Chapter 1: Operational Amplifier Fundamentals

Chapter 1
Operational Amplifier Fundamentals

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The term operational amplifier, or op-amp, was originally applied to high-
performance DC differential amplifiers that used vacuum tubes. These amplifiers
formed the basis of the analog computer, which was capable of solving differential
equations. Early operational amplifiers (op-amps) were used primarily to perform
mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, integration, and differentiation,
hence the term operational. These devices were constructed with vacuum tubes and
worked with high voltages. The vacuum tubes soon gave way to the transistor, and
eventually to integrated circuit. In the present day the term operational amplifier is
used to refer to very high gain DC coupled differential amplifiers with single-ended
outputs. Most of these amplifiers appear in integrated circuit form. Today’s op-amps
are linear integrated circuits that use relatively low supply voltages and reliable.
Except for a reduction in size and cost, the function of today’s op-amp has changed
very little from the original version.

The first series of commercially available op-amps was uA702, introduced by

Fairchild Semiconductor (now being bought over by National Semiconductor) in
1963. In 1965, National Semiconductor had introduced the LM101, while Fairchild
unveiled the ever-popular uA741 in 1967. The 741 series op-amp remains until
today.

Figure 1: An actual size image of an 8-pin IC low-power op-amp (LM358)

1.1 OP-AMP SYMBOL AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

+VCC

Inverting
input
Output
Noninverting
input

-VEE
(a) Basic symbol (b) Symbol with dc supply
Figure 2: Symbol for op-amp

EEE Department, GUB 1 Prof. Dr. Md. Fayzur Rahman

 Chapter 1: Operational Amplifier Fundamentals

Zout
Vin Zin AOLVin Vout

Figure 3: Approximate equivalent circuit of an op-amp

Note that the op-amp amplifies the voltage difference between non-inverting and
inverting input.

Vout = AOL(V+ - V-) [1]

Where
AOL = open-loop voltage gain
Zout = output impedance
Zin = input impedance

Power supplies for operational amplifiers:

+VCC

Ground

-VEE
Figure 4: Dual, or split voltage power supply used with op-amps

1.2 IDEAL OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

The ideal op-amp would be expected to have the following important characteristics:
 Infinite open-loop voltage gain, AOL   .
 Infinite input impedance, Z in   .
 Zero output impedance, Z o  0 .
 Infinite bandwidth, AOL remains unchanged from DC to very high frequency.
 Zero offset voltage, zero input (V+=V-) produces zero output.
 Infinite common-mode rejection only amplifies voltage difference between non-
inverting and inverting input.

In practice, no commercial op-amp can meet these 6 ideal characteristics. It is still

possible to achieve high-performance circuits despite the fact that there is no such
thing as an ideal op-amp. We will consider practical op-amp in later chapters. For
the time being, let us concentrate on circuits using ideal op-amp.

1.2.1 Output Saturation

The supply voltages VCC and VEE set upper and lower bounds on the output swing
capability of the op-amp. Figure 5 shows three different regions of operation of an op-
amp.
EEE Department, GUB 2 Prof. Dr. Md. Fayzur Rahman
 Chapter 1: Operational Amplifier Fundamentals

Upper saturation
vO
region

VOH
Linear region
AOL

VOL/AOL
vD
VOH/AOL

VOL
-
vD vO
Lower saturation +
region
Figure 5: Regions of operations
In the linear region, the curve is approximately straight and its slope represents the
open-loop gain AOL. As vD is increased, vO increases in proportion until a point is
reached where internal transistor saturation effects take place that cause the output
voltage to remain fixed at VOH. This is the positive saturation region, where vO no
longer depends on vD. Similar considerations hold for the negative saturation region at
VOL. Typically, VOH and VOL are 1V~2V below VCC and above VEE.

When an op-amp is used in the negative feedback mode, its operation must be
confined within the linear region, because only there is the op-amp capable of
influencing its own input. If the device is inadvertently pushed into saturation, vO will
remain fixed and the op-amp will no longer be able to influence vD, thus yielding a
completely different behavior. When analyzing op-amp circuits, it is often necessary
to find the region of operation. To this end, we start out assuming that the op-amp is
in the linear region and calculate vO. If this falls within the range VOL < vO < VOH, the
assumption is correct. Otherwise, the op-amp is saturated at either VOL or VOH,
depending on whether the calculated value was less than VOL or greater than VOH.

1.2.2 Negative Feedback

For the popular general-purpose 741 series op-amp, the open-loop gain AOL is
typically 200,000 (+106dB). Such a large gain tends to make the op-amp circuit
unstable. A process known as negative feedback is employed to decrease and
stabilize the circuit gain and greatly enhance several parameters that are very
desirable.

To apply negative feedback, a fraction of the output signal is inverted so that it is out
of phase with the incoming input signal. This inverted portion is then added to the
input signal. The feedback network usually consists of passive elements such as
resistor and capacitor.

EEE Department, GUB 3 Prof. Dr. Md. Fayzur Rahman

 Chapter 1: Operational Amplifier Fundamentals

Gain stage

Vi - BVo Vo = AOL(Vi - BVo)

Input, + AOL
Output, Vo
Vi
-

B
BVo

Feedback network

Figure 6: Negative feedback system

In a negative feedback system, the output and input is related by:

Vo  AOL Vi  BVo  [2]
Solving for the closed-loop gain, ACL = Vo/Vi:
AOL
ACL  [3]
1  AOL B

Advantages of negative feedback are:

 Improve stability, better control of circuit gain.
 Reduction in sensitivity to gain AOL.
 Improve linearity.

As will be seen in the following sections, almost all the basic op-amp circuits utilizes
feedback. However, the concept of negative feedback as applied to basic op-amp
circuits will only be illustrated in the later section. Instead, all the derivation of the
relationship between input and output of the basic op-amp circuits will rely on the
characteristics of ideal op-amp.

1.3 IDEAL INVERTING AMPLIFIER

The schematic of an inverting amplifier using op-amp with negative feedback is
shown in
Figure 7. The feedback network consists of a single resistor RF while R1 is usually
known as the input resistor. A small signal at the input will be amplified, the polarity
of the amplified signal is opposite of the input signal, hence the name inverting
amplifier.

RF

R1 The feedback
network
Vi V-
-
V+ Vo
+

Figure 7: Ideal inverting amplifier.

EEE Department, GUB 4 Prof. Dr. Md. Fayzur Rahman

 Chapter 1: Operational Amplifier Fundamentals

1.3.1 Virtual Ground

Because the voltage gain of the op-amp is very large and the output of the op-amp is
connected back to the input via a resistor, the voltage V- and V+ will be very close in
value. Here the term voltage implies potential difference with respect to the circuit
ground. If V- is slightly larger than V+, the difference will be amplified and fed back
to V- via RF. Output voltage Vo will be negative because V- > V+ (refer to Eqn. 1).
This tends to lower the voltage of V- so that it approaches the value of V+. The
opposite will happen when V- is less than V+. Output Vo will be positive and this
tends to increase V- slightly so that it value will match V+. Since in
Figure 7 the non-inverting input is grounded, V+ = 0. Therefore V- must approach
zero too. However the inverting input is not physically connected to the circuit
ground, it is merely forced to zero volts because of the feedback network and the high
voltage gain of the op-amp. For this reason, the inverting input is known as the
virtual ground.

1.3.2 Analysis of Ideal Inverting Amplifier

Assuming ideal op-amp, the input impedance for inverting input will be infinite.
There will be no current flowing into the inverting input (V-). Applying Kirchoff
Current Law (KCL) at inverting input:
V  V V  Vi
I1  I F  o  RF
IF
RF R1 R1
Since V- = 0 (virtual ground), Vi V-
-
Vo Vi Vo
 I1 V+
RF R1 +
I= 0

Figure 8: Current flow convention

And we have the closed-loop gain
V R
ACL  o   F [4]
Vi R1
Note the negative in Eqn. (4) which account for the reversal of polarity of the output
signal.

Example
Given the op-amp configuration in Figure 9, determine the value of Rf required to
produce a closed loop voltage gain of –100.

RF
U1
4

Ri uA741
2 1
V-

- OS1
6
OUT
Vin 3 5
V+

+ OS2
Vout
7

0 0

Figure 9
EEE Department, GUB 5 Prof. Dr. Md. Fayzur Rahman
 Chapter 1: Operational Amplifier Fundamentals

Solution
Knowing that Ri = 2.2k and ACL = -100,
Rf
ACL  
Ri
R f   ACL Ri   100 2.2k   220k

1.4 IDEAL NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER

As opposed to the inverting amplifier, the non-inverting amplifier will amplified a
small input signal with no polarity reversal at the output.

RF
U1
Ri
4
V- uA741
2 1
V-
- OS1
Vo
6
OUT
V+
Vi 3 5
V+

+ OS2
0
7

Figure 10: Ideal non-inverting amplifier

Again, assuming ideal op-amp, the input

impedance for inverting input will be infinite.
There will be no current flowing into the
inverting input (V-). Using the current
convention as in
Figure 8 and applying Kirchoff Current Law (KCL) at inverting input:

Vo  V V
I1  I F  
RF R1

Since V- = V+ = Vi ,
Vo  Vi Vi

RF R1

And we have
Vo  RF 
ACL     1 [5]
Vi  R1 

Note: with ideal op-amp there is no restriction on the values of RF and R1 because
closed loop gain ACL is only dependent on the ratio of RF and R1. However there are
several practical considerations that should be kept in mind when we actually build
the circuit using real op-amps. More will be discussed on this later.

EEE Department, GUB 6 Prof. Dr. Md. Fayzur Rahman

 Chapter 1: Operational Amplifier Fundamentals

1.4.1 Ideal Voltage Follower

From Eqn. (5), when RF goes to zero and R1 approaches infinity, the closed loop gain
ACL becomes one or unity. In this case the output voltage actually follows the input
voltage, hence the name voltage follower.

V-
-
Vo
V+ +
Vi
Figure 11: Ideal voltage follower

The reader might ask what is the purpose of having an amplifier with a voltage gain of
one? In many instances, the voltage follower is useful as a buffer. The input
impedance of the voltage follower is very high while it is able to drive load that draws
large current. In effect, it is a buffer which provides current gain. The maximum
current at the output depends on the type of op-amp used. For 741 OpAmp it is 10 mA

1.5 IDEAL SUMMING AMPLIFIER

RF

R1 V-
V1
-
Vo
R2 V+
+
V2

R3
V3

Figure 12: Ideal inverting summing amplifier

The output of the summing amplifiers is proportional to the algebraic sum of its
separate inputs. It is frequently called a signal mixer as it is used to combine audio
signal from several microphones, guitars, tape recorders, etc., to provide a single
output. There are two types of summing amplifier, the inverting and non-inverting,
we will consider the inverting summing amplifier first.

Similar to the analysis of the inverting amplifier, by applying Kirchoff Current Law at
the inverting input of the op-amp:

Vo  V V  V1 V  V2 V  V3
   [6]
RF R1 R2 R3

Considering V- to be a virtual ground lead us to,

V V V 
Vo   RF  1  2  3  [7]
 R1 R2 R3 

In the special case when R1 = R2 = R3 = RF,

Vo  V1  V2  V3  [8]

EEE Department, GUB 7 Prof. Dr. Md. Fayzur Rahman

 Chapter 1: Operational Amplifier Fundamentals

Example
Refer to Figure 13. Determine the following:
(a) VR1 and VR2
(b) Current through Rf
(c) Vout
Rf

22k
R1
+1V
22k Vout
R2
+1.8V
22k

Figure 13

Solution
(a) VR1 = 1V VR2 = 1.8V
1 1 .8
(b) I R1   45.5A I R2   81.8A
22k 22k
I f  I R1  I R 2  45.5  81.8  127 A
(c) Vout   I f R f  127  22k   2.80V
or Vout  V1  V2   1  1.8  2.80V

In addition to the inverting summing amplifier, it is possible to have a non-inverting

summing amplifier, as shown by the schematic in Figure 14.

R1 RF

V-
-
R Vo
V+ +
V1
R
V2
R
V3
Figure 14: Ideal non-inverting summing amplifier

Derivation of the expression for the output voltage will be left to the reader as an
exercise. Superposition theorem is needed to find the total voltage for V+. The
expression for Vo is given as:
R 
Vo  V1  V2    VN  F  1
1
[9]
N  R1 

1.6 IDEAL DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER

As shown in Figure 15, a difference or differential amplifier has input voltages that
are applied simultaneously to both the inverting and non-inverting inputs. Its output
voltage Vo is proportional to the voltage difference (V2 – V1).

EEE Department, GUB 8 Prof. Dr. Md. Fayzur Rahman

 Chapter 1: Operational Amplifier Fundamentals

R2

R1
V1 V-
-
V+ Vo
V2 +
R4

R3

Figure 15: Ideal difference amplifier

Applying Kirchoff Current Law at inverting input:

Vo  V V  V1

R2 R1
R  R
 Vo   2  1V  2 V1 [10]
 R1  R1
Note that R3 and R4 form a voltage divider at the non-inverting input, therefore:
R3
V  V2 [11]
R3  R4
Noting that V+ = V- for ideal op-amp and substituting Eqn. (11) into (Eqn. 10):
 R R  R2  R2
Vo   3 1 V2  V1
 R1 R3  R4  R1
Now if we make R1 = R4 and R2 = R3,
R
Vo  2 V2  V1  [12]
R1
Here the ratio R2/R1 is referred to as the differential gain. When all resistors are equal,
Eqn. (12) reduces to:
Vo  V2  V1 [13]
Such a circuit is called a unity-gain analog subtractor.

1.7 IDEAL INTEGRATOR

The basic integrator circuit is shown in Figure 16.
CF

R1
Vi V-
-
Vo
V+ +

Figure 16: Ideal integrator

The current across capacitor CF from Vo to V- is:

d Vo  V 
i  CF [14]
dt

EEE Department, GUB 9 Prof. Dr. Md. Fayzur Rahman

 Chapter 1: Operational Amplifier Fundamentals

Applying Kirchoff Current Law at the inverting input and using the virtual ground
concept:
d Vo  V  V  Vi
CF 
dt R1

d Vo   Vi
V- = 0,  
dt R1C F

1
t

R1C F 0
Or Vo (t )  Vo (0  )  Vi ( )d [15]

Extra Notes
The schematic in Figure 16 is essentially similar to the inverting amplifier circuit,
except the feedback resistor RF is replaced with feedback capacitor CF. At low
frequencies, the reactance of CF is very high and the circuit may become unstable. A
feedback resistor RF is usually added in parallel to CF as in
Figure 17. At low frequencies, the impedance will be dominated by R F since XcF is
large. The integrator circuit will essentially become an inverting amplifier. At higher
frequency the impedance will be dominated by XcF, the reactance of CF and the
circuit functions as an integrator.
RF

CF

R1
Vi V-
-
V+ + Vo

Figure 17: A compensated integrator

Adding RF as in
Figure 17 has two advantages:
 This will stabilize the op-amp so that it would not saturate or oscillate at low
frequency.
 The effect of input offset voltage in a non-ideal op-amp is reduced. If left
unchecked, the input offset voltage will be integrated, resulting in saturation of
the output Vo. More will be discussed about this when we consider non-ideal
characteristics of practical op-amp.

However, by having RF we also limit the use of the integrator circuit in

Figure 17 to input frequencies above:
1
f Low  [16]
2RF C F

Above fLow, the feedback capacitor CF dominates and we can ignore the effect of R F.
There is also an upper frequency limit for the integrator, because in practical op-amp,
AOL decreases with frequency. When AOL approaches unity the concept of virtual

EEE Department, GUB 10 Prof. Dr. Md. Fayzur Rahman

 Chapter 1: Operational Amplifier Fundamentals

ground and hence Eqn. (15) will not be valid. As a rule of thumb, the frequency
where closed-loop gain ACL becomes unity is taken as the upper cut-off frequency.
Thus,
1
ACL  1
2R1 f High C F

1
f High  [17]
2R1C F

Conclusion

Therefore, between fLow and fHigh, the integrator circuit of

Figure 17 will function properly, with Vo related to VI by Eqn. (15).

1.8 IDEAL DIFFERENTIATOR

The schematic for a basic differentiator is shown if Figure 18.
RF

Vi C1
V-
-
V+ Vo
+

Figure 18: Ideal differentiator

The current across capacitor C1 from V- to Vi is:

d V  Vi 
i  C1 [18]
dt

Applying Kirchoff Current Law at the inverting input,

d V  Vi  Vo  V
C1 
dt RF
dV
Since V- = 0, Vo   RF C1 i [19]
dt

Example
A triangular waveform is applied to the input of the circuit in Figure 19 as shown.
Determine what the output should be and sketch its waveform in relation to the input.
R

Vin 10k
C
5V
0.001F Vout
0
10s

Figure 19

EEE Department, GUB 11 Prof. Dr. Md. Fayzur Rahman

 Chapter 1: Operational Amplifier Fundamentals

Solution
dVin dV dV
Vout   RC  10k 0.001  in  1 10 5 in Vin
dt dt dt 5V
From time 0s to 5s,
5 0
10s
Vout  1 10 5  10V Vout
5
10V
From time 5s to 10s,
5 0
Vout  1  10 5  10V
5 -10V

Extra Notes
The schematic of Figure 18 is essentially similar to the inverting amplifier circuit,
except the resistor R1 is replaced with capacitor C1. The serious problem with the
ideal differentiator circuit is that it is susceptible to high-frequency electrical noise.
This is because the reactance of C1 decreases with frequency causing a corresponding
increase in the closed-loop voltage gain. Although the basic differentiator’s closed-
loop gain increases with frequency, it is limited at the high frequency by the op-amp’s
open-loop response curve. To put a limit on the closed-loop gain at high frequencies
before being limited by the op-amp’s open-loop response curve, resistor Rs is added in
series to C1 as shown in Figure 20.

RF
C1
RS
Vi V-
-
V+ + Vo

Figure 20: A compensated differentiator

This type of compensated differentiator circuit has a much improved noise handling
ability, however the maximum usable frequency is now limited to input frequencies
below:
1
f High  [20]
2Rs C1

At high frequency, reactance of C1 is smaller than RS. The circuit behaves as an

inverting amplifier. At frequency below fHigh, the reactance of C1 is much larger than
RS and the circuit behaves as a differentiator. High frequency noise will not be
differentiated. If we keep the ratio of RF/RS small enough (say 5 to 10), the effect of
high frequency noise will be greatly diminished.

EEE Department, GUB 12 Prof. Dr. Md. Fayzur Rahman