CHAPTER 3 ANAPHY

Cell Structures and Their Functions

Cell Anatomy
 Cells
- Basic unit of living organisms.
- Cells are only one of several levels of organization in the human organism:
1. Chemicals
2. Organelles
3. Cells
4. Tissues
5. Organs
6. Organ systems
7. Organism
- Cells are parts of larger units (tissues and organs) and are composed of smaller units
(organelles).
- Cell is a microscopic unit made up of a bubble of fatty material filled with a water-
based mixture of molecules and tiny particles.
- Parts of any cell are called organelles (meaning small organs).

Cell Structure
 Organelles
- Specialized structures in cells that perform
- Specific functions
- Example: nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes
 Cytoplasm
- Jelly-like substance that holds organelles
 Cell membrane
- Also termed the plasma membrane
- A structure that encloses the cytoplasm

GENERALIZED CELL
Functions of the Cell
 Smallest units of life
 Cell metabolism and energy use
 Synthesis of molecules
 Communication
 Reproduction and inheritance

Cell Membrane
 The cell membrane, or plasma membrane, is the outermost component of a cell.
 It forms a boundary between material in inside the cell and the outside.
 Materials inside the cell are intracellular and those outside are extracellular.
 It acts as a selective barrier.

Cell Membrane Structure

 The fluid-mosaic model is the model used to describe the cell membrane structure.
 The membrane contains phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates.
 Phospholipids form a bilayer.
 Phospholipids contain 2 regions: polar and nonpolar.

Phospholipid Structure
 A phospholipid molecule has a polar head region that is hydrophilic and a nonpolar tail
region that is hydrophobic.
 The polar region is exposed to water around the membrane. • The nonpolar region is
facing the interior of the membrane.

THE CELL MEMBRANE

Movement through the Cell Membrane
 The cell membrane has selective permeability, which allows only certain substances to
pass in and out of the cell.
 Substances such as enzymes, glycogen, and potassium are found in higher concentrations
inside the cell.
 Substances such as sodium, calcium, and chloride are found in higher concentrations
outside the cell.

Cell Membrane Passage

 Some substances, like O2 and CO2, can pass directly through the cell membrane’s
phospholipid bilayer.
 Some substances must pass through transmembrane protein channels, such as Na+
through its channels.
 The route of transport through the membrane depends on the size, shape, and charge of
the substance.
 Some substances require carrier molecules to transport them across the cell membrane,
such as glucose.
 Some substances require a vesicular transport across the membrane.
 The vesicle must fuse with the cell membrane for transport.

Active Transport and Passive Transport

 Passive membrane transport does not require the cell to expend energy.
 Active membrane transport does require the cell to expend energy, usually in the form
of ATP.
 Passive membrane transport mechanisms include diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated
diffusion.
 Active membrane transport mechanisms include active transport, secondary active
transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis.

Diffusion
 Diffusion generally involves movement of substances in a solution down a
concentration gradient.
 A solution is generally composed of two major parts, solutes and the solvent.
 Solutes are substances dissolved in a predominant liquid or gas, which is called the
solvent.
 Solutes, such as ions or molecules, tend to move from an area of higher concentration of
a solute to an area of lower concentration of that same solute in solution.
 This movement from high concentration to a low concentration is diffusion.

Concentration Gradient
 A concentration gradient is the difference in the concentration of a solute in a solvent
between two points divided by the distance between the two points.
 The concentration gradient is said to be steeper when the concentration difference is large
and/or the distance is small.
Leak and Gated Channels
 Lipid soluble substances can diffuse directly
through the phospholipid bilayer.
 Water-soluble substances, such as ions, can
diffuse across the cell membrane only by
passing through cell membrane channels.
 Two classes of cell membrane channels include
leak channels and gated channels.
 Leak channels constantly allow ions to pass
through.
 Gated channels limit the movement of ions
across the membrane by opening and closing.

Osmosis
 Osmosis is the diffusion of water (a solvent)
across a selectively permeable membrane from a
region of higher water concentration to one of
lower water concentration.
 Osmosis exerts a pressure, termed osmotic pressure, which is the force required to
prevent movement of water across cell membrane.

 Osmotic Pressure and the Cell

- Osmotic pressure depends on the difference of solution concentrations inside a cell
relative to outside the cell.
- A cell may be placed in solutions that are either hypotonic, isotonic, or hypertonic
compared to the cell cytoplasm.
 Hypotonic
- A hypotonic solution has a lower concentration of solutes and a higher concentration
of water relative to the cytoplasm of the cell.
- The solution has less tone, or osmotic pressure, than the cell.
- Water moves by osmosis into the cell, causing it to swell.
- If the cell swells enough, it can rupture, a process called lysis.
  Isotonic
- A cell immersed in an
isotonic solution has the
same solute concentrations
inside and outside the cell.
- The cell will neither shrink
nor swell.

 Hypertonic
- The cytoplasm of a cell in a
hypertonic solution has a
lower solute concentration
and higher water
concentration than the
surrounding solution.
- Water moves by osmosis
from the cell into the
hypertonic solution,
resulting in cell shrinkage,
or crenation.

Carrier-Mediated Transport
 Some water-soluble, electrically charged or large sized particles cannot enter or leave
through the cell membrane by diffusion.
 These substances include amino acids, glucose, and some polar molecules produced by
the cell.
 Carrier molecules are proteins within the cell membrane involved in carrier-mediated
transport.
 Carrier-mediated transport mechanisms
include facilitated diffusion and Active
transport.
 Facilitated diffusion does not require ATP
for energy.
 Active transport does require ATP for
transport.

Facilitated Diffusion
 Facilitated diffusion is a carrier-mediated
transport process that moves substances
across the cell membrane from an area of
higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration of that substance.
 Because movement is with the
concentration gradient, metabolic energy in
the form of ATP is not required.
Active Transport
 Active transport is a carrier-mediated process, requiring ATP, that moves substances
across the cell membrane from regions of lower concentration to those of higher
concentration against a concentration gradient.
 Active transport processes accumulate necessary substances on one side of the cell
membrane at concentrations many times greater than those on the other side.

Sodium-Potassium Pump
 A major example of active transport is the action of the sodium- potassium pump present
in cell membranes.
 The sodium-potassium pump moves Na+ out of cells and K+ into cells.
 The result is a higher concentration of Na+ outside cells and a higher concentration of K+
inside cells.

Secondary Active Transport

 Secondary active transport uses the energy provided by a concentration gradient
established by the active transport of one substance, such as Na+ to transport other
substances.
 No additional energy is required above the energy provided by the initial active transport
pump.
 In cotransport, the diffusing substance moves in the same direction as the initial active
transported substance.
 In countertransport, the diffusing substance moves in a direction opposite to that of the
initial active transported substance.

Endocytosis
 Endocytosis is a process that that brings materials into cell using vesicles.
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis occurs when a specific substance binds to the receptor
molecule and is transported into the cell.
 Phagocytosis is often used for endocytosis when solid particles are ingested.
 Pinocytosis has much smaller vesicles formed, and they contain liquid rather than solid
particles.

Exocytosis
 Exocytosis involves the use of membrane-bound sacs called secretory vesicles that
accumulate materials for release from the cell.
 The vesicles move to the cell membrane and fuse, ultimately releasing the material by
exocytosis.
 Examples of exocytosis are the secretion of digestive enzymes.
General Cell Structure
 The interior of a cell is composed of the cytoplasm, which a jelly-like fluid that
surrounds the organelles.
 Organelles are specialized structures that perform certain functions.
 Organelles include the nucleus, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria, cytoskeleton, centrioles, cilia, flagella, and
microvilli.
Cell Nucleus
 The nucleus is a large organelle usually located near the center of the cell.
 The nucleus is bounded by a nuclear envelope, which consists of outer and inner
membranes with a narrow space between them.
 The nuclear membrane contains nuclear pores, through which materials can pass into or
out of the nucleus.
 Contains the cell's genetic code, the code is in form of Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
located in strands called chromatin.
 The nuclei of human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes which consist of DNA and
proteins.
 During most of a cell’s life, the chromosomes are loosely coiled and collectively called
chromatin.
 When a cell prepares to divide, the chromosomes become tightly coiled and are visible
when viewed with a microscope.
 Portions of chromatin accept stains readily, giving the nucleus a very dark appearance.
 Within the nucleus are Nucleoli literally tiny nucleus, which are diffuse bodies with no
surrounding membrane that are found within the nucleus
 There are usually one to several nucleoli within the nucleus.
 The subunits of ribosomes, a type of cytoplasmic organelle, are formed within a
nucleolus.
 These ribosomal components exit the nucleus through nuclear pores.
 CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE

Ribosomes
 Ribosome components are produced in the nucleolus.
 Ribosomes are the organelles where proteins are produced.
 Ribosomes may be attached to other organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum.
 Ribosomes that are not attached to any other organelle are called free ribosomes.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
  The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series of membranes forming sacs and tubules that
extends from the outer nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm.
 The rough ER is involved in protein synthesis and is rough due to attached ribosomes.
 The smooth ER has no attached ribosomes and is a site for lipid synthesis, cellular
detoxification, and it stores calcium ions in skeletal muscle cells.

Golgi Apparatus
 The Golgi apparatus, also called the Golgi complex, consists of closely packed stacks of
curved, membrane-bound sacs.
 It collects, modifies, packages, and distributes proteins and lipids manufactured by the
ER.
 The Golgi apparatus forms vesicles, some of which are secretory vesicles, lysosomes, and
other vesicles.

Lysosomes
 Lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicles formed from the Golgi apparatus.
 They contain a variety of enzymes that function as intracellular digestive systems.
 Vesicles formed by endocytosis may fuse with lysosomes in order to breakdown
materials in the endocytotic vesicles.
 One example is white blood cells phagocytizing bacteria.

Peroxisomes
 Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound vesicles containing enzymes that break down
fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
 Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of fatty acid and amino acid breakdown and can be
toxic to a cell.
 The enzymes in peroxisomes break down hydrogen.

Mitochondria
 Mitochondria (singular mitochondrion) are small organelles responsible for producing
considerable amounts of ATP by aerobic (with O2) metabolism.
 They have inner and outer membranes separated by a space.
 The outer membranes have a smooth contour, but the inner membranes have numerous
folds, called cristae, which project into the interior of the mitochondria
 The material within the inner membrane is the mitochondrial matrix and contains
enzymes and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA).
 Cells with a large energy requirement have more mitochondria than cells that require less
energy.

The Cytoskeleton
 The cytoskeleton gives internal framework to the cell.
 It consists of protein structures that support the cell, hold organelles in place, and enable
the cell to change shape.
 These protein structures are microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.
Microtubules
 Microtubules are hollow structures formed from protein subunits.
  The microtubules perform a variety of roles, including helping to support the cytoplasm
of cells, assisting in cell division, and forming essential components of certain organelles,
such as cilia and flagella.

Microfilaments
 Microfilaments are small fibrils formed from protein subunits that structurally support the
cytoplasm, determining cell shape.
 Some microfilaments are involved with cell movement.
 Microfilaments in muscle cells enable the cells to shorten, or contract.

Intermediate Filaments
 Intermediate filaments are fibrils formed from protein subunits that are smaller in
diameter than microtubules but larger in diameter than microfilaments.
 They provide mechanical support to the cell.
 A specific type of intermediate filament is keratin, a protein associated with skin cells.

Centrioles
 The centrosome is a specialized area of cytoplasm close to the nucleus where microtubule
formation occurs.
 It contains two centrioles, which are normally oriented perpendicular to each other.
 Each centriole is a small, cylindrical organelle composed of microtubules.
 The centriole is involved in the process of mitosis.

Cilia
 Cilia project from the surface of certain cells.
 They are responsible for the movement of materials over the top of cells, such as mucus.
 Cilia are cylindrical structures that extend from the cell and are composed of
microtubules.

Flagella
 Flagella have a structure similar to that of cilia but are much longer, and they usually
occur only one per cell.
 Sperm cells each have one flagellum, which propels the sperm cell.

Microvilli
 Microvilli are specialized extensions of the cell membrane that are supported by
microfilaments.
 They do not actively move as cilia and flagella do.
 Microvilli are numerous on cells that have them and they increase the surface area of
those cells.
 They are abundant on the surface of cells that line the intestine, kidney, and other areas in
which absorption is an important function.
 Microvilli are specialized extensions of the cell membrane that are supported by
microfilaments.
 They do not actively move as cilia and flagella do.
 Microvilli are numerous on cells that have them and they increase the surface area of
those cells.
 They are abundant on the surface of cells that line the intestine, kidney, and other areas
in which absorption is an important function.
Whole Cell Activity
 A cell’s characteristics are determine by the type of proteins produced.
 The proteins produced are in turn determined by the genetic information in the nucleus.
 Information in DNA provides the cell with a code for its cellular processes.

DNA
 DNA contains the information that directs protein synthesis; a process called gene
expression.
 A DNA molecule consists of nucleotides joined together to form two nucleotide strands.
 The two strands are connected and resemble a ladder that is twisted around its long axis.
 Each nucleotide consists of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
 Each nucleotide on one DNA strand has a specific bonding pattern to another nucleotide
on the opposite strand.
 A gene is a sequence of nucleotides that provides a chemical set of instructions for
making a specific protein.

Gene Expression
 Gene expression, which is protein synthesis, involves transcription and translation.
 Transcription involves copying DNA into messenger RNA.
 Translation involves messenger RNA being used to produce a protein.

Transcription
 Transcription takes place in the nucleus of the cell.
 DNA determines the structure of mRNA through transcription.
 During transcription, the double strands of a DNA segment separate, and DNA

nucleotides of the gene pair with RNA nucleotides that form the mRNA
Transcription
 DNA contains one of the following organic bases: thymine, adenine, cytosine, or
guanine.
 Messenger RNA (mRNA) contains uracil, adenine, cytosine, or guanine.
 DNA nucleotides pair only with specific RNA nucleotides. • DNA’s thymine pairs with
RNA’s adenine.
 DNA’s adenine pairs with RNA’s uracil.
 DNA’s cytosine pairs with RNA’s guanine
 DNA’s guanine pairs with RNA’s cytosine.

Translation
 Translation occurs in the cell cytoplasm after mRNA has exited the nucleus through the
nuclear pores.
 The mRNA attaches to a ribosome.
 Codons (3 nucleotide bases) on the mRNA are read by anticodons (3 nucleotide bases)
on transfer RNA (tRNA).
 Transfer RNA transports specific amino acids from the cytoplasm to the ribosome-
mRNA complex and initiates formation of the polypeptide chain.
 The process continues until the entire polypeptide is completely formed.

The Cell Cycle

 During growth and development, cell division occurs to increase the number of cells or
replace damaged or dying ones.
 This cell division involves a cell cycle.
 The cell cycle includes two major phases: a nondividing phase, called interphase, and a
cell dividing phase, termed mitosis.
 A cell spends most of its life cycle in interphase performing its normal functions.
 During interphase, the DNA (located in chromosomes in the cell’s nucleus) is replicated.
 The two strands of DNA separate from each other, and each strand serves as a template
for the production of a new strand of DNA.
 Nucleotides in the DNA of each template strand pair with new nucleotides that are
subsequently joined by enzymes to form a new strand of DNA.
 The sequence of nucleotides in the DNA template determines the sequence of nucleotides
in the new strand of DNA.
 Replication of DNA gives two identical chromatids joined at a centromere; both form
one chromosome.
 Cytokinesis - pinching in if the cell membrane, and eventual split of the membrane and
its content into two daughter cells.
 Cytokinesis occurs about same time (or just after) the last phases of mitosis.
 Interphase
 Interphase can be divided into three subphases, called G1, S, and G2.
 During G1 (the first gap phase), the cell carries out routine metabolic activities.
 During the S phase (the synthesis phase), the DNA is replicated (new DNA is
synthesized).
  During the G2 phase (the second gap phase), the cell prepares for cell division. Many
body cells do not divide for days, months, or even years.
 These “resting” cells exit the cell cycle and enter what is called the G0 phase, in which
they remain unless stimulated to divide.

Cell Genetic Content

 Each human cell (except sperm and egg) contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, a total of 46.
 The sperm and egg contain 23 chromosomes total.
 One pair of chromosomes are the sex chromosomes, which consist of two X
chromosomes if the person is a female or an X and Y chromosome if the person is male

Mitosis
 The process of distributing genetic material.
 Mitosis involves formation of 2 daughter cells from a single parent cell.
 Mitosis is divided into four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
 Mitosis was name by Walther Flemming in the late 19th century, he noticed threadlike
structures in cells during cell division

Prophase
 During prophase the chromatin condenses to form visible chromosomes.
 Microtubules, termed spindle fibers, form to assist in breaking the centromere between
the chromatids and move the chromosomes to opposite sides of the cell.
 The nuclear membrane dissolves.

Metaphase
 During metaphase, the chromosomes align near the center of the cell.
 The movement of the chromosomes is regulated by the attached spindle fibers.

Anaphase
 At the beginning of anaphase, the chromatids separate and each chromatid is called a
chromosome.
 Each of the two sets of 46 chromosomes is moved by the spindle fibers toward the
centriole at one of the poles of the cell.
 At the end of anaphase, each set of chromosomes has reached an opposite pole of the cell,
and the cytoplasm begins to divide.

Telophase
 During telophase, the chromosomes in each of the daughter cells become organized to
form two separate nuclei, one in each newly formed daughter cell.
 The chromosomes begin to unravel and resemble the genetic material during interphase.
 Following telophase, cytoplasm division is completed, and two separate daughter cells
are produced.

The Cell Cycle

 During anaphase of mitosis, the separate (but concurrent) process of cytokinesis begins.
 By the end of anaphase, cleavage, or pinching in, of the parent cell is evident.
  By the end of telophase, complete splitting of parent cell into two similar daughter cells is
complete.
 Each daughter cells has a nucleus and roughly half of the cytoplasm and organelles of the
parent cell.
 Length of time between divisions, and time required for divisions to take place, varies
from cell to cell.
 Cell division can range from 20 minutes to several hours.

Differentiation
 A sperm cell and an oocyte unite to form a single cell, then a great number of mitotic
divisions occur to give the trillions of cells of the body.
 The process by which cells develop with specialized structures and functions is called
differentiation.
 During differentiation of a cell, some portions of DNA are active, but others are inactive.

Apoptosis
 Apoptosis, termed programmed cell death, is a normal process by which cell numbers
within various tissues are adjusted and controlled.
 In the developing fetus, apoptosis removes extra tissue, such as cells between the
developing fingers and toes.
 In some adult tissues, apoptosis eliminates excess cells to maintain a constant number of
cells within the tissue.
Cellular Aspects of Aging
 There are various causes for cellular aging.
 Existence of a cellular clock
 Presence of death genes
 DNA damage
 Formation of free radicals
 Mitochondrial damage

Tumors
 Tumors are abnormal proliferations of cells.
 They are due to problems occurring in the cell cycle.
 Some tumors are benign and some are malignant (cancer).
 Malignant tumors can spread by a process, termed metastasis.