BTEC LEARNER ASSESSMENT SUBMISSION AND DECLARATION

When submitting evidence for assessment, each learner must sign a declaration confirming that the work is
their own.

Learner Name: R.G Chathura Ranathunga

Pearson Reg 509631/ PF37572

Assessor Name: Ms. Dilhani Jayarathne & Hashan Gonagala

BTEC Programme Title: HND in Engineering (Electrical and Electronics)

Unit or Component Number and Title: Unit 22- Electronic Circuits & Devices

Assignment Title: Amplifiers & Types of Feedback

Date Assignment Submitted:

Learner declaration

I certify that the work submitted for this assignment is my own. I have clearly referenced any
sources used in the work. I understand that false declaration is a form of malpractice.

Learner signature: Date:

Op Amp or Operational Amplifier
An operational amplifier or op amp is a DC coupled voltage amplifier with a very high voltage gain.
Operational Amplifiers (usually called ‘Op amps’) were originally made from discrete components,
being designed to solve mathematical equations electronically, by performing operations such as
addition and division in analogue computers. Now produced in integrated-circuit (IC) form, Op
amps have many uses, with one of the most important being as a high gain D.C. and A.C voltage
amplifier. The main properties of an Op amplifier include:
 A very high open-loop voltage gain Ao of around 105 for D.C. and low frequency A.C
which decreases with frequency increase
 A very high input impedance, typically 106Ω to 1012Ω, such that current drawn from the
device, or the circuit supplying it, is very small and the input voltage is passed on to the op
amp with little loss
 A very low output impedance, around 100 Ω, such that its output voltage is transferred
efficiently to any load greater than a few kiloohms.

The circuit diagram symbol for an Op amp is shown below. It has one output, Vout , and two
inputs; the inverting input-V1, is marked and the non-inverting input- V2, is marked C. The most
popular example for the Op amp is IC 741.

An Op-amp has two input terminals and one output terminal. The op-amp also has two voltages
supply terminals as seen above. Two input terminals form the differential input. We call the
terminal, marked with negative (-) sign as the inverting terminal and the terminal marked with
positive (+) sign as the non-inverting terminal of the operational amplifier. If we apply an input
signal at the inverting terminal (-) than the amplified output signal is 180° out of phase concerning
the applied input signal. If we apply an input signal to the non-inverting terminal (+) then the output
signal obtained will be in phase, i.e., it will have no phase shift concerning the input signal.
As seen from the circuit symbol above it has two input power supply terminals +VCC and –VCC.
For the operation of an p-amp a dual polarity DC supply is essential. In the dual polarity supply, We
connect the +VCC to the positive DC supply and the –VCC terminal to the negative DC supply.
However few Op-amps can also operate on a single polarity supply. Note that there is no common
ground terminal in the Op-amps hence the ground has to be established externally.

As you can see above, the non-inverting terminal and offset null are located at the left. The different
terminals are marked in different colours. Op-amp is a collection of transistors and resistances as
you can see from the picture.

Op-amp is used for different purposes. The 741 IC can be used as,
 Adder
 Subtractor
 Comparator
 Voltage follower
 Integrator
 Differentiator

Inverting Operational Amplifier

An inverting amplifier (also known as an inverting operational amplifier or an inverting op-amp) is
a type of operational amplifier circuit which produces an output which is out of phase with respect
to its input by 180°.This means that if the input pulse is positive, then the output pulse will be
negative and vice versa. The figure below shows an inverting operational amplifier built by using an
op-amp and two resistors.
Here we apply the input signal to the inverting terminal of the op-amp via the resistor Ri. We
connect the non-inverting terminal to ground. Further, we provide the feedback necessary to
stabilize the circuit, and hence to control the output, through a feedback resistor Rf.

Mathematically the voltage gain offered by the circuit is given as

Where,

As we have grounded the non-inverting terminal, zero voltage appears at the non – inverting
terminal. That means V2 = 0. Hence, V1 = 0, also. So, we can write

From, above two equations, we get,

The voltage gain of the inverting operational amplifier or inverting op amp is,

This indicates that the voltage gain of the inverting amplifier is decided by the ratio of the feedback
resistor to the input resistor with the minus sign indicating the phase-reversal. Further, it is to be
noted that the input impedance of the inverting amplifier is nothing but Ri.

Non-inverting Operational Amplifier

In non-inverting operational amplifier configuration, the input voltage signal, ( Vin ) is applied
directly to the non-inverting ( + ) input terminal which means that the output gain of the amplifier
becomes “Positive” in value in contrast to the “Inverting Amplifier”.
 Feedback control of the non-inverting operational
amplifier is achieved by applying a small part of the
output voltage signal back to the inverting ( – ) input
terminal via a Rƒ – R2 voltage divider network, again
producing negative feedback. This closed-loop
configuration produces a non-inverting amplifier
circuit with very good stability, a very high input
impedance, Rin approaching infinity, as no current
flows into the positive input terminal, (ideal
conditions) and a low output impedance, Rout as
shown below.

Non-inverting Operational Amplifier

Configuration

In the previous Inverting Amplifier tutorial, we said that for an ideal op-amp “No current flows into
the input terminal” of the amplifier and that “V1 always equals V2”. This was because the junction
of the input and feedback signal ( V1 ) are at the same potential.In other words the junction is a
“virtual earth” summing point. Because of this virtual earth node the
resistors, Rƒ and R2 form a simple potential divider network across
the non- inverting amplifier with the voltage gain of the circuit being
determined by the ratios of R2 and Rƒ as shown below.

Then the closed loop voltage gain of a Non-inverting Operational Amplifier will be given as:

According to the above equation ,the overall closed-loop gain of a non-inverting amplifier will always
be greater but never less than one (unity), it is positive in nature and is determined by the ratio of
the values of Rƒ and R2.

Applications of Operational Amplifiers

 Audio amplifiers;
Speakers and Microphone Circuits in cell phones,
Computers, MPG Players boom boxes, etc.
 Instrumentation amplifiers;
Biomedical systems including Heart monitors and Oxygen sensors

 Power Amplifiers
 Analog Computers
Combination of Integrators, Differentiators, Summing Amplifiers and multipliers.
Performance characteristics of Amplifiers.
 Gain..
 Impedance.
 Bandwidth(BW)
 Frequency Response
 Sensitivity.

Open Loop Voltage Gain(A)

The open loop voltage gain without any feedback for an ideal op amp is infinite. But typical values
of open loop voltage gain for a real op amp range from 20,000 to 2, 00,000. Let the input voltage be
Vin. Let A be the open loop voltage gain. Then the output voltage is Vout = AVin. The value of a
typically is in the range specified above but for an ideal op amp, it is infinite.

Input Impedance (Zin)

Output impedance is defined as the ratio of the output voltage to the input current. The output
impedance of an ideal op amp is zero, however, real op amps have an output impedance of 10-20
kΩ. An ideal op amp behaves like a perfect voltage source delivering current without any internal
losses. The internal resistance reduce the voltage available to the load.

Bandwidth(BW)
An ideal op amp has an infinite bandwidth that is it can amplify any signal from DC to the highest
AC frequencies without any losses. So therefore, an ideal op amp is said to have infinite frequency
response. In real op amps, the bandwidth is generally limited. The limit depends on the gain
bandwidth (GB) product. GB is defined as the frequency where the amplifier gain becomes unity.

Frequency Response.
Frequency Response of an electric or electronics circuit allows us to see exactly how the output gain
(known as the magnitude response) and the phase (known as the phase response) changes at a
particular single frequency, or over a whole range of different frequencies from 0Hz, (d.c.) to many
thousands of mega-hertz, (MHz) depending upon the design characteristics of the circuit.Generally,
the frequency response analysis of a circuit or system is shown by plotting its gain, that is the size
of its output signal to its input signal, Output/Input against a frequency scale over which the circuit
or system is expected to operate. Then by knowing the circuits gain, (or loss) at each

In Electronics, the Logarithm, or “log” for short is defined as the power to which the base number
must be raised to get that number. Then on a Bode plot, the logarithmic x-axis scale is graduated in
log10 divisions, so every decade of frequency (e.g, 0.01, 0.1, 1, 10, 100, 1000, etc.) is equally
spaced onto the x-axis. The opposite of the logarithm is the antilogarithm or “antilog”.
we can see that the frequency response of any given circuit is the variation in its behaviour with
changes in the input signal frequency as it shows the band of frequencies over which the output
(and the gain) remains fairly constant. The range of frequencies either big or small between ƒL and
ƒH is called the circuits bandwidth. So from this we are able to determine at a glance the voltage
gain (in dB) for any sinusoidal input within a given frequency range.

As mentioned above, the Bode diagram is a logarithmic presentation of the frequency response.
Most modern audio amplifiers have a flat frequency response as shown above over the whole audio
range of frequencies from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. This range of frequencies, for an audio amplifier is
called its Bandwidth, (BW) and is primarily determined by the frequency response of the circuit.

Frequency points ƒL and ƒH relate to the lower corner or cut-off frequency and the upper corner or
cut-off frequency points respectively were the circuits gain falls off at high and low frequencies.
These points on a frequency response curve are known commonly as the -3dB (decibel) points. So
the bandwidth is simply given as:

Bandwidth=fH-fL
The decibel, (dB) which is 1/10th of a bel (B), is a common non-linear unit for measuring gain and
is defined as 20log10(A) where A is the decimal gain, being plotted on the y-axis. Zero decibels,
(0dB) corresponds to a magnitude function of unity giving the maximum output. In other words,
0dB occurs when Vout = Vin as there is no attenuation at this frequency level and is given as:

Vout/Vin=1, 20log(1) = 0dB

741 IC as Operational Amplifier
IC 741 is a monolithic OP-AMP IC. It is a general-purpose operation amplifier. The number 741
indicates that the operational amplifier has 7 functional pins, 4 input pins, and an output pin. It has
high voltage gain. They can be used in wide range of applications like integrators, summing
amplifier and general feedback applications. The 741 also has short circuit protection and internal
frequency compensation circuits built in it. IC 741 comes in the following form:

Pin Diagram of IC 741 in DIP-8 Package is shown in the below figure.

Pin 4 & Pin 7: Power Supply

Pin 7 is the positive power supply terminal. Pin 4 is the negative power supply terminal. The
voltage between these two pin will be between 5V and 18V. Usually the supply at +VCC is +15V
and that at –VEe is -15V. These power supply voltages must be with referenced to a common point
or ground.
Pin 6: Output Pin
The output from the op-amp is delivered to this pin. The voltage output received here depends on
the feedback used and the voltage input given to the op-amp. When a high voltage is received at pin
6, it means the output voltage received is similar to the positive supply voltage. In the same way, if
the output is said to be low, then the voltage at pin 6, corresponds to the negative supply voltage.

Pin 2 & Pin 3 : Input Pins

Pin2 is the inverting input of the op-amp. Pin 3 is the non-inverting input of the op-amp.When the
voltage at pin 2 is greater than the voltage at pin 3, it means that the inverting terminal has higher
voltage. So, the output signal would be low.When the voltage value at pin 3 is higher than the
voltage at pin 2, the voltage level at non-inverting input is high. So, the output signal obtained
would be high.

Pin 1 and Pin 5: Offset Null

Op-amp 741 provides high gain due to which minor differences in voltages at the inverting and non-
inverting terminals can influence output. To nullify this influence, an offset voltage may be applied
to the op-amp. This offset voltage is applied at pin 1 and pin5. It is usually done by using a
potentiometer.

Pin 8: Not Connected

It is not connected to any part inside the IC 741. It is a dummy lead that is used to fill the void space
in standard 8 pin packages.

Specifications of IC 741
 Power Supply: It requires minimum voltage level of 5V and can withstand till 18V
 Input Impedance: It is approx. 2MW
 Output Resistance: It is approx. 75W
 Voltage Gain: It is about 2,00,000 for low frequencies (200V/mV)
 Maximum Output Current: It is about 20mA.
 Recommended Output Load: It is greater than 2kW
 Input offset: It ranges between 2mV and 6mV
 Slew Rate: 0.5/ms

Applications of IC 741
The followings are the applications of IC 741 Op Amp.

1. Amplifiers: 741 IC is widely used as an amplifier for DC to higher radio frequencies. It is

also used for filtering the unwanted signals. Examples- tone control system in stereo and
High Fidelity Systems.
2. Computational: 741 IC is used for performing mathematical operations like integration,
differentiation, summers etc.
3. Rectifiers: IC 741 can function as an ideal diode and it does not cause voltage drop. An
ordinary diodes used in rectifiers have voltage drop across them. Therefore, diodes are not
suitable for high accuracy signal rectifiers.
4. Oscillators: Op-Amp IC 741 is used to generate different output waveforms like sinusoidal,
square, triangular etc. It is also used for PMW generator.
Simulation of 741 Op Amplifier using Multisim

References
Electrical4U, 2021. Electrical4U. [Online]
Available at: https://www.electrical4u.com/op-amp-circuit/
[Accessed 03 June 2023].
Electrical4U, n.d. Electrical for U. [Online]
Available at: https://www.electrical4u.com/op-amp-circuit/
[Accessed 03 June 2023].