HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOLOGY

2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

• The nonpolar region is facing the interior of

CHAPTER 3: Cell structure and their Functions the membrane.
The Cell Membrane
Cell Structure:

Organelles
• specialized structures in cells that perform.
• specific functions
• Example: nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes
Cytoplasm
• Jelly-like substance that holds organelles.
Cell Membrane
• Also termed the plasma membrane
• A structure that enclose the cytoplasm

Movement through the Cell Membrane

• The cell membrane has selective
permeability, which allows only certain
substances to pass in and out of the cell.
• Substances such as enzymes, glycogen, and
potassium are found in higher concentrations
inside the cell.
• Substances such as sodium, calcium, and
chloride are found in higher concentrations
outside the cell.
Functions of the Cell Cell Membrane Passage
• Smallest units of life • Some substances, like O2 and CO2, can pass
• Cell metabolism and energy use directly through the cell membrane’s
• Synthesis of molecules phospholipid bilayer.
• Communication • Some substances must pass through
• Reproduction and inheritance transmembrane protein channels, such as
Na+ through its channels.
Cell Membrane • The route of transport through the membrane
- or plasma membrane, is the outermost depends on the size, shape, and charge of
component of a cell. the substance.
- It forms a boundary between material in • Some substances require carrier molecules
inside the cell and the outside. to transport them across the cell membrane,
- Materials inside the cell are intracellular and such as glucose.
those outside are extracellular. • Some substances require a vesicular
- It acts as a selective barrier. transport across the membrane.
Cell Membrane Structure • The vesicle must fuse with the cell
- The fluid-mosaic model is the model used membrane for transport.
to describe the cell membrane structure.
- The membrane contains phospholipids, Active Transport and Passive Transport
cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates. • Passive membrane transport does not
- Phospholipids form a bilayer. require the cell to expend energy.
- Phospholipids contain 2 regions: polar and • Active membrane transport does require
nonpolar. the cell to expend energy, usually in the form
of ATP.
Phospholipids Structure • Passive membrane transport mechanisms
• A phospholipid molecule has a polar head include diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated
region that is hydrophilic and a nonpolar tail diffusion.
region that is hydrophobic. • Active membrane transport mechanisms
• The polar region is exposed to water around include active transport, secondary active
the membrane. transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis.
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

Diffusion Osmotic Pressure and the Cell

• Diffusion generally involves movement of • Osmotic pressure depends on the difference
substances in a solution down a of solution concentrations inside a cell
concentration gradient. relative to outside the cell.
• A solution is generally composed of two • A cell may be placed in solutions that are
major parts, solutes and the solvent. either hypotonic, isotonic, or hypertonic
• Solutes are substances dissolved in a compared to the cell cytoplasm.
predominant liquid or gas, which is called the
solvent. Hypotonic
• Solutes, such as ions or molecules, tend to • A hypotonic solution has a lower
move from an area of higher concentration of concentration of solutes and a higher
a solute to an area of lower concentration of concentration of water relative to the
that same solute in solution. cytoplasm of the cell.
• This movement from high concentration to a • The solution has less tone, or osmotic
low concentration is diffusion. pressure, than the cell.
• Water moves by osmosis into the cell,
Concentration Gradient causing it to swell.
• A concentration gradient is the difference in • If the cell swells enough, it can rupture, a
the concentration of a solute in a solvent process called lysis.
between two points divided by the distance
between the two points. Isotonic
• The concentration gradient is said to be • A cell immersed in an isotonic solution has
steeper when the concentration difference is the same solute concentrations inside and
large and/or the distance is small. outside the cell.
Diffusion • The cell will neither shrink nor swell.

Hypertonic
• The cytoplasm of a cell in a hypertonic
solution has a lower solute concentration and
higher water concentration than the
surrounding solution.
• Water moves by osmosis from the cell into
the hypertonic solution, resulting in cell
Osmosis shrinkage, or crenation.
• Osmosis is the diffusion of water (a solvent) Red Blood Cell Change in Differing Solution
across a selectively permeable membrane
from a region of higher water concentration
to one of lower water concentration.
• Osmosis exerts a pressure, termed osmotic
pressure, which is the force required to
prevent movement of water across cell
membrane

Facilitated Diffusion
• Lipid soluble substances such as oxygen,
carbon dioxide, and steroids can diffuse
directly through the phospholipid bilayer.
• Water-soluble substances, such as ions, can
diffuse across the cell membrane only by
passing through cell membrane channels or
through carrier molecules.
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

• Facilitated diffusion is a carrier-mediated membrane at concentrations many times

transport process that moves substances greater than those on the other side.
across the cell membrane from an area of
higher concentration to an area of lower Sodium-Potassium Pump
concentration of that substance. • A major example of active transport is the
• Because movement is with the concentration action of the sodium-potassium pump
gradient, metabolic energy in the form of ATP present in cell membranes.
is not required. • The sodium-potassium pump moves Na+ out
Diffusion through the Cell Membrane of cells and K+ into cells.
• The result is a higher concentration of Na+
outside cells and a higher concentration of
K+ inside cells.

Leak and Gated Channels

• Two classes of cell membrane channels
include leak channels and gated channels. Secondary Active Transport
• Leak channels constantly allow ions to pass • Secondary active transport uses the energy
through. provided by a concentration gradient
• Gated channels limit the movement of ions established by the active transport of one
across the membrane by opening and substance, such as Na+ to transport other
closing. substances.
• No additional energy is required above the
energy provided by the initial active transport
pump.
• In cotransport, the diffusing substance moves
in the same direction as the initial active
transported substance.
• In countertransport, the diffusing substance
moves in a direction opposite to that of the
initial active transported substance.

Carrier Molecules
• Carrier molecules are
proteins within the cell
membrane involved in
facilitated diffusion.
• Move water soluble
molecules or ions across
the membrane.
• They exhibit specificity; only specific
molecules are transported by the carriers. Endocytosis
• Endocytosis is a process that that brings
Active Transport materials into cell using vesicles.
• Active transport is a carrier-mediated • Receptor-mediated endocytosis occurs
process, requiring ATP, that moves when a specific substance binds to the
substances across the cell membrane from receptor molecule and is transported into the
regions of lower concentration to those of cell.
higher concentration against a concentration • Phagocytosis is often used for endocytosis
gradient. when solid particles are ingested.
• Active transport processes accumulate • Pinocytosis has much smaller vesicles
necessary substances on one side of the cell formed, and they contain liquid rather than
solid particles.
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis • Within the nucleus are Nucleoli, which are

diffuse bodies with no surrounding
membrane. that are found within the nucleus
• There are usually one to several nucleoli
within the nucleus.
• The subunits of ribosomes, a type of
cytoplasmic organelle, are formed within a
nucleolus.
• These ribosomal components exit the
nucleus through nuclear pores.

Exocytosis
• Exocytosis involves
the use of membrane-
bound sacs called
secretory vesicles that
accumulate materials for
release from the cell.
• The vesicles move to the
cell membrane and fuse,
ultimately releasing the
material by exocytosis.
• Examples of exocytosis
are the secretion of digestive enzymes.
Chromosome Structure
General Cell Structure
• The interior of a cell is composed of the
cytoplasm, which a jelly-like fluid that
surrounds the organelles.
• Organelles are specialized structures that
perform certain functions.
• Organelles include the nucleus, ribosomes,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria,
cytoskeleton, centrioles, cilia, flagella, and
microvilli.

Cell Nucleus
• The nucleus is a large organelle usually Ribosomes
located near the center of the cell. • components are produced in the nucleolus.
• The nucleus is bounded by a nuclear • are the organelles where proteins are
envelope, which consists of outer and inner produced.
membranes with a narrow space between • may be attached to other organelles, such as
them. the endoplasmic reticulum.
• The nuclear membrane contains nuclear • that are not attached to any other organelle
pores, through which materials can pass into are called free ribosomes.
or out of the nucleus. Ribosome Production
• The nuclei of human cells contain 23 pairs of
chromosomes which consist of DNA and
proteins.
• During most of a cell’s life, the chromosomes
are loosely coiled and collectively called
chromatin.
• When a cell prepares to divide, the
chromosomes become tightly coiled and are
visible when viewed with a microscope.
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

Endoplasmic Reticulum Peroxisomes

• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series • Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound
of membranes forming sacs and tubules that vesicles containing enzymes that break down
extends from the outer nuclear membrane fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen
into the cytoplasm. peroxide (H2O2).
• The rough ER is involved in protein • Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of fatty
synthesis and is rough due to attached acid and amino acid breakdown and can be
ribosomes. toxic to a cell.
• The smooth ER has no attached ribosomes • The enzymes in peroxisomes break down
and is a site for lipid synthesis, cellular hydrogen.
detoxification, and it stores calcium ions in
skeletal muscle cells. Mitochondria
• Mitochondria (singular mitochondrion) are
small organelles responsible for producing
considerable amounts of ATP by aerobic
(with O2) metabolism.
• They have inner and outer membranes
separated by a space.
• The outer membranes have a smooth
contour, but the inner membranes have
numerous folds, called cristae, which project
into the interior of the mitochondria.
• The material within the inner membrane is
Golgi Apparatus the mitochondrial matrix and contains
• The Golgi apparatus, also called the Golgi enzymes and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA).
complex, consists of closely packed stacks of • Cells with a large energy requirement have
curved, membrane-bound sacs. more mitochondria than cells that require
• It collects, modifies, packages, and less energy.
distributes proteins and lipids manufactured A Mitochondrion
by the ER.
• The Golgi apparatus forms vesicles, some of
which are secretory vesicles, lysosomes, and
other vesicles.

The Cytoskeleton
• gives internal framework to the cell.
Lysosomes • It consists of protein structures that support
• Lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicles the cell, hold organelles in place, and enable
formed from the Golgi apparatus. the cell to change shape.
• They contain a variety of enzymes that • These protein structures are microtubules,
function as intracellular digestive systems. microfilaments, and intermediate
• Vesicles formed by endocytosis may fuse filaments.
with lysosomes in order to breakdown
materials in the endocytotic vesicles. Microtubules
• One example is white blood cells • are hollow structures formed from protein
phagocytizing bacteria. subunits.
• The microtubules perform a variety of roles,
Lysosome Action including helping to support the cytoplasm of
cells, assisting in cell division, and forming
essential components of certain organelles,
such as cilia and flagella.
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

Microfilaments Flagella
• are small fibrils formed from protein subunits • have a structure similar to that of cilia but are
that structurally support the cytoplasm, much longer, and they usually occur only one
determining cell shape. per cell.
• Some microfilaments are involved with cell • Sperm cells each have one flagellum, which
movement. propels the sperm cell.
• Microfilaments in muscle cells enable the
cells to shorten, or contract. Microvilli
• are specialized extensions of the cell
Intermediate Filaments membrane that are supported by
• Intermediate filaments are fibrils formed from microfilaments.
protein subunits that are smaller in diameter • They do not actively move as cilia and
than microtubules but larger in diameter than flagella do.
microfilaments. • are numerous on cells that have them and
• They provide mechanical support to the cell. they increase the surface area of those cells.
• A specific type of intermediate filament is • They are abundant on the surface of cells
keratin, a protein associated with skin cells. that line the intestine, kidney, and other areas
The Cytoskeleton in which absorption is an important function.

Whole Cell Activity

• A cell’s characteristics are determine by the
type of proteins produced.
• The proteins produced are in turn determined
by the genetic information in the nucleus.
• Information in DNA provides the cell with a
code for its cellular processes.

DNA
• contains the information that directs protein
synthesis; a process called gene expression.
• A DNA molecule consists of nucleotides
Centrioles joined together to form two nucleotide
• The centrosome is a specialized area of strands.
cytoplasm close to the nucleus where • The two strands are connected and resemble
microtubule formation occurs. a ladder that is twisted around its long axis.
• It contains two centrioles, which are normally • Each nucleotide consists of a 5-carbon
oriented perpendicular to each other. sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous
• Each centriole is a small, cylindrical organelle base.
composed of microtubules. • Each nucleotide on one DNA strand has a
• The centriole is involved in the process of specific bonding pattern to another
mitosis. nucleotide on the opposite strand.
• A gene is a sequence of nucleotides that
provides a chemical set of instructions for
making a specific protein.

Gene Expression
• which is protein
synthesis, involves
transcription and
Cilia translation.
• project from the surface of certain cells. • Transcription
• They are responsible for the movement of involves copying
materials over the top of cells, such as DNA into messenger
mucus. RNA.
• are cylindrical structures that extend from the • Translation
cell and are composed of microtubules. involves messenger
RNA being used to
produce a protein.
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

Transcription A cell spends most of its life cycle in interphase

• Transcription takes place in the nucleus of which is divided into three phases:
the cell. • G1 phase, during which the cell carries out
• DNA determines the structure of mRNA normal metabolic activity
through transcription. • S phase, during which the DNA is replicated;
• During transcription, the double strands of a and
DNA segment separate, and DNA • G2 phase, during which the cell prepares to
nucleotides of the gene pair with RNA divide.
nucleotides that form the mRNA. At the end of interphase, a cell has two complete
• DNA contains one of the following organic sets of genetic material
bases: thymine, adenine, cytosine, or
guanine.
• Messenger RNA (mRNA) contains uracil,
adenine, cytosine, or guanine.
• DNA nucleotides pair only with specific RNA
nucleotides.
• DNA’s thymine pairs with RNA’s adenine.
• DNA’s adenine pairs with RNA’s uracil.
• DNA’s cytosine pairs with RNA’s guanine
• DNA’s guanine pairs with RNA’s cytosine.

Cell Genetic Content

• Each human cell (except sperm and egg)
contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, a total of
46.
• The sperm and egg contain 23 chromosomes
total.
• One pair of chromosomes are the sex
chromosomes, which consist of two X
chromosomes if the person is a female or an
X and Y chromosome if the person is a male.

Translation Mitosis
• Translation occurs in the cell cytoplasm after • involves formation of 2 daughter cells from a
mRNA has exited the nucleus through the single parent cell.
nuclear pores. • is divided into four phases: prophase,
• The mRNA attaches to a ribosome. metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
• Codons (3 nucleotide bases) on the mRNA
are read by anticodons (3 nucleotide bases) Prophase
on transfer RNA (tRNA). • During prophase the chromatin condenses to
• Transfer RNA transports specific amino acids form visible chromosomes.
from the cytoplasm to the ribosome-mRNA • Microtubules, termed spindle fibers, form to
complex and initiates formation of the assist in breaking the centromere between
polypeptide chain. the chromatids and move the chromosomes
• The process continues until the entire to opposite sides of the cell.
polypeptide is completely formed. • The nuclear membrane dissolves.

The Cell Cycle Metaphase

• During growth and development, cell division • During metaphase, the chromosomes align
occurs to increase the number of cells or near the center of the cell.
replace damaged or dying ones. • The movement of the chromosomes is
• This cell division involves a cell cycle. regulated by the attached spindle fibers.
• The cell cycle includes two major phases: a
nondividing phase, called interphase, and a
cell dividing phase, termed mitosis.
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2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

Anaphase Tumors
• At the beginning of anaphase, the chromatids • are abnormal proliferations of cells.
separate and each chromatid is called a • They are due to problems occurring in the
chromosome. cell cycle.
• Each of the two sets of 46 chromosomes is • Some tumors are benign and some are
moved by the spindle fibers toward the malignant (cancer).
centriole at one of the poles of the cell. • Malignant tumors can spread by a process,
• At the end of anaphase, each set of termed metastasis.
chromosomes has reached an opposite pole
of the cell, and the cytoplasm begins to Differentiation
divide. • A sperm cell and an oocyte unite to form a
single cell, then a great number of mitotic
Telophase divisions occur to give the trillions of cells of
• During telophase, the chromosomes in each the body.
of the daughter cells become organized to • The process by which cells develop with
form two separate nuclei, one in each newly specialized structures and functions is called
formed daughter cell. differentiation.
• The chromosomes begin to unravel and • During differentiation of a cell, some portions
resemble the genetic material during of DNA are active, but others are inactive.
interphase.
• Following telophase, cytoplasm division is Diversity of Cell Types
completed, and two separate daughter cells
are produced.
The Cell Cycle

Apoptosis
• termed programmed cell death, is a normal
process by which cell numbers within various
tissues are adjusted and controlled.
• In the developing fetus, apoptosis removes
extra tissue, such as cells between the
developing fingers and toes.
• In some adult tissues, apoptosis eliminates
excess cells to maintain a constant number
of cells within the tissue.

Cellular Aspects of Aging

There are various causes for cellular aging.
• Existence of a cellular clock
• Presence of death genes
• DNA damage
HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM