occurs at approx 45° N/S
and is about 11.6 minutes of arc.
PARALLELS OF LATITUDE
The parallels of latitude are small circles on the surface of the earth whose planes are parallel
to the Equator. They lie in an East-West direction. Their function is to indicate position North
or South of the Equator
Lines of measurement the run east to west, but measure north to south
DISTANCE ON THE EARTH
Both metric and Imperial measures are in common use in aviation. Because many students
will not have used the smaller Imperial measures of distance, the conversions below should be
remembered.
1 metre(m) = 100 centimetres (cm) = 1000 millimetres (mm)
1 centimetre(cm) = 10 millimetres (mm)
1 metre(m) = 3.28 feet (ft)
1 foot (ft) = 12 inches ( ‘in’ or “ )
1 inch (in) = 2.54 centimetres (cm)
1 yard (yd) = 3 feet (ft)
The Kilometre (km)​. the ​Kilometre is 1/10,000​th​ of the average distance on
the Earth between the Equator and either Pole. Thus there are 10,000 km between the Equator
and either Pole, and the circumference of the Earth is 40,000 km.
For conversions between Kilometres and Imperial units:
1 Kilometre (km = 3280 feet (ft)
1 metre(m) = 3.28 ft.
The Statute Mile (sm)​. Although the Statute Mile (​5280 feet​) is widely used on the ground it is
hardly ever used in aviation nowadays. Older airspeed indicators used to be calibrated in mph
Conversion factors:
°​C​ x 9/5 + 32 = °​F (°​F​ - 32) x 5/9 = °​C​
K = °C + 273

CONVERSION FACTORS
5400​ nautical miles (from the Equator to either pole) = 10,000 kilometres
21,600​ nautical miles (circumference of the Earth) = 40,000 kilometres

The FAHRENHEIT scale: +32 to +212 degrees.

The CELSIUS (or Centigrade) scale: 0 to +100 degrees.
The KELVIN (or Absolute) scale: +273 to +373 degrees

The Nautical Mile

​ he nautical mile is the most important large measure of distance

T
used in aviation because it can be related directly to the angular measurements of the Latitude/
Longitude graticule of the Earth.
OR
A ​nautical mile​ is based on the circumference of the planet Earth. If you were to cut the Earth in half at the
equator, you could pick up one of the halves and look at the equator as a circle. You could divide that circle
into 360 degrees. You could then divide a degree into 60 minutes. A minute of arc on the planet Earth is 1
nautical mile. This unit of measurement is used by all nations for air and sea travel.
Nautical miles:- ​ is length NM is calculated from the geographic center it is the length of arc subtended by 1
min angle at the center of the earth
Length of NM is more at poles and less at eq.
It increases with height ​1 NM at pole =6107’ 1NM at equator = 6040’
With increase in altitude, length of NM increase
The ICAO definition of the nautical mile is that it is a measure of distance of 1852 metres.
The Standard Nautical Mile is defined as a length of 6080 feet​.
One minute of latitude = 1 nautical mile(nm) One degree of latitude = 60 minutes = 60 nm
But
One minute of Longitude = 1 nm AT THE EQUATOR ONLY.
As there are 90° of Latitude change between the Equator and the Poles, the distance between
the Equator and the Poles is 90 x 60 = 5400nm
The circumference of the Earth at the Equator is 360 x 60 = 21,600nm
Atmosphere and its properties

VOR, NDB, VHF –

3. AVIATION METEOROLOGY
Elementary knowledge of atmosphere and its properties
1. Basic Atmospheric Properties The Earth's atmosphere is the gaseous envelope that surrounds our
planet. While there is no exact upper limit for the extent of the atmosphere..
2. The atmosphere is a mix of gases. The most important components are:
3. Constant gases (% of dry air):

Nitrogen (N​2​) 78.08 %

Oxygen (O​2​) 20.92 %
Argon (Ar) 00.93 %

4. Temperature​ Everyone knows this word and could easily provide a definition for it.
Temperature measures the random speed at which molecules move; a higher temperature means
that molecules are moving more rapidly in their random motion, a lower temperature means they
are moving more slowly.
Static Pressure : - ​is when the air is at the rest is static pressure .
1. surround ambient pressure.
2. As height increase static pressure decrease
3. static pressure at a Particular level will be equal .

Dynamic Pressure :- when the air is in the motion / movement

The ICAO ISA is defined as follows:-

a MSL temperature of +15°C

a MSL pressure of 1013.25 hPa
a MSL density of 1225 g/m3
a lapse rate of 0.65°C/100m (1.98° C /1000 ft) up to 11 km (36,090 ft)
a constant temperature of -56.5°C from 11 km (36,090ft) to 20 km (65,617 ft)
an increase of temperature 0.1°C/100m (0.3°C /1000 ft), from 20 km (65,617ft) to 32 km
(104,987 ft)

TSMT
Troposphere(0-10km) – Stratosphere(10-30) – Mesosphere(30-50) – Thermosphere (50-400)
variation of wind with height
Upper winds are caused by Pressure Gradient Force (PGF), Coriolis Force (CF) and Cyclostrophic
Forces in the same way as the wind immediately above the friction layer.The winds are stronger
because the density is less -
V = PGF
2 Ω ρ sin θ
At 20,000 ft, for the same PGF, the wind speed is double the surface wind speed, since density
is half that at the surface
Sea Breezes
On a sunny day, particularly in an anticyclone with a slack pressure gradient, the land will heat
quickly.The air in contact will be warmed and will rise and expand so that pressure at about 1000 ft will
be higher than pressure at the same level over the sea. This will cause a drift of air from over the land to
over the sea at about 1000 ft. The drift of air will cause the surface pressure over the land to fall, and the
surface pressure over the sea to rise. As a result there will be a flow of air over the surface from sea to
land - a sea breeze.
On average, sea breezes extend 8 to 14 nm either side of the coast and the speed is about 10 kts.In the
tropics speed is 15 kts or more and the inland extent is greater.An illustration of the formation of a sea
breeze is shown below. ​The direction of the sea breeze is more or less at right angles to the coast, but after
some time it
will veer under the influence of the coriolis force in the northern hemisphere.
Land Breezes :-
After sunset the situation will reverse. The land will cool rapidly whilst the sea will retain its
heat. There will be an increase in pressure at the surface over the land whilst the pressure over
the sea will fall - there will be a land breeze. The speed will be about 5 kts and the breeze will
extend about 5 nms out to sea

Clouds:-
High level clouds Medium level Low level
Above 20,000 ft ABOVE 6500 BELOW 6500
CIRRUS (Ci) ALTOCUMULUS (Ac) NIMBOSTRATUS (Ns)
CIRROCUMULUS (Cc) ALTOSTRATUS (As) STRATOCUMULUS (Sc)
CIRROSTRARUS (Cs) STRATUS (St)
CUMULUS (Cu)
 CUMULONIMBUS (Cb)
Flight inside cumulonimbus most hazardous clouds for aviation
● Lightning. ... Hail. ... Tornadoes. ... Exploitation of "small" cumulonimbus.
The various types of reduction in visibility are:
Mist​.​ There is mist if the visibility is 1000m or more and the relative humidity is greater
than 95% with very small water droplets.
Fog​.​ There is fog if the visibility is less than 1000m and the obscuring agent is water
droplets. Relative Humidity (RH) will be near 100%.
Haze​.​ There is haze if the visibility is reduced by extremely small solid particles - sand, dust or
smoke. If the visibility is reduced below 1000m. Again, haze is not reported When the visibility is
more than 5000m.

PRESSURE DEFINITIONS
QFE ​The value of pressure, for a particular aerodrome and time, corrected
to the official elevation.
QFF ​The value of pressure reduced to MSL in accordance with isothermal
conditions.
QNH ​The value of pressure, for a particular aerodrome and time, corrected
to the MSL in accordance with the ICAO standard.
QNE ​ Refers to the indicated altitude at the landing runway threshold when 1

013.25
mbar or 29.92 inHg is set in the altimeter’s Kohlsman window.

Q :- Basic understanding of METAR, SPECI and aerodrome warnings and their importance in aviation
A DEFINITION OF METEOROLOGY
“The branch of science dealing with the earth’s atmosphere and the physical processes
occurring in it.”
METEOROLOGICAL AERODROME REPORT
METARs ​are usually issued ​every half hour ​during aerodrome operating hours.
METAR:
METAR VABP 110600Z 14003KT 6000 FEW020 SCT030 32/26 Q1012 NOSIG=

METAR VABP 110600Z 14003kt 6000

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
(a) type ​of report .
(b) The four-letter ​ICAO designator ​of the ​issuing aerodrome
(c) is the ​date/time group​, which simply gives the date of the actual weather
 observation. The first ​two digits represent the day of the month​, followed by the ​time in hours
and minutes​. Time is always given as ​Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)​, Z zulu.
(d) surface’ ​wind direction​ and ​mean speed​: wind blowing ​from​ 140deg True, with an speed of 15 knots (KT).
(e) Visibility
SPECIAL REPORTS

(f) A variation on the ​METAR ​is the ​Special Report​. A ​Special Report​, which is denoted by the
(g) abbreviation, ​SPECI​, has the same format as a ​METAR ​except that the code ​SPECI ​will replace
(h) METAR ​at the beginning of the report. A ​SPECI ​will be issued when the ​weather conditions
(i) significantly change ​in the period between routine observations. A ​SPECI ​can be issued to
(j) indicate either an ​improvement ​or a ​deterioration ​in the weather

1. UNITS OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

In meteorology, the units commonly used to represent atmospheric pressure are inches of
mercury, and millibars or hectopascals. The ICAO Standard Atmosphere (ISA) unit of pressure
is the hectopascal, but, currently, the millibar is still used in the United Kingdom. The millibar
and the hectopascal are identical in value. For instance, ISA sea-level pressure can be expressed
as 1013.25 millibars or 1013.25 hecto pascals. In the United States of America, atmospheric
pressure is expressed in inches of Mercury. In inches of Mercury, ISA sea-level pressure is 29.92
inches Hg.
The instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure is the barometer (from Greek “baros”
meaning weight and “metron” meaning measure). A barometer can be one of two distinct types:
the aneroid barometer or the mercury barometer.

4. The Mercury Barometer

The mercury barometer consists of a glass tube, sealed at one end, containing Mercury, with the
open end immersed in an open mercury reservoir, in the form of a dish.
The weight of the column of Mercury in the glass tube is balanced by atmospheric pressure
exerted on the Mercury in the dish. In ISA sea-level conditions, the height of the Mercury column
would be 29.92 inches. Changes in atmospheric pressure will either depress the Mercury in the
open reservoir, forcing more of the Mercury up into the tube, or will allow the level of Mercury
in the reservoir to rise, permitting the height of the Mercury in the glass tube to fall. The space
above the column of Mercury in the tube is almost a vacuum.

The Aneroid Barometer

The aneroid barometer does not contain mercury or
liquid, but measures the effect of air pressure on a partially
evacuated metal capsule.

An aneroid barometer may be calibrated in inches of

mercury or in millibars. However, an aneroid barometer
can also be calibrated in feet or metres to indicate height
above the Earth’s surface; the instrument is then known
as an altimeter.

Convection means –vertical movements of atmosphere

Advection – Horizontal movements of atmosphere

Time of day – The earth rotates on it’s axis once every 24 hr.
Time of year – The earth orbits the SUN once every 365.25 days.

Day night – due to rotation of earth .

Primary
Control Surfaces:-
1. Aileron ---- for Rolling motion
2. Elevator ---- for pitching
Rudders ---- for yawing motio

Forces acting on an aerofoil in level flight

Drag​ - Drag is created by air resistance.When an airplane flies through the air, drag pushes back or resists
the aircraft’s forward motion.

Thrust​ – Thrust is the force that propels an aircraft forward. Thrust is produced by propulsion systems or
engines. For an airplane, thrust must overcome drag and produce enough velocity to achieve lift.
Weight​ – Weight is related to mass, but also includes the gravitational pull of the Earth. A combination of
factors affect the weight of an airplane and can include cargo.
Lift​ – Lift is the force that enables an aircraft to leave the ground and remain in flight. Lift is produced
primarily by the wings, and must overcome weight in order for flight to occur

Principal Axes of an Aircraft :-

The ​longitudinal (roll) axis​ runs lengthwise down the aircraft. The aircraft tends to roll from left to right about this
axis.
The ​lateral (pitch) axis​ runs side-to-side, or wingtip to wingtip. Think of being on a seesaw and moving up and down.
That up and down movement is pitch and it occurs along a lateral axis.
The ​vertical (yaw) axis​ runs top-to-bottom. Yaw is the side to side movement of an aircraft's nose. You can observe
yaw movement along a vertical axis .

Elevator-​ Located on the horizontal stabilizer controls pitching motion.

Rudder​ - Located on the vertical stabilizer controls yawing motion.
Ailerons -​Located on the wing controls rolling motion.

Secondary Control Surfaces :-

They improve the performance characteristics of Aa/C and reduce Loads on pilot.
FLAPS
TRIM TABS

Camber
Tell him Stall
Endurance
Runway

Bhopal runway :-
Dimensions: 9003 x 148 feet / 2744 x 45 meters
Surface: Hard
Runway 12 Runway 30
Coordinates: N23°17.68’ / E77°19.08’ N23°16.96’ / E77°20.50’

Elevation: 1712 1709

Runway Heading: 118° 298°
General knowledge of the principle of operation of a piston engine an associated systems.

Internal combustion piston engine

Components of a typical, ​four stroke cycle​, internal combustion piston engine.
Engine Types
Over time aircraft have been given a variety of engines that provide the required thrust.
Propeller Engine ​Since the first controlled, heavier-than-air flight, numerous aircraft have used an internal
combustion engine (similar to engines used in cars) to its drive pistons which rotate a propeller. The propeller is made
up of blades held together by a hub. Each blade is similar to a wing in that they have an airfoil design. As the blades
rotate they pull in air, towards and around the aircraft, producing thrust.
Jet Engine / Turbofan ​Developed during WWII, jet engines revolutionized aviation. A jet engine is an internal
combustion engine that uses a turbine to compress air which it then mixes with fuel. Once the air and fuel mixture is
compressed inside the engine it is ignited then exhausted. This exhaust is very fast and can provide a large amount of
thrust. The turbofan is a form of jet engine that is commonly seen today on commercial airlines and even fighter jets.
Turboprop ​A turboprop engine is a combination of propeller and jet engine technologies. The jet part of a turboprop
uses a turbine to draw in and compress air which is then mixed with fuel and ignites. However, in this case most of the
energy from the exhaust is used to power the turbine which is connected to a propeller. The thrust of the engine is
provided by the rotation of the propeller.

PROPERTIES OF THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE

The earth’s atmosphere varies vertically and horizontally in:

1. Pressure
2. Temperature
3. Density
4. Humidity
The earth’s atmosphere is a poor conductor. The earth’s atmosphere is fluid.
As pressure is increased, the air will be compressed which reduces the volume and increases the
density. Likewise, if pressure is decreased, the air will expand which will increase the volume
and decrease the density. We can therefore say that:

DENSITY IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO PRESSURE

EFFECT OF CHANGE OF TEMPERATURE ON DENSITY

If a volume of air is heated it will expand and the mass of air contained in unit volume will be
less. Thus density will decrease with an increase in temperature and we can say:

DENSITY IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO TEMPERATURE

EFFECT OF CHANGE OF HUMIDITY ON DENSITY

Humidity is a measure of the water vapour content of the air. Humid air is lighter, or less dense,
than dry air. This is due to the fact that a molecule of water, H2O, weighs less than molecules
of Nitrogen (N2) and Oxygen (O2). Therefore, an atmosphere with very high humidity will
have a lower total mass than a dry atmosphere. Thus density will decrease with an increase in
humidity and we can say:

DENSITY IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO HUMIDITY

Certificate of Airworthiness
Rule 15​ requires that all aircraft registered in India to possess a current and valid Certificate of Airworthiness
(C of A) before it is flown. An aircraft can be flown without a valid C of A for the purpose of flight test for
renewal of C of A in the vicinity of the departing Aerodrome.
DGCA under the provisions of ​Rule 50​ issues/renew or revalidates the Certificate of Airworthiness.
Civil Aviation Requirements Section 2 Series 'F' Part III​ gives the procedure for issue of C of A while ​Civil
Aviation Requirements Section 2 Series 'F' Part IV ​ gives the procedure for renewal of C of A.

Certificate o Registration
DGCA is responsible for registration of all civil aircraft in India.​ Rule 30 ​of the Aircraft Rules,
1937 enpowers the DGCA to register aircraft and to grant certificate of registration in India. The procedure
for registration and de-registration of an aircraft is given in ​Civil Aviation Requirements Section 2 Series 'F'
Part I.
The aircraft is required to bear its nationality and registration markings and the name and address of the
owner affixed or printed thereon in accordance with ​Rule 37​ and ​Civil Aviation Requirements Section 2
Series 'X' Part I.
DGCA maintains Register of Civil Aircraft which is available for inspection by members of the public at the
Director General of Civil Aviation Office located at:

Bernoulli's Principle and Airplane Aerodynamics

A Critical Analysis
The aerodynamic lift on the wing of an airplane (airfoil) is generally explained by the argument that the
faster speed of the air along the top of the wing leads to reduced air pressure there and hence
produces a lift (Bernoulli's Law). Using this argument, one should also expect a lift for a symmetric wing
profile as shown in Fig.1.

​Fig.1

However, if one considers the problem from a microscopic point of view, one comes to a different
conclusion: upward and downward forces should exactly cancel for a symmetric wing profile. This is
easy to see if one simplifies the situation and replaces the curved wing surface by two plane sections
(Fig.2) wing the amount of lift can of course be changed arbitrarily and one could even generate a lift
for the bottom image (Fig.4).

In any case, it is clear that an airflow parallel to a surface can not transfer any momentum to it and
therefore not exert any force on it. This invalidates Bernoulli's equation as an explanation for the
aerodynamic lift. The enhanced airflow speed around certain sections of the wing is not the cause of
the aerodynamic lift, but both the lift and the speed enhancement are separate consequences of the
pressure changes at the different wing sections caused by the motion of the wing in the viscous air.
In this way one has also to interpret the frequently given example of blowing over a piece of paper. In
fact, if one puts a sheet of paper flat on a table, fixes it to the edge of the table and blows over it from
the edge, the paper will not lift by one millimeter, despite the motion of the air which according to
Bernoulli's law should cause an underpressure.
The apparent attraction that is observed when blowing between two sheets of paper can be either
explained by the fact that the sheets are in fact not exactly parallel to the airflow but bend away from it
(hence reducing the pressure on the surface), or by the circumstance that the airflow does not cover
the whole width of the paper (which leads to the stationary molecules being pulled into the airstream
by means of friction (viscosity), which again reduces the pressure because molecules are removed from
between the sheets; one can verify this by just using two narrow (1cm wide) strips of paper; these
show no attraction but tend to stay parallel).
Either of these two mechanism should indeed be responsible for many of the phenomena attributed to
Bernoulli's Principle.

It should therefore be obvious that Bernoulli's law is only a viable physical explanation in cases where
the viscosity of the medium is instrumental for the considered effect. Contrary to some scientific
misconceptions, this is neither the case for the aerodynamic lift associated with airplanes nor for the
drag of objects moving through a medium (see my separate page regarding ​aerodynamic drag and
lift​for a more detailed theoretical analysis of these issues).

>. To solve time problems we need to be able to convert ​angular arcs ​to ​time in hours and
minutes​.
Because the earth rotates 360° in 24 hrs, we can convert angular arc to time as follows:
360° = 24 hrs
15° = 1 hour
1° = 4 minutes
15’ of a degree of arc = 1 minute of time
15”(seconds of arc) = 1 second of time
On completion of any maintenance work, overhaul, repair, modification, replacement, process treatment,
tests etc., items of maintenance / inspection are required to be certified by appropriately licensed AMEs,
approved or authorized persons. This CAR which replaces the earlier issue on the subject spells out the
requirements for certifying of the maintenance work and the issuance of Certificate of Release to service.

In accordance with international regulations and manufacturer’s recommendations pre-flight/ walk around/
transit inspection is not necessarily required to be carried out by licensed persons and does not come under
the purview of a maintenance organisation. Such an inspection is carried out before the flight to ensure that
the aircraft is fit for the intended flight and may be carried out by pilots or another qualified persons.
Inspection so carried does not require issuance of Certificate of Release to service. This CAR also lays down
the requirements and conditions for approval of pilots and other qualified persons approved/ authorized to
carry out such an inspection​.