UNIT I

Lecture Hour 1: INTRODUCTION

Heat engine is a machine for converting heat, developed by burning fuel into
useful work. It can be said that heat engine is equipment which generates thermal energy
and transforms it into mechanical energy.
CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT ENGINES
1. Based on combustion of fuel:
(i) External combustion engine
(ii) Internal combustion engine.
External combustion engine
Here, the working medium, the steam, is generated in a boiler, located out side the
engine and allowed in to the cylinder to operate the piston to do mechanical work.
Internal combustion engine
In internal combustion engine, the combustion of fuel takes place inside the
engine cylinder and heat is generated within the cylinder. This heat is added to the air
inside the cylinder and thus the pressure of the air is increased tremendously. This high
pressure air moves the piston which rotates the crank shaft and thus mechanical work is
done
2. Based on fuel used
1. Diesel engine 2. Petrol engine 3. Gas engine Diesel
engine – Diesel is used as fuel Petrol engine –
Petrol is used as fuel
Gas engines – propane, butane or methane gases are used
3. Based ignition of fuel
1. Spark ignition engine (Carburetor type engines)
2. Compression ignition engine ( injector type engines)
Spark ignition engine – a mixture of air and fuel is drawn in to the engine
cylinder. Ignition of fuel is done by using a spark plug. The spark plug produces a spark
and ignites the air- fuel mixture. Such combustion is called constant volume combustion
(C.V.C.).
Compression ignition engine – In compression ignition engines air is compressed
in to the engine cylinder,. Due to this the temperature of the compressed air rises to 700-
900 C. At this stage diesel is sprayed in to the cylinder in fine particles. Due to a very
high temperature, the fuel gets ignited. This type of combustion is called constant
pressure combustion (CP.C.) because the pressure inside the cylinder is almost constant
when combustion is taking

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 place.
4. Based on working cycle
1. Four stroke cycle engine - When the cycle is completed in two revolutions of
the crankshaft, it is called four stroke cycle engine.
2. Two stroke cycle engine. - When the cycle is completed in one revolution of
the crankshaft, it is called two stroke cycle engine

Internal combustion engines (ICE) are the most common form of heat engines, as they are used in
vehicles, boats, ships, airplanes, and trains. They are named as such because the fuel is ignited in order
to do work inside the engine. The same fuel and air mixture is then emitted as exhaust. This can be
done using a piston (called a reciprocating engine), or with a turbine
Combustion, also known as burning, is the basic chemical process of releasing energy from a fuel and
air mixture. In an internal combustion engine (ICE), the ignition and combustion of the fuel occurs
within the engine itself. The engine then partially converts the energy from the combustion to work.
The engine consists of a fixed cylinder and a moving piston. The expanding combustion gases push the
piston, which in turn rotates the crankshaft. Ultimately, through a system of gears in the power train,
this motion drives the vehicle’s wheels.
There are two kinds of internal combustion engines currently in production: the spark ignition gasoline
engine and the compression ignition diesel engine. Most of these are four-stroke cycle engines,
meaning four piston strokes are needed to complete a cycle. The cycle includes four distinct processes:
intake, compression, combustion and power stroke, and exhaust.
Spark ignition gasoline and compression ignition diesel engines differ in how they supply and ignite
the fuel. In a spark ignition engine, the fuel is mixed with air and then inducted into the cylinder
during the intake process. After the piston compresses the fuel-air mixture, the spark ignites it, causing
combustion. The expansion of the combustion gases pushes the piston during the power stroke. In a
diesel engine, only air is inducted into the engine and then compressed. Diesel engines then spray the
fuel into the hot compressed air at a suitable, measured rate, causing it to ignite.

Working of steam engine

Steam engine is a device which converts heat energy into mechanical energy and heat is supplied into
the engine through the medium of steam. This is a machine where steam is used as a working
substance. Steam engine works on the principle of first law of thermodynamics where work and heat
are mutually convertible. This is a very basic definition of steam engine.
In a steam engine there is a cylinder fitted with a piston. Then steam from the boiler enters to the
engine cylinder and the cylinder is made act on the piston which thereby reciprocates to and fro motion
of the piston. So heat energy in the steam is converted into mechanical work, thus, it is
called Reciprocating steam engine.
Advantages of the Steam Engine over Wind-Mills and Water-Mills: 1. A steam engine (or external
combustion engine) could be located anywhere because water is heated in a separate boiler to
produce steam. The steam engine, with its boiler, could be taken to any place of work. Steam
engines were used in all sorts of applications including factories, mines, locomotives, and
steamboats. Steam engines use hot steam from boiling water to drive a piston (or pistons) back and
forth. There are four different parts in a steam engine:
A fire where the coal burns.
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A boiler full of water that the fire heats up to make steam.
A cylinder and piston, rather like a bicycle pump but much bigger. ...
A machine attached to the piston.
Steam engines and turbines operate on the Rankine cycle which has a maximum Carnot efficiency of
63% for practical engines, with steam turbine power plants able to achieve efficiency in the mid 40%
range. In earliest steam engines the boiler was considered part of the engine.

Differentiate Between I.C. Engines and Steam Engines.

Internal Combustion Engine Steam Engine
In I.C. engines, the combustion of In steam engine , the combustion of
fuel takes place inside the cylinder. fuel takes place outside the cylinder.
The working temperature and The working temperature and
pressure in I.C. engine is higher. pressure in Steam engine is lower.
I.C. engines are lighter and cheaper. Steam engines are heavier and
costlier.
I.C. engines are easy and quick to Steam engines takes time to
start and stop. lightening the fire and generating the
steam.
I.C. engines have higher efficiency Steam engines have lower efficiency
Due to Higher temperature and Due to Higher temperature and
pressure, materials having better pressure , materials having normal
resistance is been used. resistance is been used.
I.C. engines require only a small tank Steam engines require a big boiler to
to store fuel ; and there is no steam store water for converting it into the
condenser in it. steam and a condenser to condense
exhaust steam into water.
I.C. engines are single acting, piston In steam engine there is no piston
is directly connected to connecting and hence it has no stuffing box.
rod.

CONSTRUCTION OF AN IC ENGINE
I.C. engine converts the reciprocating motion of piston into rotary motion of the crankshaft
by means of a connecting rod. The piston which reciprocating in the cylinder is very close
fit in the cylinder. Rings are inserted in the circumferential grooves of the piston to prevent
leakage of gases from sides of the piston. Usually a cylinder is bored in a cylinder block
and a gasket, made of copper sheet or asbestos is inserted between the cylinder and the
cylinder head to avoid ant leakage. The combustion space is provided at the top of the
cylinder head where combustion takes place.

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The connecting rod connects the piston and the crankshaft. The end of the connecting rod
connecting the piston is called small end. A pin called gudgeon pin or wrist pin is
provided for connecting the piston and the connecting rod at the small end. . The other
end of the connecting rod connecting the crank shaft is called big end. When piston is
moved up and down, the motion is transmitted to the crank shaft by the connecting
FOUR STROKE ENGINE rod and the crank shaft makes rotary motion. The crankshaft
rotates in main bearings which are fitted the crankcase. A flywheel is provided at one
end of the crankshaft for smoothing the uneven torque produced by the engine. There is
an oil sump at the bottom of the engine which contains lubricating oil for lubricating
different parts of the engine.

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Lecture Hour 2: FOUR STROKE ENGINE
A four-stroke engine (also known as four-cycle) is an internal combustion engine in
which the piston completes four separate strokes which comprise a single thermodynamic
cycle. A stroke refers to the full travel of the piston along the cylinder, in either direction.
While risqué slang among some automotive enthusiasts names these respectively the
"suck," "squeeze," "bang" and "blow" strokes, they are more commonly termed

INTAKE: this stroke of the piston begins at top dead center. The piston descends from the
top of the cylinder to the bottom of the cylinder, increasing the volume of the cylinder. A
mixture of fuel and air is forced by atmospheric (or greater) pressure into the cylinder
through the intake port.

COMPRESSION: with both intake and exhaust valves closed, the piston returns to the top
of the cylinder compressing the air or fuel-air mixture into the cylinder head.

POWER: this is the start of the second revolution of the cycle. While the piston is close to
Top Dead Centre, the compressed air–fuel mixture in a gasoline engine is ignited, by a
spark plug in gasoline engines, or which ignites due to the heat generated by compression
in a diesel engine. The resulting pressure from the combustion of the compressed fuel-air
mixture forces the piston back down toward bottom dead centre.
EXHAUST: during the exhaust stroke, the piston once again returns to top dead centre
while the exhaust valve is open. This action expels the spent fuel-a mixture through the
exhaust valve(s).

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Lecture Hour 3: Two Stroke Engine

In two stroke cycle engines, the whole sequence of events i.e., suction, compression,
power and exhaust are completed in two strokes of the piston i.e. One revolution of the
crankshaft. There is no valve in this type of engine. Gas movement takes place through
holes called ports in the cylinder. The crankcase of the engine is air tight in which the
crankshaft rotates.

Upward stroke of the piston (Suction + Compression)

When the piston moves upward it covers two of the ports, the exhaust port and transfer
port, which are normally almost opposite to each other. This traps the charge of air- fuel
mixture drawn already in to the cylinder. Further upward movement of the piston
compresses the charge and also uncovers the suction port. Now fresh mixture is drawn
through this port into the crankcase. Just before the end of this stroke, the mixture in the
cylinder is ignited by a spark plug (Fig 2 c &d). Thus, during this stroke both suction
and compression events are completed.

Downward stroke (Power + Exhaust)

Burning of the fuel rises the temperature and pressure of the gases which forces the
piston to move down the cylinder. When the piston moves down, it closes the suction
port, trapping the fresh charge drawn into the crankcase during the previous upward
stroke. Further downward movement of the piston uncovers first the exhaust port and
then the transfer port. Now fresh charge in the crankcase moves in to the cylinder
through the transfer port driving out the burnt gases through the exhaust port. Special
shaped piston crown deflect the incoming mixture up around the cylinder so that it can
help in driving out the exhaust gases . During the downward stroke of the piston power
and exhaust events are completed.

Lecture 4: Various types of two wheelers, three wheelers and four wheelers.
Two Wheelers-
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A two-wheeler is a vehicle that runs on two wheels. The two wheels may be arranged in
tandem, one behind the other, as with single track vehicles, or arranged side by side, on
the same axle. If on the same axle, the vehicle may have no other support, as with
dicycles, or have additional support, which is often also the source of motive power.
Wheeled single track vehicles include: Dandy horses, Bicycle, a pedal powered two-
wheeler. Motorcycles, a motor-powered two-wheeler.
Dicycles include: Self balancing scooters, also known as hover boards. Segway PTs, a
brand of self-balancing personal transporters.
Two-wheelers to be used with additional support, which is also the source of motive
power include: cabs or hansoms on two wheels and hand trucks.
Two-wheelers to be used with additional support, which is not the source of motive
power, include: two-wheel tractors.
Three-wheelers-
A three-wheeler is a vehicle with three wheels. Some are motorized tricycles, which
may be legally classed as motorcycles, while others are tricycles without a motor, some
of which are human-powered vehicles and animal-powered vehicles. Three wheelers
can have one wheel at back and two at front or one at front and two at back.
Three-wheelers including some cycle cars, bubble cars and micro cars, are built for
economic and legal reasons. Three-wheeler transport vehicles known as auto rikshaws
are a common means of public transportation in many countries in the world, and are an
essential form of urban transport in many developing countries such as india.
Four-wheelers-
A four-wheeler is a vehicle which runs on four on four wheels. This type of engines
mostly run on engines and some of them are also human powered vehicles. The most
common four-wheeler vehicle is car which is the most common means of private
transport for the public. Four wheeler vehicles include cars, mini buses which are a good
means of transportations, small trucks which are used for transportation of goods, horse
carts which is a human powered four wheeler vehicle.

Lecture:5 History of the automobile

The early history of the automobile can be divided into a number of eras, based on the
prevalent means of propulsion. Later periods were defined by trends in exterior styling,
size, and utility preferences.
17th and 18th centuries
Ferdinand Verbiest, a member of a Jesuit mission in China, built a steam-powered
vehicle around 1672 as a toy for the Kangxi Emperor. It was small-scale and could not
carry a driver but it was, quite possibly, the first working steam-powered vehicle ('auto-
mobile') Steam-powered self-propelled vehicles large enough to transport people and
cargo were first devised in the late 18thcentury. Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot demonstrated
his fardier à vapeur ("steamdray"),an experimental steam-driven
Artillery tractor, in 1770 and 1771. Ascugnot's design proved to be impractical,his
invention was not developed in his native France. The center of innovation shifted to
Great Britain. By 1784, William Murdoch had built a working model of a steam carriage
in Redruth and in 1801richardtrevithick was running a full-sized Vehicle on the roads in
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Camborne. The first automobile patent in the United States was granted to Oliver Evans
in 1789.
19th century
During the 19th century attempts were made to introduce practical steam powered
vehicles. Innovations such as Hand brakes, multi-speed transmissions and better
steering developed. Some commercially successful vehicles provided Mass transit until
a backlash against these large vehicles resulted in the passage of legislation such as the
United Kingdom Locomotive Act (1865), which required many self-propelled vehicles
on public roads to be preceded by a man on foot Waving a red flag and blowing a horn.
This effectively halted road auto development in the UK for most of the rest of the 19th
Century; inventors and engineers shifted their efforts to improvements in railway
locomotives. The law was not repeale duntil 1896,although the need for the red Flag
was removed in 1878.In 1816, a professor at Prague Polytechnic,Josef Bozek, built an
oil-fired steam Car. Walter Hancock, builder andoperator of London steam buses, in
1838built a 2 seated car phaeton. In 1867, Canadian jeweller Henry sethtaylor
demonstrated his 4-wheeled "steam Buggy" at the Stanstead Fair in Stanstead, Quebec
and again the following year. The basis of the buggy, which he began Building in 1865,
was a high-wheeled carriage with bracing to support a two-cylinder steam engine
mounted on the Floor. One of the first "real" automobiles wasproduced in 1873 by
Frenchman amédéebollée in Le Mans, who built self-propelled Steam road vehicles to
transport groups of passengers. The first carriage-sized automobile suitable for use on
existing wagon roads in the United States was a steam-powered Vehicle invented in
1871 by Dr. J.W.Carhart, a minister of the method is tepiscopal Church, in Racine,
Wisconsin. It induced the State of Wisconsin in1875 to offer a $10,000 award to the
first to produce a practical substitute for the Use of horses and other animals. They
stipulated that the vehicle would have tomaintain an average speed of more than 5 Miles
per hour (8.0 km/h) over a 200-mile(320 km) course. The offer led to the first city to
city automobile race in the United States, starting on 16 July 1878 in green bay,
Wisconsin, and ending in Madison,Wisconsin, via Appleton,Oshkosh,Waupun,
Watertown, Fort Atkinson, and janes ville. While seven vehicles were registered, only
two started to compete the entries from Green Bay and Oshkosh. The vehicle from
Green Bay was faster, but broke down before completing the race. The Oshkosh
finished the 201-mile(323 km) course in 33 hours and 27minutes, and posted an average
speed of six miles per hour. In 1879, the legislature awarded half the prize.
20th century
Pre WWII1924Doble Model esteam-powered road vehicles, both cars and wagons,
reached the peak of their development in the early 1930s with fast steaming lightweight
boilers and efficient Engine designs. Internal combustion engines also developed greatly
during wwi, becoming simpler to operate and More reliable. The development of the
high-speed diesel engine from 1930 began to replace them for wagons, accelerated in
The UK by tax changes making steam wagons uneconomic overnight. Although a few
designers continued to advocate Steam power, no significant developments in
production steam cars took place after doble in 1931.