ETHICS LESSON 1

Ethics- defining ways to live a "good life"

In Ancient times
•Primitive people lived in a utopic world
Utopia- means "perfect place that has been designed so there are no problems"

•No individualism, politics, selfishness

•They live in harmony with nature
•There's an experience of universality
•They have common beliefs, worldview...
•No issues on truth, goodness, beauty

Civilization period
•Moved beyond the confiness of their communities. Traveled across boarders. They discovered a bigger world

Trade- "barter" material and intellectual goods

•Exchange of intellectual G. resulted to comparison of one's beliefs etc -

-This prompted the idea that “what for me is beautiful may not be beautiful anymore when compared with
others” or “what for me is good and true may not be the same case with others”.

IMPLICATIONS OF CIVILIZATION
•Civilization has led man to think in a spatiotemporal dimension
•Goodness and beauty are considered always to be connected with their daily activities – thus becomes causal and
material

DEFINING ETHICS
•Ethics came from Greek word ethos which means “Customs, Usage, or Character”
•Ethics is a set of rules of human behavior, which has been influenced by the standards set by the society or by himself in
relation to his society (Reyes, 1989)
•The field of ethics (or moral philosophy) involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and
wrong behavior.
•Ethics is a practical and normative science, based on reason, which studies human acts, and provides norms for their
goodness and badness (Timbreza, 1993)

As practical science,
❖ Ethics deals with a systematized body of knowledge that is applicable to human action.
❖ The primary consideration of Ethics is the application of human knowledge and its practicality to human experience.
❖ Thus, ethics is an indispensable part of man’s daily existence.

As a normative science,
❖ Ethics sets a basis or norm for the direction and regulation of human actions.
❖ It sets rules and guidelines to maintain a sense of direction to human actions
❖ It aids man in distinguishing whether one's action can be considered good or bad

Ethics is,
❖ Based on REASON. All ethical theories and all moral decisions must have its basis from the power of reason.
❖ Is Different from RELIGION or THEOLOGY. Philosophy accepts truth on the basis of reason. Those who do not believe in
God may still have moral life. Sometimes, those who believe in God may even be more immoral than those who don’t.
❖ Studies HUMAN ACTS. Ethics particularly deals with voluntary human conduct.
3 APPROACHES TO ETHICS
1. Meta-ethics- deals with nature of moral judgement. Looks in origin and meaning of ethical principles
-focuses on the issues of universal truths, the will of God, the role of reason in ethical judgments, and the
meaning of ethical terms themselves.
2. Normative ethics- Concerned in content and criteria. It takes on more practical task
3. Applied ethics- Examining controversial issues such as abortion

•Ethics is the very investigation of the meaning of life

LESSON1.1
2 General forms of Acts: 1.
1. ACTS OF MAN
✓Involuntary natural acts- involuntary, intuitive, or reflex acts ie. blinking of eye, beating of heart
✓Voluntary natural acts- parts of daily acts, socially learned acts ie. brushing, taking a bath 2.

2. HUMAN ACTS -Performed by one possessed of the use of reason

✓Good- in harmony with dictates in right reason
✓Evil- opposition to these dictates
✓Indifferent- mo positive relation to the dictates of reason

3 Constituents of human acts

Knowledge- A human act proceeds from the deliberate will
Freedom- A human act is determined by the will and nothing else
Voluntariness- Formal essential quality of the human act

Freedom- internal and psychological and not to external freedom

Internal F/free will- exists when the decision of the will is necessary and unavoidable
Ignorance- obstacle to the capacity to choose
Free act- always voluntary
Mastery over one's acts- allow man to master himself and to act by himself

•Freedom implies knowledge. Freedom depends on truth

•Truth is not the same as “opinion” or “one’s own judgment,” but rather an objective reality.

Modifiers of Human Acts 1.

1. Ignorance- lack of knowledge

•Ignorance in its object

✓Ignorance of law- ignorance in the existence of a duty
✓Ignorance of fact- ignorance of nature or circumstances of an act as forbidden

•Ignorance in its subject

✓Vincible I.- ignorance that can be supplanted by knowledge
a) Simply vincible- some effort has been done but not enough to dispel the ignorance
b) Crass or supine- result of total or nearly lack of effort to dispel it
c) Affected- if positive effort has been done to retain the ignorance ✓Invincible I. - ignorance that ordinary and proper
diligence cannot dispel.
Enter
•Ignorance in its result
✓Antecedent I.- precedes all consent of the will
✓Concomitant I.-accompanies an act that would have been performed even if the ignorance did not exist.
✓Consequent I.- follows upon the act of the will

PRINCIPLES governing Ignorance

1) Invincible ignorance renders an act involuntary. A person cannot be held morally responsible/liable if he/she is not
aware of the state of his/her ignorance.
2) Vincible ignorance does not destroy, but lessens the voluntariness and corresponding accountability over the act.
3) Affected/Pretended ignorance does not excuse a person from his/her bad actions; it actually increases their malice. 2.

2. Passion or Concupiscence- is a feeling such as anger. It refers to those bodily appetites or tendencies as
experienced.
•Antecedent Passion- springs in to action unstimulated
-precedes the placing of an action
-lawful act is placed despite the passion
•Consequent Passion- follows the free determination of act and it's freely admitted

PRINCIPLES governing Passion

1) Antecedent Passions do not always destroy voluntariness, but they diminish accountability for the resultant act.
2) Consequent passions do not lessen voluntariness, but may even increase accountability. 3.

3. Fear- mental agitation brought by... danger. Disturbance of the mind (Agapay, 1991:24)

PRINCIPLES governing Fear

1) Acts done “with” fear are voluntary. The person concerned remains morally responsible of his/her action, whether good
or bad, right or wrong.
2) Acts done “because of” intense fear or panic are simply involuntary. A person when acting out of extreme fear is not
morally accountable of his/her action or conduct. 4.

4. Violence- external force applied by a free cause for the purpose of compelling a person to perform an act
which is against his will.

PRINCIPLE governing Violence

1) Any action resulting from violence is simply involuntary. Let it be clear, however, that this does not justify violence. 5.

5. Habit- lasting readiness and facility, born of frequently repeated acts

PRINCIPLE governing Habit 1)

1) Habits do not destroy voluntariness and acts from habit are always voluntary, at least in cause, as long as
the habit is allowed to endure.
Resources- availability of external and internal resources
Confidence- whether or not you believe you can sustain your career path I like it- refers to your level of interest and
engagement
Authenticity- whether or not your current career path fits who you are

•End- purpose or goal. Final cause of act

Kinds Of End
1. End of Act - natural termination of an activity.
2. End of Doer (Agent) - personal purpose intended by the person performing the act. It is called “motive”, the reason why
a person performs an act.
3. Proximate End - the purpose which doer wishes to accomplish immediately by his action
4. Remote End – is the purpose which a doer wishes to accomplish in series of acts.
5. Intermediate End - the purpose which is desired as a means for obtaining another thing.

•All human ends are directed, in last analysis, to an all-sufficing absolutely ultimate end. This is the completely satisfying
end or good; it is the Supreme and Infinite Good; it is the Summum Bonum; and for theists, it is God.

LESSON 2

Moral conflict- fact of moral life. Embedded in crucial decisions

Dilemma- a person is forced to choose between conflicting options

Moral dilemmas- arise due to inconsistency in our principle

Types of MD 1.

1. Epistemic MD- the moral agent hardly knows which of the conflicting moral requirements takes
precedence over the other

Ontological MD- neither of these conflicting moral reqs overrides with each other. Neither is stronger 2.

2. Self-imposed MD- caused by agent's wrongdoings

World-imposed MD- events in world places in moral conflict 3.

3. Obligation D- more than one feasible action is obligatory

Prohibition D- cases in wc all feasible actions are forbidden 4.

4. Single Agent D- agent is compelled to act on 2 or more but can't choose both
Multi-person D- involves several persons like family, orga.

Levels of ED in the workplace

1. Indiv/micro level- when the employee’s ethical standards are in opposition to that of his or her employer, which could
lead to tensions in the workplace.

2) Organizational/ Meso-level.- Ethical Standards are seen in company policies. Still, there might be a gap between those
who run the business whose ethical standards deviate from that of the organization.

3) Systemic/Macro-level.- Ethics, here, is predisposed by the larger operating environment of the company.

The subjective norm of morality – Conscience

The objective norm of morality – Law (Natural)

Norms- criteria of judgement. Quality of things manifesting

Conscience- subjective/proximate norm of morality

-Latin "con" "scientia" means "with knowledge" of what is right kror wrong or "trial of oneself"

-Little voice of God in man

Erich Fromm- "C enables the person to know what ought to be done"

Thomas Aquinas- "Man's C is also responsible for making the human person aware"

Kinds of C

1. Antecedent Conscience- judgment is passed before an action is performed.

2. Consequent Conscience- judgment is passed after an action is performed.

3. Right/True Conscience- judges what is really good as good and what is really evil as evil

4. Erroneous/ False Conscience- judges what is really bad as good and viceversa

5. Certain conscience- a subjective assurance of the lawfulness or unlawfulness of certain actions

6. Doubtful conscience- a vacillating conscience, which is unable toform a definite judgment

-must first be allowed to settle its doubts before an action is performed.

7. Lax conscience- refuses to be bothered about the distinction of good and evil.

-it tends to follow the easy way -people who act on the impulse of “bahala na”

8. Scrupulous conscience- rigorous conscience, extremely afraid of committing evil.

-meticulous and wants incontrovertible proofs before it acts

Law- ordinance of reason

Elements:

1. Ordinance/mandate- contains a decisive command to perform or to avoid the performance of something.

2. Reasonable- a law should not be dictated by a despotic desire or momentary whim of an authority

3. For the common good- law should benefit all citizens. Sum total of benefits derived by individuals

4. Promulgated- law must be officially published for the purpose of informing the people.

5. Enacted by a competent authority- a person who is elected or appointed to make laws

Kinds of Law

1. Eternal Law -divine reason

-exemplar of divine

2. Natural Law -man's participation in law of God

-extension of divine order

3. Human positive Law -proceed from a properly constituted authority

-serve to supplement the provisions of natural law

Principle of double effect- concept in justifying killing in self-defense Proportional reason- grounds the 4th condition of
PDE

LESSON 3

Virtue theory- reflects assumption that humans have a fix nature

Ergon (proper function)- everything has its own role in the universe.

Proper functioning (the function of knife is to cut a knife that can't cut is bad/dull knife)

Good- if it fulfills functions Bad- if it does not

Tripartite soul:

Rational/Logical- seeks truths, facts

Spirited/Emotional- how feelings feel your actions

Appetitive/Physical- desires- eat, sex

•Accdg to Aristotle, ergon of humans consists in activity of the rational part of the soul in accordance with virtue
Socialization- use of reason and getting along

Arete (virtue as excellence)

•Accdg Aristotle, having virtue means doing right thing at right time, right way....

Virtue or Arete in greek- Our actions as human persons must be in accordance to reason

•Virtue is a set of robust char. traits. It is the right amount, sweet spot

Mesotes- constantly moving depending on the circumstance

Phronesis (practical wisdom)- excellence in knowing the right conduct in carrying out a particular act

•Moral.vurtue virtue is developed through habit

Moral exemplars- knowing what the right thing to do entails finding someone who already knows it and emulate them
Eudamonia (happiness)- Eu "good", Daimon "spirit" -human flourishing -life well lived -sweet pleasure -satisfactiin of
you've accomplished Eudaimonistic life- full of happiness that comes from achieving something really difficult Aristotle’s
12 virtues: 1) Courage – bravery 2) Temperance – moderation 3) Liberality – spending 4) Magnificence – charisma, style
5) Magnanimity – generosity 6) Ambition – pride 7) Patience – temper, calm Friendliness – social IQ 9) Truthfulness –
honesty, candidness 10) Wit – humor, joy 11) Modesty – ego 12) Justice – sense of right / wrong, indignation

Eudamonia (happiness)- Eu "good", Daimon "spirit"

-human flourishing

-life well lived -sweet pleasure

-satisfaction of you've accomplished

Eudaimonistic life- full of happiness that comes from achieving something really difficult

Aristotle’s 12 virtues:

1) Courage – bravery 2) Temperance – moderation 3) Liberality – spending

4) Magnificence – charisma, style 5) Magnanimity – generosity 6) Ambition – pride

7) Patience – temper, calm 8) Friendliness – social IQ 9) Truthfulness – honesty, candidness

10) Wit – humor, joy 12) Justice – sense of right / wrong, indignation 11) Modesty – ego

LESSON 4

St Thomas Aquinas- Italian philosopher. "the light of reason is placed by nature..."

-"all human actions are governed by general principle..."

 -greatest Scholastic philosopher

2 theological works: -Summa Contra Gentiles -Summa Theologiae

St. Thomas offered the five proofs of God’s existence, which is known in the Summa Theologiea as the Quinquae Viae:

1. First Mover 2. Causation 3. Contingency 4. Degree 5. Final Cause

LESSON 5

Immanuel Kant- German philosopher, protestant

-founder of Critical philo -central figure -central enlightenment thinkers -influential in western

Kantian ethics- the idea of deontology

Deontology= greek words duty (deon) and sci (study) of (logos)

-uses rules to distinguish right from wrong

Categorical imperative

1st Formulation “Act only on that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal
law [of nature].”

2nd Formulation “So, act as to threat humanity, both in your own person, and in the person of every other person,
always at the same time as an end, never simply as a means.”

3rd Formulation “The idea of the will of every rational being as a will that legislates universal law.”

The good life- act as threat humanity

-commitment to fulfilling your duty

Principle of respect- creates a way to love and to be loved

•Kant's theory focuses on duty

•Kant distinguished between acting from duty and acting in accord with duty

•For an action to be good, it must past the principles of categorical imperative

LESSON 6

Consequentialism- morality is determined by consequences

-results are desirable=action is morally good

Particularistic- Moral rightness depends of the consequences for indiv, limited group U

Universalistic- One takes into acc how the consequences of an act will affect all

Utilitarianism:

Consequentialism- based on consequences it produce

Welfarism- considers to be morally relevant...affect the welfare

Aggregationism- considers to be morally relevant...the maximum aggregate

•Utilli. is not egoism

Hedonistic calculus/C of felicity- Bentham provided a framework for evaluating pleasure and pain

•Accdg to Mill, quality over quantity

•In utilitarianism, moral value is based solely and exclusively on the difference it makes on the world's total amount of
pleasure and pain