Atomic Force Microscopy: the Foremost Tools for Manipulating Matter at the

Nanoscale
B. E. N. Faria
Departamento de Física, ICEx, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais

In the 1980s, scientists around the world started the development of new materials and

methods of synthesis, that led to new properties and structures, initiating the era of nanotechnology.

According to The Royal Society, nanoscience is the study of phenomena and manipulation of

materials at atomic, molecular and macromolecular scales, where properties differ significantly

from those at a larger scale1 . The word nano is derived from the Greek and means dwarf,

something tiny. One nanometer is in terms of size one-billionth of a meter, 10-9m. Figure 1 shows

the nanometer in the context of more familiar scales.

Figure 1: The length scale on top is from 1m to 10-10m; it shows the size of the soccer ball in
comparison with a carbon 60 (C60) molecule. Adapted from http://www.nanotec.org.uk
The images in the Figure 1 depict objects at macro scale (soccer ball), micro scale (10-6m, strand of

hair) and nano scale (C60 , the buckyball molecule).

The structural analysis of materials advanced greatly in the last few years, associated to

development of techniques in scanning probe microscopy (SPM), which arose at the beginning of

80's and consolidated during the 90's. SPM is an imaging tool with a vast dynamic range, spanning

the realms of the optical and electron microscopes2 .

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is one of many scanning probe microscopies (SPMs). It is a

technique capable to generate a map of a surface topography at extremely high (nanometer)

resolution. In AFM a very sharp tip (typically with diameter of 100 angstrom – 10 nm) scans the

surface of the sample. The probe is fixed on the free extremity of a cantilever which measures about

100 to 200 µm in length. In Figure 2 we have a typical probe of AFM; in Table 1 we list the

characteristics of the tapping-mode etched Silicon probe (model TESP).

Spring constant (k) 20 – 100 N/m

Resonant frequency 200 – 400 kHz

Nominal tip radius of curvature 5 – 10 nm

Cantilever length 125 µm

Cantilever configuration Single beam

Reflective coating Uncoated, optional Al coating

Figure 2: Scanned electron microscope Table 1: Tapping-mode etched Silicon probe

deflection of the cantilever. This deflection could be computed to generate a map of surface but this

process would be very complicated. The mostly used method is following: we determine a reference

force to apply constantly over the sample, in others words, we determine a value of signal that is

permanently observed by detector. Thus, the computer sets the vertical position of the sample while

scanning it. This is made by piezoelectric scanner to maintain the force (or the signal) in the

reference value (setpoint). If the detector signal is not equal to the setpoint, a voltage is applied to

the scanner in order to move the probe either closer to or farther from the sample surface; this

applied voltage is used as the signal for generating an AFM image2,3 . Figure 3 shows the AFM

principle of operation.

Figure 3: Typical optical detection scheme in AFM. Adapted from:

Interaction forces can be attractive or repulsive depending on the probe-sample distance. For long

distances (d > 1µm) there is practically no interaction, but as the probe approaches to it (d ≤ 50nm)

attractive forces start to act (van der Waals forces). The attractive force increases as the distance is

reduced until the distance is on the order of the inter-atomic separation (d ≈ 0,5nm) thereafter the

resultant force becomes repulsive; the atoms of the probe are beginning to invade the sample3.
 If the interaction is attractive or repulsive we can define operation modes: non-contact

(attractive), contact (repulsive) and tapping (both attractive and repulsive) modes. Although we can

obtain very high resolution (atomic resolution) in contact mode, it can damage the sample as

discussed above. In non-contact mode the probe-surface distance is sufficiently large that strong

repulsive forces do not arise between them and because of that, it has the advantage of not

damaging the sample. However the resolution is limited to a few tens of nanometers, which is the

probe-sample distance. In tapping-mode the probe oscillates over the surface, lightly tapping the

surface periodically. This mode has the advantages of the previous two: it hardly damages the

sample and it achieves high resolution (~1nm)4. In Figure 4 we have some AFM images.

Figure 4: Images of AFM: a) Tapping mode image of graphene flake on silicon dioxide; b)
Contact mode image of monolayers of octadecylphosphonic acid (OPA) on graphene; c)
Tapping mode image of carbon nanotubes isolated on silicon dioxide; d) Tapping mode image of
Lambda DNA adsorbed on a mica surface. Adapted from Reference [5]
 A group of scientists, from the University of California in the USA, captured the first images

of chemical bonds between atoms. They used AFM to image molecules (oligo-(phenylene-1,2-

ethynilenes)) before and after a chemical transformation. To enhance the spatial resolution of their

microscope they put a single carbon monoxide molecule on the tip; it is showed on Figure 5.

Figure 5: A diagram of a non-contact atomic force microscope used to observe the hydrogen bonds
of the molecule with a single carbon monoxide molecule on the tip. It is adapted from
http://newscenter.berkeley.edu/2013/05/30/scientists-capture-first-images-of-molecules-before-and-
after-reaction

After imaging the molecule, a structure with several hexagonal rings of carbon, they heated

the surface until the molecule reacted, and then again chilled the surface to 4 Kelvin and images the

reaction products. In Figure 6 shows the image of this molecule before and after the reaction.
Figure 6: The original reactant molecule, deposited on a flat silver surface, is imaged before and
after the reaction, which occurs when the temperature exceeds 90 degrees Celsius. Above the AFM
images the classic molecular structure diagrams is showed. It is adapted from
http://newscenter.berkeley.edu/2013/05/30/scientists-capture-first-images-of-molecules-before-and-
after-reaction

The non-contact AFM provided a striking visual confirmation of the mechanisms of these

synthetic organic chemical reactions. They develop a new surface chemistry that allows building

higher ordered architectures on surface, and these might lead into applications such as construction

of electronic devices, logic gates out of carbon materials.

There are many other techniques of scanning probe microscopy (SPM) and for all of them the

basic principle of operation is to check the probe-sample interaction. The type of interaction defines

the operation mode:

 Electrical forces – electric force microscopy (EFM). In this mode we use a conductive probe

to detect loads and electrostatic potentials in the surface of the sample. It is possible to

separate electrical and topographic contributions because electrical interactions are long-
 range (>100nm) whereas those that generate the topographic image are short-range

(<20nm). Thus we raise the probe to a height of about 100nm from the surface and obtain

only electrical information6.

 Magnetic forces – magnetic force microscopy (MFM). It is similar to EFM. We use a probe

covered with a magnetic film, usually CoCr (alloy of cobalt and chromium), that permits the

probe be magnetized permanently next to a high magnetic field. This probe responds to the

many magnetic domains in the sample, more or less intense, generating an image of MFM.

The long-range interactions between the magnetic domains in the sample and in the probe

that produces the image. In figure 7 we have a schematic drawing of its principle of

operation6.

Figure 7: A magnetized probe scans the surface of the sample, typically at a distance of about
100nm from it. Adapted from Reference [2].

Several other techniques could be described, such as SCM (scanning capacitance microscopy),

IFM (indentation force microscopy), LFM (lateral force microscopy) and others, but this is not the

purpose of this paper.

Atomic force microscopy (and the other SPMs) is a versatile technique. All its operation modes

can work in several ambient conditions, such as in liquids, gases and even ultra-high vacuum.

Moreover it does not require a refined sample preparation, usually it just needs a clean and flat surface.
This technique has been used in all areas in Materials Science and Surfaces, producing impressive

three-dimensional images.

References

1) The Royal Society & The Royal Academy of Engineering, July 2004, Nanoscience and

nanotechnologies: opportunities and uncertainties.

2) Veeco Instruments Inc., 2005, A Practical Guide to SPM Scanning Probe Microscopy.

3) B. R. A.; J. M. C. Vilela; M. S. Andrade; Cerâmica, 44, 290, 1998, Microscopia de

varredura por sonda mecânica: uma introdução.

4) R. Howland, L. Benatar, A Practical Guide to Scanning Probe Microscopy, Park Scientific

Instruments, 1996.

5) Adapted figures of Mariana de Castro Prado and Ana Paula Barbosa dissertations (Figures

4 a) – c); Figure 4 d) adapted from: https://www.bruker.com/.

6) D. Sarid, Scanning Force Microscopy with applications to Electric, Magnectic, and Atomic

Forces, Oxford University Press, 1991.