Chapter 1

Limits and Continuity

1.1 Limit of a Function: An Intuitive Approach

We begin this course with an introduction to the core concept needed in studying calculus: the limit
of a function. We start studying the notion of limits in an informal, intuitive way. We treat limits
using a descriptive, graphical, and numerical approach. We then develop computational methods
in evaluating limits of algebraic expressions.

At the end of this section, the student will be able to:

• interpret the limit of a function through graphs and tables of values;

• compute the limit of polynomial and rational functions using limit theorems; and

• evaluate limits of functions using substitution, cancellation of common factors,

and rationalization of radical expressions (for indeterminate forms 0/0).

1.1.1 An Intuitive Approach to Limits

(
3x2 − 4x + 1 3x − 1, x 6= 1
4 f (x) = 3x − 1 4 g(x) = 4 h(x) =
x−1 0, x=1
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1

0 1 2 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
−1 −1 −1

Figure 1.1.1: Graphs of y = f (x), y = g(x) and y = h(x) in Illustration 1.1.1.

In this subsection, we use graphs of functions in order to develop an intuitive notion of the basic
concept of limits. We make a distinction between the value of a function at a real number a and

1
2 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

the function’s behavior for values very near a. A function f may be undefined at a, but it can be
described by studying the values of f when x is very close to a, but not equal to a. To illustrate
our point, let us consider the following functions:

Illustration 1.1.1.

1. Let f (x) = 3x − 1 and consider the tables below.

x f (x) x f (x)
0 −1 2 5
0.5 0.5 1.5 3.5
0.9 1.7 1.1 2.3
0.99 1.97 1.001 2.003
0.99999 1.99997 1.00001 2.00003

In the tables above, we evaluated f at values of x very close to 1. Observe that as the values
of x get closer and closer to 1, the values of f (x) get closer and closer to 2. If we continue
replacing x with values even closer to 1, the value of f (x) will get even closer to 2.
3x2 − 4x + 1 (3x − 1)(x − 1)
2. Let g(x) = = . Note that g(x) is undefined at x = 1. Observe
x−1 x−1
though that if x 6= 1, then g(x) = 3x − 1 = f (x). Thus, g is identical to f except only at
x = 1. Hence, as in the first item, if x assumes values going closer and closer to 1 but not
reaching 1, then the values of g(x) go closer and closer to 2.
(
3x − 1, x 6= 1
3. Let h(x) = . Here, h(1) = 0. If x 6= 1, then h(x) = f (x) and as in above,
0, x=1
h(x) goes closer and closer to 2 as x goes closer and closer to 1. (See Figure 1.1.1 for a
comparison of f , g and h.)

In each of the above examples, we saw that as x got closer and closer to a certain number a, the
value of the function approached a particular number. This does not always happen, but in the
case that it does, the number to which the function value gets closer and closer is what we will call
the limit of the function as x approaches a.

Let f be a function defined on some open interval I containing a, except possibly at a. We say
R
that the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is L, where L ∈ , denoted

lim f (x) = L,
x→a

if we can make f (x) as close to L as we like by taking values of x sufficiently close to a (but not
necessarily equal to a).

Remark 1.1.2. Alternatively, lim f (x) = L if the values of f (x) get closer and closer to L as x
x→a
assumes values going closer and closer to a but not reaching a.
 3
1.1. LIMIT OF A FUNCTION: AN INTUITIVE APPROACH
Example 1.1.3. Since the value of 3x − 1 goes closer and closer to 2 as x goes closer and closer
to 1 as shown in Illustration 1.1.1, we now write

lim
(3x − 1) = 2.
x→1

Remark 1.1.4. Note that in finding the limit of f (x) as x tends to a, we only need to consider
values of x that are very close to a but not exactly a. This means that the limit may exist even if
f (a) is undefined.
3x2 − 4x + 1
Example 1.1.5. In Illustration 1.1.1, we see that g(x) = is undefined at x = 1.
x−1
However, since x only approaches 1 and is not equal to 1, we conclude that x − 1 6= 0. Hence,

(3x − 1)(x − 1)
lim g(x) = lim = lim (3x − 1) = 2.
x→1 x→1 x−1 x→1

Remark 1.1.6. If lim f (x) and f (a) both exist, their values may not be equal. In other words, it
x→a
is possible that f (a) 6= lim f (x).
x→a

Example 1.1.7. Recall that (

3x − 1, x 6= 1
h(x) =
0, x=1
from Illustration 1.1.1. Here, h(1) = 0 but lim
h(x) = 2.
x→1

Remark 1.1.8. If f (x) does not approach a real number as x tends to a, then we say that the
limit of f (x) as x approaches a does not exist (dne).

Example 1.1.9. Let H (x) be defined by

H (x) =

 1, x ≥ 0
 0, x < 0

This function is called the Heaviside step function. The graph of the function is given below:

−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1

From the graph, we see that there is no particular value to which H(x) approaches as x approaches
0. We cannot say that the limit is 0 because if x approaches 0 through values greater than 0,
the value of H(x) approaches 1. In the same way, we cannot say that the limit is 1 because if x
approaches 0 through values less than 0, the value of H(x) approaches 0. In this case, lim H(x)
x→0
does not exist.
4 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

1.1.2 Evaluating Limits

In the previous subsection, we tried to compute the limit of a given function using tables of values.
However, this method only gives us an estimate of the limit, not guaranteeing that the value which
the function seems to approach is indeed the limit. In this section, we will compute limits not by
making tables of values or by graphing, but by applying the theorem below.

Theorem 1.1.10. Let f (x) and g(x) be functions defined on some open interval containing a,
except possibly at a.

1. If lim f (x) exists, then it is unique.

x→a

2. If c ∈ R, then x→a
lim c = c.

3. lim x = a
x→a

4. Suppose lim f (x) = L1 and lim g(x) = L2 where L1 , L2 ∈

x→a x→a
R, and c ∈ R.

ics
(a) lim [f (x) ± g(x)] = L1 ± L2

at
x→a

m
(b) lim [cf (x)] = cL1
x→a he
at
(c) lim [f (x)g(x)] = L1 L2
x→a
M

f (x) L1
of

(d) lim = , provided that g(x) 6= 0 on some open interval containing a, except
x→a g(x) L2
te

possibly at a, and L2 6= 0.
itu

(e) lim [f (x)]n = (L1 )n for n ∈ N.

st

x→a
In

N, n > 1 and provided that L1 > 0 when n is even.

p
n
p
n
(f ) lim f (x) = L1 for n ∈
UP

x→a

Example 1.1.11. Determine lim (2x3 − 4x2 + 1).

x→−1

Solution.
From the theorem above,

lim (2x3 − 4x2 + 1) = lim 2x3 − lim 4x2 + lim 1

x→−1 x→−1 x→−1 x→−1
= 2 lim x3 − 4 lim x2 + 1
x→−1 x→−1
= 2(−1)3 − 4(−1)2 + 1
= −5.

(x − 3)(x2 − 2)
Example 1.1.12. Evaluate lim .
x→1 x2 + 1
1.1. LIMIT OF A FUNCTION: AN INTUITIVE APPROACH 5

Solution.
First, note that
lim (x2 + 1) = lim x2 + lim 1 = 1 + 1 = 2 6= 0.
x→1 x→1 x→1
Using the theorem,

(x − 3)(x2 − 2) lim (x − 3)(x2 − 2)

x→1
lim =
x→1 x2 + 1 lim (x2 + 1)
x→1
lim (x − 3) · lim (x2 − 2)
x→1 x→1
=
lim (x2 + 1)
 x→1  
lim x − lim 3 lim x2 − lim 2
x→1 x→1 x→1 x→1
= 2
lim (x + 1)
x→1
(1 − 3)(12 − 2)
=
2
= 1.

√
2x + 5
Example 1.1.13. Evaluate: lim
x→2 1 − 3x

Solution.
First, note that
lim (1 − 3x) = lim 1 − lim 3x = 1 − 6 = −5 6= 0.
x→2 x→2 x→2
Also,
lim (2x + 5) = lim 2x + lim 5 = 4 + 5 = 9 > 0.
x→2 x→2 x→2
Thus, using the theorem,
√ √ q
√
lim 2x + 5 lim (2x + 5)
2x + 5 x→2 x→2 9 3
lim = = = =− .
x→2 1 − 3x lim 1 − 3x lim 1 − 3x −5 5
x→2 x→2

Theorem 1.1.14. Let f be a polynomial or rational function. If a ∈ dom f , then

lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a

Example 1.1.15. Evaluate lim (2x3 − 4x2 + 1).

x→−1

Solution.
Using Theorem 1.1.14,

lim (2x3 − 4x2 + 1) = 2(−1)3 − 4(−1)2 + 1 = −5.

x→−1
6 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

 4
1 − 5x
Example 1.1.16. Evaluate lim .
x→1 1 + 3x2 + 4x4

Solution.  4
1−5x
Let f (x) = 1+3x 2 +x4 . Note that 1 ∈ dom f . By Theorem 1.1.14,

 4  4
1 − 5x 1 − 5(1) 1
lim = = .
x→1 1 + 3x2 + 4x4 1 + 3(1)2 + 4(1)4 16

1.1.3 Other Techniques in Evaluating Limits

In this part, we shall see that there are functions whose limits cannot be calculated using only the
previous techniques. For instance, Theorems 1.1.10 and 1.1.14 do not apply to

F (x) 3x2 − 4x + 1
lim = lim
x→1 G(x) x→1 x−1

(where F (x) = 3x2 − 4x + 1 and G(x) = x − 1) in Illustration 1.1.1. This is because lim G(x) = 0.
x→1
F (x)
Now, observe that lim F (x) = 0 = lim G(x). We call the limit lim an indeterminate form.
x→1 x→1 x→1 G(x)
3x2 − 4x + 1
Such limits may or may not exist. Example 1.1.5 showed us that the limit lim exists,
x→1 x−1
and is in fact equal to 2. We shall see that limits with indeterminate forms, if they exist, may be
determined using algebraic manipulation.
 
f (x) 0
If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0, then lim is called an indeterminate form of type .
x→a x→a x→a g(x) 0

Remark 1.1.17.
f (x)
1. If f (a) = 0 and g(a) = 0, then is undefined at x = a, and NOT indeterminate.
g(x)
f (x)
Remember that the term “indeterminate” only applies to the limit lim , and not the
x→a g(x)
f (a)
function value .
g(a)

2. By our intuitive notion of the limit, recall that when computing the limit, we are not concerned
with the function value when x = a.

3. A limit that is indeterminate of type 00 may exist, and to compute the limit, one may use

cancellation of common factors and rationalization of expressions (if applicable).

x2 + 2x + 1
Example 1.1.18. Evaluate lim .
x→−1 x+1
1.1. LIMIT OF A FUNCTION: AN INTUITIVE APPROACH 7

Solution.
The limit of both the numerator and the denominator as x approaches −1 is 0. Thus, this limit in
its current form is indeterminate of type 00 . However, observe that x + 1 is a common factor of

the numerator and the denominator. Thus, we may simplify the function as
x2 + 2x + 1 (x + 1)2
= = x + 1, provided x 6= −1.
x+1 x+1
Therefore, we obtain the limit as follows:
x2 + 2x + 1
lim = lim (x + 1) = 0
x→−1 x+1 x→−1

x2 − 5x + 6
Example 1.1.19. Evaluate lim .
x→2 x2 − 4
Solution.
x2 − 5x + 6 0


Note that lim is an indeterminate form of type 0 . Using the same technique,
x→2 x2 − 4
x2 − 5x + 6 (x − 2)(x − 3) x−3 1
lim 2
= lim = lim =− .
x→2 x −4 x→2 (x − 2)(x + 2) x→2 x + 2 4

x2 − 16
Example 1.1.20. Evaluate lim √ .
x→4 2 − x

Solution.
x2 − 16
√ is an indeterminate form of type 00 . Observe that in its current form, the


Again, lim
x→4 2 − x
numerator and denominator do not have common factors. So we multiply the numerator and
√
denominator by 2 + x to get
√ √
x2 − 16 2 + x (x − 4)(x + 4)(2 + x) √
√ · √ = = −(x + 4)(2 + x),
2− x 2+ x 4−x
provided x 6= 4. Thus, we have
x2 − 16 √
lim √ = lim −(x + 4)(2 + x) = −32.
x→4 2 − x x→4

√
x+5−3
Example 1.1.21. Evaluate lim .
x→4 x−4
Solution.
This limit is also an indeterminate form of type ( 00 ). Similar to the previous example,
√ √
x+5−3 x+5+3 (x + 5) − 9
lim ·√ = lim √
x→4 x−4 x+5+3 x→4 (x − 4)( x + 5 − 3)

x−4
= lim √
x→4 (x − 4)( x + 5 + 3)

1
= lim √
x→4 x+5+3
1
= .
6
8 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

1.1.4 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion

A. Let f be the function whose graph is shown in the figure below.

0 2 4

Evaluate f (0), f (2), and f (3). Evaluate also lim f (x), lim f (x) and lim f (x).
x→0 x→2 x→3

B. Evaluate the following limits.

1. lim x(x − 2)(x + 2) 3

2z − z 2

x→−1 6. lim
z→2 z2 − 4
3x2 + 2x − 1 √
2. lim x2 + 3 − 2
x→−1 x3 + 1 7. lim
√ x→−1 x2 − 1
t−2−4 √ √
3. lim 2x − 6 − x
t→18 t − 18 8. lim
x→2 4 − x2
2s2 − 7s + 3 p3 − 1
4. lim 9. lim √
s→3 s2 − 4s + 3 p→1 2p − 1 − 1
2x2 − 13x + 20 6x + 2x2
5. lim 10. lim √
x→4 x3 − 64 x→−3 −1 − 3 2x + 5

C. Do as indicated.

1. Find lim f (x) where f (x) = x2 for all x 6= 10 but f (10) = 99.
x→10
x
2. Determine the values of the constants a and b such that lim √ = 1.
x→0 ax + b − 2
1.1. LIMIT OF A FUNCTION: AN INTUITIVE APPROACH 9

Supplementary Exercises

A. Evaluate the following limits.

q3 + q2 − q − 1 x3 − x2 − x + 1
1. lim 9. lim
q→−1 q2 − 1 x→−1 x3 − 3x − 2
2y 2 − 3y + 1 t−1
2. lim 10. lim √
2
6t + 3 − 3t
y→1 y3 − 1 t→1
√
6 + x − x2 4x2 + 5x + 9 − 3
3. lim 2 11. lim
x→−2 x − 4x − 12 x→0 x
√ √ √
2− 7−a 8 − x − 1 − 8x
4. lim 12. lim √ √
a→3 2a2 − 3a − 9 x→−1 3 − x − 6x + 10
x3 − x2 − x + 10 (x + t)3 − x3
5. lim 13. lim
x→−2 x2 + 3x + 2 t→0 t
√ √ 1
4
x4 + 1 − x2 + 1 +1
6. lim 14. lim x2 4
x→0 x2 x→−4 x − 16
p √ 1
7+ 3x−3 −1
7. lim 15. lim x+t x
x→8 x−8 t→0 t
p √  
9q 2 − 4 − 17 + 12q 4 8
8. lim 16. lim + 2
q→−1 q 2 + 3q + 2 x→−2 x + 2 x + 2x
bx2 + 15x + b + 15
B. Find whether there exists a constant b so that lim exists. If it exists,
x→−2 x2 + x − 2
determine the value of b and find the limit.

C. For each of the following functions below, use a calculator to evaluate f (x) when
x = ±0.1, ±0.001, ±0.000001. Based on your results, what could the value of lim f (x) be?
x→0

sin x
1. f (x) =
x
1 − cos x
2. f (x) =
x
tan x
3. f (x) =
x