THE HIGHWAYS AGENCY HD 25/95

THE SCOTTISH OFFICE DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT

THE WELSH OFFICE

Y SWYDDFA GYMREIG

THE DEPARTMENT OF
THE ENVIRONMENT FOR NORTHERN IRELAND

Foundations

Summary:
Volume 7 Section 2
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 DESIGN MANUAL FOR ROADS AND BRIDGES

VOLUME 7 PAVEMENT DESIGN

AND MAINTENANCE
SECTION 2 PAVEMENT DESIGN
AND
CONSTRUCTION

PART 2

HD 25/94

FOUNDATIONS

Contents

Chapter

1. Introduction

2. Subgrade Assessment

3. Capping and Sub-base

4. In-situ Testing

5. References and Bibliography

6. Enquiries

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Volume 7 Section 2 Chapter 1
Part 2 HD 25/94 Introduction

1. INTRODUCTION
General

1.1 The main purpose of the foundation is to

distribute the applied vehicle loads to the underlying
subgrade, without causing distress in the foundation
layers or in the overlying layers. This is required both
during construction and during the service life of the
pavement.

1.2 The stresses in the foundation are relatively

high during construction, although the number of stress
repetitions from construction traffic is relatively low
and is not so channelised as normal traffic during the
service life of the pavement.

1.3 The standard practice, which is described in

this part, is to design the foundation for construction
traffic loading. This approach provides a "standard
foundation" for the design of the pavement.

Implementation

1.4 This Part shall be used forthwith on all schemes

for the construction, improvement and maintenance of
trunk roads including motorways, currently being
prepared provided that, in the opinion of the Overseeing
Department, this would not result in significant
additional expense or delay. Design organisations
should confirm its application to particular schemes
with the Overseeing Department.

Mutual Recognition

1.5 The construction and maintenance of highway

pavements will normally be carried out under contracts
incorporating the Overseeing Department's
Specification for Highway Works (MCHW 1). In such
cases products conforming to equivalent standards and
specifications of other member states of the European
Community and tests undertaken in other member states
will be acceptable in accordance with the terms of the
104 and 105 Series of Clauses of that Specification.
Any contract not containing these Clauses must contain
suitable clauses of mutual recognition having the same
effect regarding which advice should be sought.

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Chapter 1 Volume 7 Section 2
Introduction Part 2 HD 25/94

COMPLIANCE
IN-SITU TESTS TESTING
(Chapter 4)

CAPPING
AND SUB-BASE
DESIGNS
(Chapter 3)

SUBGRADE
ASSESSMENT
(Chapter 2)

EXISTING NEW
ROAD ROAD

START
(Chapter 1)

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Volume 7 Section 2 Chapter 2
Part 2 HD 25/94 Subgrade Assessment

2. SUBGRADE ASSESSMENT
2.1 The subgrade is normally not strong enough to 2.5 The following equation has been derived
carry the construction traffic without distress, unless it empirically for typical UK soils:-
is rock which is not subject to degradation by
weathering. Therefore, unbound or bound foundation E = 17.6 (CBR)0.64, MN/m2
layers of adequate stiffness modulus (see glossary) are
required to reduce the stresses on the subgrade. It provides a means of assessing the stiffness modulus,
E, which is approximately valid for values of CBR
MATERIAL PROPERTIES between 2 and 12 %. This may be used with care in
analytical design HD 26 (DRMB 7.2.3.6). For more
2.2 Unbound aggregates and soils can suffer from detailed information refer to CR72 (1987).
permanent internal deformation when subjected to high
stresses. They tend to have relatively poorer permanent DETERMINATION OF SUBGRADE CBR
deformation characteristics and lower shear strength
than bound materials. There is no established test to
predict susceptibility of these materials to permanent 2.6 If it is not possible to determine a CBR
deformation. It is common for the designer to infer value using the tests described in Chapter 4 then
from experience and index tests that materials have an Table 2.1 provides a simple means of assessing the
acceptable level of stiffness modulus and shear strength. equilibrium in- service (ie. long term) CBR of the
Both stiffness modulus and shear strength are usually subgrade. The table shall be used to derive a
reduced by increases in moisture content. design in-service CBR unless site or laboratory test
data clearly indicate otherwise. Considerable care
2.3 Ideally, a knowledge of the stiffness modulus is required in assessing the lower values of CBR.
and shear strength of the subgrade would be required to Note that Table 2.1 is based on calculations rather
determine the thickness of the overlying pavement than measurement. Even though CBRs are quoted
layers in order to avoid under- or over- design. to the nearest ½%, this degree of accuracy should
However, these two parameters are dependent on soil not be implied as achievable. As subgrades get
type (particularly plasticity), degree of remoulding, softer so the CBR values become less consistent.
density and effective stress. Effective stress is Values should be rounded down unless positive
dependent on the stress due to the overlying layers, the and consistent CBR determinations have been
stress history and the pore water pressure or suction. In carried out.
turn, suction is dependent on the moisture content
history, the soil type and the depth of the water table.
The number of factors involved makes it necessary to 2.7 In Table 2.1, a `high' water table is one within
adopt simplifications and to use index tests. 300mm of formation (or sub-formation if a capping is
present). A `low' water table is 1 metre down. `Thick'
Index Tests construction represents a 1200mm pavement (including
capping); a `thin' pavement is 300mm of construction.
2.4 Since direct determination of stiffness modulus The construction condition referred to relates to
and shear strength is not always practical, the California whether the subgrade is allowed to become wet, ie.
Bearing Ratio (see CBR - paragraphs 4.6, 4.7) is protection from rain, and the quality of drainage
frequently used as an index test: CBR is quoted in provided. More detailed advice is given in LR1132
percent to two significant figures. The CBR is not a (1984).
direct measure of stiffness modulus or of shear strength
but it is widely used and considerable experience with it
has been developed. It thus provides a common means
of comparison.

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Chapter 2 Volume 7 Section 2
Subgrade Assessment Part 2 HD 25/94

Laboratory Testing
2.8 If full information is not available for
Table 2.1 to be used, then certain assumptions can 2.9 CBR values can be measured in the laboratory
be made. The worst condition of a high water on recompacted specimens, in accordance with BS1377
table can be taken together with construction being (1990), during the site investigation stage and when the
carried out to the Specification (MCHW1) and equipment and experience are available. Tests should
thus at least `average' construction conditions be carried out over a range of conditions to reproduce,
pertain. The pavements discussed in this Section as far as possible, the conditions of moisture content
vary between "thick" and "thin" constructions; by and density which are likely to be experienced during
interpolating between the values in Table 2.1, a construction and in the completed pavement. Cohesive
table of acceptable Equilibrium Values can be soils should be compacted to not less than 5% air voids,
derived. This is shown in Table 2.2. Background to reproduce the likely conditions on site. Equilibrium
information on this table is available in HA 44/91 moisture content can be deduced from measurements on
(DMRB 4.1.1). Table 2.2 should be used where a suction plate (LR889, 1979).
full information is not available. The following
methods may be used as a check for the CBR Site Testing
value, but shall only supersede the use of Tables
2.1 and 2.2 with the prior approval of the 2.10 For design, the CBR must be estimated before
Overseeing Department. construction commences. For fine grained soils in-situ
CBR values can however be measured for checking
purposes (not to allow design changes) in pits or on trial
strips during construction. Equilibrium CBR values
require the testing of existing pavements and HA 44/91
(DMRB 4.1.1) suggests a suitable procedure. Plate
bearing tests are necessary for coarse materials
(BS5930, 1981).

TYPE OF SOIL PI HIGH WATER TABLE LOW WATER TABLE

CONSTRUCTION CONDITIONS: CONSTRUCTION CONDITIONS:

POOR AVERAGE GOOD POOR AVERAGE GOOD

Thin Thick Thin Thick Thin Thick Thin Thick Thin Thick Thin Thick

HEAVY CLAY 70 1½ 2 2 2 2 2 1½ 2 2 2 2 2½
60 1½ 2 2 2 2 2½ 1½ 2 2 2 2 2½
50 1½ 2 2 2½ 2 2½ 2 2 2 2½ 2 2½
40 2 2½ 2½ 3 2½ 3 2½ 2½ 3 3 3 3½
SILTY CLAY 30 2½ 3½ 3 4 3½ 5 3 3½ 4 4 4 6
SANDY CLAY 20 2½ 4 4 5 4½ 7 3 4 5 6 6 8
10 1½ 3½ 3 6 3½ 7 2½ 4 4½ 7 6 >8

SILT* 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2

SAND ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20 -------------------------------------------------------------------------

(POORLY GRADED)

SAND ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 40 -------------------------------------------------------------------------

(WELL GRADED)

SANDY GRAVEL ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 60 -------------------------------------------------------------------------

(WELL GRADED)

* estimated assuming some probability of material saturating

TABLE 2.1 Equilibrium Subgrade CBR Estimation

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Volume 7 Section 2 Chapter 2
Part 2 HD 25/94 Subgrade Assessment

Suction Method

2.11 For remoulded cohesive specimens the suction

method of Blood and Lord (1987) may be used.
However, this method effectively considers a worst case
construction condition with very high water table, poor
drainage and full wetting. Its application is also limited
to soils of plasticity index 13% to 35%.

Type of Soil PI Predicted

CBR %

Heavy Clay 70 2
60 2
50 2
40 2 to 3
Silty Clay 30 3 to 4
20 4 to 5
Sandy Clay 10 4 to 5
Sand (Poorly graded) 20
Sand (Well graded) 40
Sandy gravel (Well graded) 60

Table 2.2 Equilibrium Subgrade CBR Estimation

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Volume 7 Section 2 Chapter 3
Part 2 HD 25/94 Capping and Sub-base

3. CAPPING AND SUB-BASE

3.1 Capping is used to improve and protect weak composite pavements.

subgrades by using a relatively cheap material between
the subgrade and the sub-base. The aim is to increase 3.3 The grading for unbound granular sub-base is
the stiffness modulus and strength of the formation, on intended to provide a dense layer of relatively high
which the sub-base will be placed. Capping with a stiffness modulus, which is reasonably impermeable
laboratory CBR value of at least 15% should provide an and will thus shed rain water during construction, given
adequate platform for construction of the sub-base when adequate fall. It is not necessarily free draining and
compacted to the appropriate thickness. may exhibit suction, and thus increase in moisture
content. Granular sub-base with a laboratory CBR of
3.2 Granular and cemented sub-bases are permitted at least 30% should provide an adequate platform for
for flexible and flexible composite pavements but only construction of the pavement when compacted to the
cemented sub-bases are permitted for rigid and rigid appropriate thickness.

SUB - BASE
THICKNESS
(mm) 400
300
SUB -
BASE
200

100
0
For low CBR values
CAPPING see Paragraphs
THICKNESS Key:
3.7 - 3.10
Capping/Sub-base Design
600
(mm) Sub-base only Design for
500 flexible and flexible
CA composite pavements,
PP capping not required
400 ING

300

200

100

0
1 2 3 4 5 8 10 15 20 30
Subgrade CBR (%)

FIGURE 3.1 Capping and Sub-base Thickness Design

Example 1 : CBR 3.5% Example 2 : CBR 8%

Alternative Designs Alternative Designs
a. Sub-base 150mm a. Sub-base 150mm
on Capping 330mm on Capping 210mm
b. Sub-base 280mm b. Sub-base 190mm
No Capping No Capping

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Chapter 3 Volume 7 Section 2
Capping and Sub-base Part 2 HD 25/94

THICKNESS DESIGN
3.6 The final design thickness shall be
specified to the nearest 10 mm greater than the
3.4 The thickness of capping and sub-base value obtained from Figure 3.1. On subgrades
shall be obtained from Figure 3.1. The sub-base with a CBR of less than 15 %, the minimum
may be omitted on hard rock subgrades that thickness of a layer of aggregate (either capping
are intact or, if granular would have a or sub-base) placed directly on the subgrade
laboratory CBR of at least 30%, and which do shall be 150 mm. At and below 3 % CBR, the
not have a high water table. For a subgrade first layer of aggregate shall be at least 200 mm
having a CBR greater than 15 %, the thickness thick. The thickness of all foundation layers
of sub- base is 150 mm, this being controlled by shall be constant over the full width of the
the minimum practicable thickness for pavement.
spreading and compaction. When the subgrade
CBR is between 2.5 and 15% for flexible and
flexible composite construction, there are two Soft Subgrades
options available:
3.7 When a subgrade has a CBR suficiently below
1. 150mm of sub-base can be used on a 2% such that it becomes unsuitable as a pavement
varying thickness of capping depending foundation, (a subgrade would tend to deform and
on the CBR value or, `wave' under construction traffic), then a number of
2. An increasing thickness of sub-base can options are available.
be used with the decreasing CBR, with
no requirement for capping. 3.8 The material can be removed and replaced by
more suitable material; if the depth is small, all can be
For all pavements on subgrades with CBR replaced but it may only be necessary to replace the top
values below 2.5%, and for rigid and rigid layer. The thickness removed will typically be between
composite construction on CBRs below 15%, 0.5 and 1.0 m. Although the new material may be of
150mm of sub-base on the varying thickness of good quality, the subgrade should be assumed to be
capping must be used. See Figure 3.1. When equivalent to one of a CBR value just under 2% (ie.
the subgrade CBR is sufficiently below 2% such 600mm capping), in order to allow for movements in
that capping with sub-base is insufficient to the soft underlying material. A total construction
support the pavement, then refer to Paragraphs thickness about 1.5 m thick will often result. A
3.7 to 3.10. geosynthetic may also be useful.

3.9 If the soil is cohesive, a lime treatment may be

an economic option, subject to soil suitability being
3.5 It is not intended that the foundation shown. Details of various soil treatments are given in
design should vary frequently along the road HA44/91 (DMRB 4.1.1). The overlying capping is
but that an appropriate value shall be selected again designed on the basis of a subgrade with a CBR
for each significant change in the subgrade just under 2% (ie. 600mm capping).
properties. For this reason changes in
foundation design should not be made for 3.10 If the soil is reasonably permeable, a deeper
lengths less than 100 m and rarely less than 500 than normal drainage system may be considered,
m. together with a system of monitoring the improvement
expected. Design of the main foundation may then be
based on whatever conditions are achievable in the time
available.

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Volume 7 Section 2 Chapter 3
Part 2 HD 25/94 Capping and Sub-base

CAPPING MATERIALS
standard unbound material for use with flexible
3.11 The Specification (MCHW1)(Series 600) and flexible composite pavements. Granular
allows a fine graded material (6F1) and a coarser graded sub- base, Type 2, may be used in pavements
(6F2). The latter can be considered as relatively free which have a design traffic loading of less than
draining and is thus most suitable for sites with a 5 msa at opening, provided that, when tested, a
shallow water table. It should, however, be noted that laboratory CBR of 30 % or more is obtained
capping is not required to be a drainage layer as long as (see Specification (MCHW1), Series 800);
contained water does not prevent it from satisfying its particular care is required to ensure that drying
primary function of load spreading. The specified out does not occur before covering.
gradings also do not guarantee adequate shear strength
and a demonstration area should normally be placed and
tested to check on the material's characteristics by Cemented Sub-bases
trafficking with normal site vehicles and construction
plant.
3.17 For rigid and rigid composite
3.12 Alternative permitted materials are cement and construction a cemented sub-base is required to
lime treated soil and, particularly when the removal and minimise the risk of water penetrating slab
replacement of unacceptable soil is the alternative, joints and cracks, causing erosion and
lime/cement or lime/PFA. Further details are given in weakening the sub-base. Cement-bound
HA 44/91 (DMRB 4.1.1). sub-bases also aid compaction of the overlying
pavement concrete. An impermeable membrane
3.13 Reuse of crushed excavated road pavement is required over the sub-base to prevent suction
materials as capping may also be carried out provided of water from the pavement concrete. This also
the compacted material complies with the Specification acts as a slip layer for jointed concrete and
(MCHW1)(Series 600). should be plastic sheeting. For CRCP and
CRCR, the membrane should be sprayed
3.14 The design should allow as wide a range of bituminous. Strong cement bound material,
capping materials as possible and particular materials CBM3, or wet lean concrete, C15, shall be used
should only be excluded if there are over-riding except when the initial design life of the
engineering reasons for so doing. In pavements with pavement is less than 12 msa, in which case
capping over subgrades with CBRs greater than 5%, it CBM2 or C10 are permitted (see Specification
may be necessary to lay a greater thickness than that (MCHW1) Series 1000, for materials).
given in Figure 3.1 if large stone sizes are involved.

3.15 Some contamination from weak cohesive soils

into granular capping, particularly with 6F2, can be 3.18 For flexible and flexible composite
expected and the design thicknesses allow for this. In construction cemented sub-bases may also be
some cases, a geosynthetic separator may also be used. Weak cement bound material, CBM1 or
beneficial. CBM2, or a weak wet lean mix, C7.5 are
advised (see Specification (MCHW1) Series
SUB-BASE MATERIALS 1000).

Granular Sub-bases

3.16 Granular sub-base, Type 1 (see

Specification (MCHW1), Series 800) is the

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Chapter 3 Volume 7 Section 2
Capping and Sub-base Part 2 HD 25/94

Non-Standard Sub-base Materials

sub-base lies directly on soil of less thanCBR (at
3.19 With reducing availability of suitable sub-base the time of construction). Construction
materials, there is pressure to use non-standard practices on thin foundations may have to be
materials, such as crushed masonry, by-product modified compared with normal procedures
aggregates and industrial residues. Because of greater due to the reduced ability of the foundation to
variability and the possibility of contamination of such carry construction traffic.
materials, it may be necessary to increase the frequency
of control testing. In any event, the Overseeing
Department must be consulted before non-standard ANALYTICAL FOUNDATION DESIGN
materials are used.
3.24 An analytical foundation design requires the
3.20 Variants of Type 1, such as material having a stiffness modulus of the subgrade, capping and sub-base
coarser grading and thus increased permeability, may to be determined, assumptions made regarding Poisson's
also be used subject to test and approval by the ratio and a linear elastic calculation made using a
Overseeing Department. Aggregates with gradings that layered system analysis. From such a computation, the
have a pronounced gap or an excess of material passing maximum compressive strain in the subgrade under a
a 0.075 mm sieve are probably unsuitable. standard axle load may be calculated and related to rut
development. If this method is followed, a considerable
3.21 A `correct' Ten per cent Fines Value (TFV), number of sensitivity analyses must be carried out to
according to BS812 Part 111, 1990, can only be assess the effects of material variability. The aim
obtained on samples from materials having 15 % or should be to provide a design with an 85 % probability
more of their particles in the 10-14 mm size range. A of achieving the required design life.
compaction trial may be carried out to check actual
particle damage under the type of roller to be used.
Low TFV does not necessarily preclude use as grading, Permissive Compressive
Subgrade Strain
particle size and self-cementation, which occurs with
some materials, may counteract the weakness. .01

3.22 Some aggregates have self- cementing

properties. To detect self-cementing properties, trial .005
areas could be tested in-situ at intervals of time.
Alternatively, triaxial tests in the laboratory may be
used to assess any improvement in stiffness modulus
and/or shear strength. Care is required to distinguish .002
between self cementing and suction effects.

Bituminous Replacement .001

10 100 1000 10000

3.23 It is permitted to replace some or all of Cumulative Traffic (Standard axles)

the sub-base by bituminous material. A
substitution rate of 30mm of bituminous
roadbase to 100mm of Type 1 sub-base shall be 3.25 The allowable subgrade strain may be taken
used. This technique must not be applied to from Figure 3.2. Unless information to the contrary is
capping, or to the lowest 150mm layer of sub- available, a construction traffic loading of 1000
base where standard axles should be used; this is suitable for a site
with access points at 1 km spacing. For very short

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Volume 7 Section 2 Chapter 3
Part 2 HD 25/94 Capping and Sub-base

lengths this loading may be too high or for very long may be used when those layers are constructed of fine
sections too low. Guidance for such situations may be soil or fine capping. The drainage layers so formed
found in LR1132 (1984). Since such a design is for may be treated as capping for structural design
construction traffic only, it will have to be followed by purposes.
proposals for the pavement as a whole.

rain
3.26 If an analytical pavement design is to be
considered, approval is required from the
Overseeing Departments at the preliminary upper
seepage
design stage. Submissions seeking approval pavement
shall include a justification for the choice of sub - base
non-standard materials and/or thicknesses, + to
supporting calculations and an indication of any capping drain
additional specification requirements or testing
regime which may be necessary for their subgrade
validation.

FIGURE 3.3 Foundation Drainage

DRAINAGE

3.27 It is of vital importance to keep water out of the 3.29 Where a drainage blanket is not used,
sub-base, capping and subgrade, both during drains as detailed in Highway Construction
construction and during the service life of the pavement. Details (MCHW3) shall be used. The drain is
This is achieved by excluding incoming water and placed below the bottom of capping, not
providing an escape route for water already in the because sub-base and capping need to be
foundation (Figure 3.3). During construction, every permeable, but so that they will be drained if
effort should be made to protect the subgrade by placing they are permeable.
aggregate before rain can soften it. Wherever possible
the foundation drainage should be kept separate from
pavement run-off drainage in all new construction and 3.30 It is useful to check the speed at which water
in reconstruction work. There should always be a can drain out of a granular sub-base, as a result of
downslope route from the sub-base to the drain. Further ingress due, perhaps, to a faulty pavement or a
details are in HA 44/91 (1991) (DMRB 4.1.1). In surcharging drain. A procedure for calculating this is
reconstruction and widening projects it is necessary to given in Jones & Jones (1989a) along with a means of
maintain the continuity of drainage from existing estimating ingress through cracks in the bound layers.
capping and sub-base materials to adjacent new On this basis it may be possible to specify a
materials, using appropriate thicknesses and crossfalls. permeability value. Care should be taken to ensure that
the value required does not conflict with any limitations
3.28 When the water table is high and the subgrade imposed by a specified grading, see Jones & Jones
is moisture sensitive (Plasticity Index < 25) a subgrade (1989 b).
drain is beneficial. A granular aggregate drainage
blanket (see Specification (MCHW1), Series 600) of 3.31 If it is necessary to determine the permeability
thickness at least 150mm and not more than 220mm of the sub-base or capping material, this must be done
thick may be used. In order to stop pore clogging by on the full grading, at the correct density under a low
fines from other adjacent layers, geosynthetic separators hydraulic head. A suitable permeameter and procedure
is described in HA 41/90 (1990) (DMRB 4.1.1).

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Chapter 3 Volume 7 Section 2
Capping and Sub-base Part 2 HD 25/94

Example.
3.32 Drainage of the sub-base may be
omitted only if the underlying materials Number of days freezing 12
(capping and subgrade) are more permeable Amount of frost 3oC
than the sub-base, and the water table never ___________________________________
approaches the formation closer than 300mm. Penetration H = 4 %36
= 24 cm
= 240 mm
FROST PROTECTION
3.36 From meteorological data the maximum depth
of frost penetration over a given historical period can be
3.33 For routine cases all material within readily assessed. The method should show areas where
450mm of the road surface shall be non frost is clearly no problem at all, or conversely, a
frost-susceptible as required by the serious problem. A return period analysis would
Specification (MCHW1)(Series 700) and tested establish the probability of a winter of a certain
according to BS812 : Part 124 : (1989). intensity occurring within the nominal life of the
pavement. However, highly precise assessment of frost
penetration is not advised due to unquantifiable
microclimate effects.
3.34 This requirement can be over- severe in
some places (e.g. coastal areas) and may be
reduced to 350mm if the mean annual frost
index of the site is less than 50. Advice on the
frost index for any particular area may be
obtained from the Meteorological Office
Advisory Services, Building Construction
Section, and further information from RR45
(1986).

3.35 The frost index, I, is defined as the

product of the number of days of continuous
freezing and the average amount of frost (in
degrees Celsius) on those days. It is related to
the depth of frost penetration, H.

H = 4 %I , cm

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Volume 7 Section 2 Chapter 4
Part 2 HD 25/94 In-situ Testing

4. IN-SITU TESTING
4.1 The two reasons for testing pavement radiation intercepted by hydrogen atoms. The dry
foundation layers are to check compliance with the density is
design during construction and in pavement assessment
see HD30 (DMRB 7.3.3). The Specification
(MCHW1)(Series 800) gives a method of construction
to be followed. An inadequate test result may indicate
either that the method was not followed, that the
material was sub-standard, that abnormal conditions
requiring a variation in procedure were encountered, or
that damage has occurred. The following paragraphs
introduce some of the tests which are available, most of
which are specified in BS1377 (1990). They are for Sand Replacement Nuclear Density
general information and advice only and do not (Transmission (Backscatter
comprise part of the Overseeing Departments' Mode) Mode)
requirements.
FIGURE 4.1 Density Testing Apparatus
Moisture Condition Value (MCV)
calculated from the bulk density and moisture content.
4.2 The test takes about half an hour and involves If the material being tested is carbonaceous, care is
compaction of soil or fine aggregate using a hand required in interpreting the moisture content and dry
operated device. The amount of compactive effort is density obtained. Testing is extremely rapid (less than
plotted against the density so that the test gives the 5 minutes) and a reading may be repeated readily. The
amount of effort needed to obtain the specified density. machine is portable. Calibration is required for each
The effort can be compared to that needed at Optimum soil or aggregate tested.
Moisture Content and a rapid indirect assessment made
of whether the material is at the desired moisture 4.5 It should be noted that two modes of nuclear
content. The size of the apparatus limits its use to fill density test are possible. The quickest and easiest is
finer than 20mm maximum particle size. 'backscatter' mode which is influenced only by the
density of the top 100 - 150 mm of material and is most
Density Testing (Figure 4.1) heavily influenced by material very near the surface.
`Transmission' mode provides a more representative
4.3 The sand replacement test involves excavating density result.
and weighing material removed from a small hole and
refilling the hole with a uniform sand. The hole volume California Bearing Ratio (Figure 4.2)
is calculated from the mass of sand used. The water
replacement test is similar except that a plastic liner 4.6 The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test
filled with water is used to determine the volume. The involves the insertion of a small plunger into the ground
equipment for either is transported by vehicle. The tests surface at a rate of 1 mm per minute, whilst the load is
are time consuming (up to 1 hour) and thus expensive, recorded. Surcharge rings can be placed around the
and operator sensitive. However they do give a direct plunger to simulate an overburden. A laboratory
means of measuring density, which can then be version of the same test is available in which the sample
compared with values obtained in the laboratory or in tested is constrained within a small mould. The stress at
trials. penetrations of 2.5 and 5 mm is compared with the
result for a standard aggregate and the ratio given as a
4.4 An alternative is nuclear density testing. A percentage. The test is not suitable for coarse
radiating source is applied to the material. The amount aggregates because the plunger and aggregate particles
of radiation detected decreases in proportion to the bulk will be of similar size. The test measures neither
density of the material between source and receiver. To stiffness modulus nor shear strength directly - giving a
determine the moisture content another source sends out somewhat combined measure of both. It takes around

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Chapter 4 Volume 7 Section 2
In-situ Testing Part 2 HD 25/94

half an hour on site and between 1 and 2 hours in the coarser materials than other penetrometers. The rate of
laboratory and there is a large body of experience of its penetration into the ground can then be related
use. approximately to CBR.

4.7 There are several variants on the CBR test;

laboratory, field, with surcharge, saturated, etc. In the Measured Quantity
context of this document the laboratory CBR with a
surcharge to simulate the appropriate vertical stress of
Stress Deceleration Force
the case being considered should be taken as the
standard method used. The appropriate moisture at Impact
content and wetting or drying condition is also Displacement
important. Laboratory CBR results for granular soils are
often higher than those in the field due to mould
confinement effects. The test is penetration controlled
and so does not model the stress level imposed by
traffic. The time of loading is also much longer than
that due to traffic. CBR is an empirical test and is best
measured as initially intended although other test CBR Clegg Cone
devices such as the Clegg Impact Hammer, various Hammer
static and dynamic cone penetrometers and the plate
bearing test can be used to determine approximate FIGURE 4.2 Strength Tests
estimates of CBR.
Plate Bearing Test (Figure 4.3)
Clegg Hammer (Figure 4.2-Clegg, 1976)
4.11 This test is described in detail in BS1377
4.8 In some respects this is a dynamic CBR and (1990) and its use for testing is described in The
suffers from similar scale problems. The Specification (MCHW1)(Series 600). For pavement
hammer/plunger is lifted and dropped, and the materials no removal of surface material or non-
deceleration on impact is recorded. The equipment is vibratory compaction is needed.
portable and the test extremely rapid (20 seconds).
Except on stiff aggregates and subgrade soils, the test
causes some local shear failure and thus is not a direct
measure of stiffness modulus. The stress applied is
high and the time of loading short so that the stress
pulse due to traffic is not modelled accurately. For soils
generally dry of optimum moisture content the `Clegg
Impact Value' has been related approximately to CBR.
It is useful as a guide tool and is able to detect soft spots
on a subgrade or fine capping and can differentiate
between material types.

Cone Penetrometers (Figure 4.2)

4.9 Various sizes of field cone penetrometer exist

for the rapid approximate assessment of CBR. In
general they can only give values of up to about 5 or
6%, and are therefore applicable for soft and medium
fine grained subgrades.

4.10 The dynamic cone penetrometer is similar to FIGURE 4.3 Plate Bearing Apparatus
other field cone penetrometers except that it is driven
into the ground under the action of a weight dropped 4.12 As a variation to the standard method the plate
onto an anvil. It is therefore suited to stronger and may be unloaded and reloaded until a relatively

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Volume 7 Section 2 Chapter 4
Part 2 HD 25/94 In-situ Testing

constant elastic modulus is observed (eg. 3 times). Conversion factor to

The results are interpreted using the equation apply to obtain k762
1.0
B pr (1&v 2)
E '
2y
0.8
where E is the elastic modulus, p is the stress applied, y
is the plate deflection and r its radius. Assuming
Poisson's ratio (v) typical of granular material (.3) this 0.6
approximates to

0.4 F=0.00124D + 0.0848

pr
E ' 1.45 r=0.996
y
0.2
4.13 The effectiveness of compaction can also be 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
assessed by comparing the elastic modulus on first and Plate Diameter (mm)
last loading. If the ratio (last/first) is greater than 2.0,
compaction is probably inadequate. FIGURE 4.4 Correction for Smaller Plates

4.14 An approximate empirical correlation with

CBR can be made, as follows:- Dynamic Plate Tests

CBR = 6.1 x 10-8 x (k762) 1.733% 4.16 These tests involve dropping a weight onto a
platen. Usually a damping mechanism is incorporated
where k762 is the modulus of subgrade reaction (equal to to control the loading time. Thus the area of loading,
p/y in units kN/m2/m at normally a plate penetration y stress and speed of loading may be controlled. The
of 1.25mm) from a plate of 762 mm (30 inch) diameter. Dynaplaque measures the rebound of its sprung
Figure 4.4 allows conversion for other plate sizes. weights. The Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD)
measures the stress applied and the deflection at several
Example radial positions. Interpretation is generally in terms of
the stiffness modulus of each layer but is not
At y = 1.25 mm, p = 70 kN/m2 straightforward and should be carried out by an
Plate diameter = 300 mm experienced pavement engineer. If only the central
____________________________________ deflection is used to determine a composite stiffness
k762 = 0.43 x 70 x 103 modulus for the foundation (as for the plate bearing
1.25 test), then interpretation is simple and can be carried out
= 2.41 x 104 as described above.
CBR = 24%

4.15 The test is laborious to set up and carry out,

and requires a lorry or excavator to provide reaction.
The speed of loading is slow giving poor simulation of
traffic loading.

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Volume 7 Section 2 Chapter 5
Part 2 HD 25/94 References and Bibliography

5. REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

References Undated

1981 Specification for Highway Works, (MCHW 1).

BS5930; "Code of Practice for Site Investigations", Highway Construction Details (MCHW 3).
BSI.
Bibliography
1984
1979
LR1132; Powell W D, Potter J F, Mayhew H C and
Nunn M E, "The Structural Design of Bituminous LR889; Black WPM and Lister NW, "The Strength of
Roads", TRRL. Clay Fill Subgrades: Its Prediction in Relation to Road
Performance", TRRL.
1987
1986
Blood J D and Lord J A, "Formation Earthworks,
Capping and Drainage Design and Specification", Proc RR45; Sherwood P T and Rowe P G, "Winter Air
National Workshop on Design and Construction of Temperatures in Relation to Frost Damage in Roads",
Pavement Foundations, pp 47-66. TRRL

1989 1987

BS812; Part 124; "Method for Determination of Frost CR72; Brown S F, Loach S C and O'Reilly M P,
Heave", BSI. "Repeated Loading of Fine Grained Soils", TRRL.

1990 1989

BS1377; Part 4; "Compaction Tests", BSI. Jones H A and Jones R H, "Horizontal Permeability of
Compacted Aggregates", Proc Int Symp Unbound
BS1377; Part 9; "In-situ Tests", BSI. Aggregates in Roads, Nottingham.

BS812; Part 111; "Methods for determination of ten per Jones R H and Jones H A, "Granular Drainage layers in
cent fines value (TFV)", BSI. Pavement Foundations", Proc Int Symp Unbound
Aggregates in Roads, Nottingham.
BS812; Part 113; "Methods for Determination of the
Aggregate Abrasion Value (AAV)", BSI.

HA41 (DMRB 4.2) "Permeability Testing of

Aggregates".

1991

HA44 (DMRB 4.1.1); "Earthworks: Design and

Contract Documents".

1994

HD26 (DMRB 7.2.3) Pavement Design.

HD30 (DMRB 7.3.3) Structural Assessment Procedure.

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Volume 7 Section 2 Chapter 6
Part 2 HD 25/94 Enquiries

6. ENQUIRIES
All technical enquiries or comments on this Part should be sent in writing as appropriate to:-

Chief Highway Engineer

The Department of Transport
St Christopher House
Southwark Street T A ROCHESTER
LONDON SE1 OTE Chief Highway Engineer

The Deputy Chief Engineer

The Scottish Office Industry Department
Roads Directorate
New St Andrews House J INNES
EDINBURGH EH1 3TG Deputy Chief Engineer

The Director of Highways

Welsh Office
Y Swyddfa Gymreig
Government Buildings
Ty Glas Road
Llanishen K J THOMAS
CARDIFF CF4 5PL Director of Highways

Chief Engineer - Roads Service

Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland
Roads Service Headquarters
Clarence Court
10-18 Adelaide Street W J MCCOUBREY
BELFAST BT2 8GB Chief Engineer - Roads Service

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